2ND WAVE OF FEMINISM

INTRODUCTION

In 1982, Caryl Churchill's "Top Girls" emerged during Margaret Thatcher's tenure as the UK's
first female Prime Minister. The play critiques Thatcher's right-wing economic reforms, which
emphasized individualism and economic freedom, by highlighting their impact on women.
Central to the story is Marlene, a successful executive embodying Thatcherite values,
juxtaposed against her working-class sister, Joyce, who represents those marginalized by
these policies. Through a diverse cast of historical and fictional women, Churchill explores
the complexities and contradictions within feminism, challenging the myth of universal
female solidarity and revealing the stark class divides exacerbated by Thatcherism.

BODY PART

The women's liberation movement of the 1970s, often termed 'second-wave feminism', was
marked by efforts to unite women under the banner of sisterhood and politicize personal
experiences as part of broader social and political movements. It emerged as a response to
entrenched gender inequalities and aimed to dismantle patriarchal structures that limited
women's opportunities and autonomy.In 1970, Ruskin College, Oxford, hosted a pivotal
women's conference that highlighted both the progress made and aspirations for further
reforms. This event was significant in the context of Oxford University, alma mater to figures
like Churchill and Margaret Thatcher, where until 1963, women were excluded from the
Oxford Union. The conference attendees, many of whom had been active in anti-war
protests, articulated demands foundational to second-wave feminism: equal pay, access to
education and employment opportunities, 24-hour nurseries, and reproductive rights
including free contraception and abortion on demand.The movement gained visibility through
public demonstrations, such as protests at the Miss World contest in 1970 and large-scale
marches in London, challenging sexist beauty standards and societal expectations. These
actions, often theatrical in nature, symbolized resistance against objectification and gender
roles imposed by dominant culture.In England, feminist groups like the Women's Theatre
Group and Monstrous Regiment used performance art to amplify feminist messages, staging
plays and demonstrations that critiqued societal norms and promoted progressive education
on issues like teenage sexuality. Churchill, influenced by socialist feminist perspectives,
engaged with these movements during the 1970s, contributing to collaborative writing efforts
that challenged bourgeois feminist trends prominent in the USA.While second-wave
feminism encompassed various ideologies, including radical feminism advocating for
women's separation from male-dominated culture and bourgeois feminism seeking gender
equality within existing structures, Churchill identified with socialist feminism. This
perspective, rooted in economic analysis similar to Marxist theory, emphasized class and
historical factors in understanding women's oppression, challenging notions of universal
sisterhood and highlighting intra-gender disparities based on class and privilege.

In contrast to the American feminist movement's focus on individual rights, British feminists
were more inclined towards collective action, often aligning feminist goals with broader
socialist principles and collaborating with trade unions for social change. Despite legislative
gains such as the Equal Pay Act in Britain, challenges persisted in implementation and
cultural shifts, reflected in continued gender disparities in corporate leadership and other
spheres.Ultimately, the women's liberation movements in both the US and Britain left lasting
impacts on gender equality discourse, influencing legislation and societal attitudes. While
achievements varied between countries, the movement's legacy continues to shape feminist
activism and policy advocacy worldwide, underscoring ongoing struggles against systemic
inequalities and the imperative of intersectional approaches to achieving gender justice.

In the 1980s, Margaret Thatcher's leadership provided a visible symbol of female power, yet
did not ensure equitable opportunities for women across Britain. This decade, often
characterized as the 'me' era, marked a departure from the collective ideals of
sisterhood championed in the 1970s. Instead, societal emphasis shifted towards
individualism, particularly for women aiming to climb the career ladder and achieve
professional success. For those women who entered high-paying professions, started
businesses, or invested in property, the 1980s presented opportunities for economic
advancement. However, this period also exacerbated disparities between affluent
women and their lower-paid counterparts. Thatcher's policies, aimed at economic
deregulation and privatization, led to a significant rise in unemployment figures following her
election and the premiere of plays like "Top Girls".The impact of Thatcherite policies was
particularly harsh for low-income mothers, who experienced cuts in maternity
benefits and the termination of free school meals. These changes forced working
mothers into increasingly precarious situations, juggling multiple part-time jobs while trying to
meet family responsibilities. Additionally, tax reductions during this period were distributed
unevenly, benefiting the wealthy more than those in lower income brackets.Overall, while the
1980s presented opportunities for some women to achieve economic success and
independence, the era also highlighted stark inequalities and challenges faced by less
privileged women. This contrast between empowerment for a few and increased hardships
for many underscored the complexities of gender dynamics and economic policies during
Thatcher's tenure as Prime Minister.

Contrasting Marlene are characters like Joyce and Angie, representing the working-class
women marginalized by Thatcher's economic policies. Joyce, Marlene's sister, embodies
the struggles of those left behind by the economic reforms—trapped in low-paying
jobs with little prospect of advancement. The play vividly illustrates the widening gap
between social classes under Thatcherism, where a privileged few, like Marlene, prosper
while others face economic hardship and social exclusion. In the 1980s, amid Thatcher's
narrative of empowerment and progress for women, Churchill critiqued the reality faced by
most women. The portrayal of the women breastfeeding in the boardroom exemplifies
the pressure on women to embody the 'superwoman' ideal—juggling career success
with domestic responsibilities, often at great personal cost. This idealized image,
propagated by the media and society, clashed with the harsh realities of limited
opportunities and systemic inequality for many women."Top Girls" challenges the myth
of universal female solidarity by highlighting the diversity and tensions among women
themselves. Churchill disrupts the notion of a unified sisterhood by exposing the
ideological and class differences that fracture relationships among women. Marlene's
success is juxtaposed with the sacrifices and struggles of characters like Joyce and
Angie, illustrating the stark inequalities exacerbated by Thatcher's policies.The play's
exploration of historical and fictional women in Act 1 also serves as a commentary on gender
roles and societal expectations. Churchill critiques the limitations imposed on women
throughout history, whether as martyrs like Patient Griselda or leaders like Pope Joan,
whose empowerment is constrained within patriarchal structures.

Overall, "Top Girls" remains a potent critique of Thatcherite Britain, offering a nuanced
perspective on gender, class, and societal change. Churchill's depiction of women navigating
Thatcher's economic landscape underscores the complexities of female identity and
solidarity in an era marked by profound socio-economic shifts. By questioning and reframing
narratives of female empowerment and success, Churchill invites audiences to reconsider
the true costs and implications of societal progress under Thatcherism.

Marlene's character in "Top Girls" represents a new breed of women emerging in the
1980s. She epitomizes the ambitious, successful career woman shaped by the
pressures of capitalist society. Born into a working-class background, Marlene climbs
the corporate ladder, embracing the opportunities of a consumer-driven culture.
However, her success comes with sacrifices, notably abandoning her daughter to
pursue her career. She embodies the archetype of the ambitious, career-focused
woman who prioritizes professional achievement over traditional roles like
motherhood.

Act One of "Top Girls" portrays a dinner party celebrating Marlene's promotion to Managing
Director at the "Top Girls" employment agency in 1980s Britain. The gathering is
unconventional, as Marlene invites historical and fictional women from different times and
cultures: Isabella Bird, Lady Nijo, Dull Gret, Pope Joan, and Patient Griselda. These women,
described by Churchill as "dead women," cross boundaries of reality and fiction,
representing diverse experiences as mothers, daughters, sisters, wives, and
mistresses. During the dinner, each woman shares her remarkable life achievements and
personal stories. However, their conversations often overlap and lack common ground,
revealing their contrasting characters and attitudes. Initially celebratory, the mood of
the dinner party gradually turns bitter as each woman reflects on what they sacrificed
or lost in their struggles to survive and succeed in their respective times and
circumstances. Act Two of "Top Girls" portrays typical office scenes at the "Top Girls"
employment agency, where Marlene, along with her coworkers Win and Nell, goes about
their daily routines, including conducting three job interviews.Chronologically, Act Three
takes place one year before Act Two. In this act, Marlene visits her sister Joyce after being
secretly invited by Joyce's daughter, Angie. It's their first meeting in six years, and they
appear disconnected and estranged, knowing little about each other's recent life events such
as Joyce's separation from her husband or Marlene's new job. Their conversation quickly
turns into a bitter argument, highlighting their stark differences on various issues.

A feminist analysis of "Top Girls," as noted by Joseph Marohl, highlights the exploration of
plural feminisms rather than a homogeneous feminism. The play begins with an opening
scene that immediately showcases the diversity among women, emphasizing
differences in class, history, and cultural backgrounds. The six women from various
historical periods—Isabella, Lady Nijo, Dull Gret, Pope Joan, Patient Griselda, and
Marlene—represent a wide spectrum of attitudes towards class, religion, family,
ethics, and gender. Despite the initial focus on gender due to the all-female cast, the play
quickly moves beyond this singular perspective. It de-centers gender from its dominant
position by dramatizing the lack of unity among women. The dramatic conflict emerges not
just from gender dynamics but also from class struggles that span across generations of
history.The costumes worn by each character in the opening scene serve as visual
cues revealing their classes, origins, and occupations: Isabella in Victorian attire, Lady
Nijo in a kimono, Dull Gret in an apron and armor, Pope Joan in clerical robes, Patient
Griselda in medieval dress, Marlene in a modern 1980s-style dress, and the waitress in
typical occupational attire. Marohl argues that these visual elements emphasize the cultural
relativity of norms and establish a clear foundation for the subsequent political discourse in
the play. Each character also possesses a distinct discourse and manner of speaking
that aligns with her class and cultural ideology. For instance, Isabella and Lady Nijo
exhibit eloquent and articulate speech reflecting their privileged backgrounds, while Dull
Gret, a peasant, communicates with simpler, less verbose language. Overall, "Top Girls"
portrays a nuanced depiction of women's diversity and complexity, challenging any simplistic
notions of unified feminist identity. The play underscores the importance of recognizing and
embracing the multiplicity of feminist perspectives and experiences.

Certain parts of dialogues determine how the women are communicating within their group,
whether they are bonding as sisters or disputing like foes. When Isabella tries to introduce a
new topic of conversation about her study of metaphysical poetry, Nijo interrupts eagerly,
keen to emphasize her lineage of eight generations of poets. Initially, Nijo's interruption may
seem self-centered, intending to shift focus onto herself. However, upon closer examination,
it becomes clear that Nijo is attempting to find common ground with Isabella, seeking a
connection between them. Despite Nijo's efforts to establish this connection, Isabella
inadvertently disregards Nijo's input by interjecting with unrelated information about her Latin
education. Nijo continues to expand on her literary heritage, while Marlene interrupts Isabella
to assert her own experience with Latin. Nijo then reassures Isabella that her preference for
manual work over intellectual pursuits hasn't diminished her intellectual capacity. Both
Marlene and Nijo unintentionally disrupt Isabella's train of thought as she tries to engage with
Gret, whose brief contributions in the conversation fail to bridge the gap effectively.

Regarding how the women communicate in Act One, Amelia Howe Kritzer observes that
instead of suggesting imminent feminist progress or expanded opportunities, the display of
trans-historical and trans-cultural female experiences shows a group of women who struggle
to connect and empathize with one another, despite their attempts to understand. Janet
Brown also notes that it's crucial to recognize these women not as a unified community but
as competitors, characterized by their egotism and continuous interruptions of each other.
Aston similarly observes that the women are primarily absorbed in their own individual
stories, evident in their overlapping dialogue. Margarete Rubik interprets this overlapping
dialogue in Top Girls as a reflection of the characters' inability to communicate effectively,
attributing this lack of bonding to their internalization of male standards and values.

Critics like Aston, Brown, Kritzer, and Rubik interpret the overlapping dialogue in Act One of
Top Girls as indicative of communication breakdown, lack of interest, and self-centeredness
among the characters. However, Melody Schneider offers a contrasting view, influenced by
Jennifer Coates' theory of 'collaborative talk'. Coates suggests that women tend to organize
their conversations cooperatively, in contrast to men who often organize theirs competitively.
Schneider argues that the overlapping dialogue in the play does not signify ineffective
communication but rather reflects authentic female voices. According to Schneider, Coates'
concept of 'authentic' female voices describes how women naturally interact in all-female
groups, where speakers may interject, complete each other's thoughts, restate ideas, or
pursue related sub-topics during conversations. Schneider's perspective on the overlapping
dialogue in Top Girls aligns with an interactive approach, emphasizing that in all-female
groups, overlapping speech indicates enthusiasm, support, and active engagement in
conversations. She draws from Suzanne Romaine's linguistic insights, highlighting the
importance of considering how individuals perceive overlapping speech. Since the
characters in the play do not react negatively to these overlaps—such as becoming angry,
losing their train of thought, or interrupting each other—it suggests that they are comfortable
with collaborative speaking styles.

Viewing simultaneous speech as ineffective communication in all-female groups reflects a

simplistic view that treats women as a homogeneous category, assuming they should speak
with a single, unified voice against a common oppressor. However, scholars like Collin argue
that a single voice cannot represent the diverse experiences of all women, and
Brooks-Higginbotham emphasizes that womanhood's experiences of oppression are not
universally shared. Therefore, interpreting simultaneous speech as a sign of enthusiasm,
support, and active listenership represents a pluralistic approach to women's groups. It
acknowledges the diverse voices within feminism and respects the different perspectives
that women bring to discussions.

Women, as a group, do not need to agree on every issue since each woman is an individual
with her own perspective, and this does not conflict with having a shared feminist
consciousness. Women can assert their right to be different in some ways while still being
united in others. Trinh T. Minh-ha emphasizes that "difference" should not be misinterpreted
as "division." Marlene echoes this sentiment by saying, "We don’t all have to believe the
same." This idea reflects how women are portrayed in "Top Girls." While they may appear
disconnected and focused on their own stories, each woman is asserting her rightful place
within the group.

Marlene is the only character in Act One who seems to express an awareness of sisterhood,
while the others identify with different groups. For example, Gret fights alongside her
townspeople against devils, Griselda is focused on her marriage to the Marquis, Joan is
involved with the Church of Rome, Nijo is concerned with her father's household and the
Emperor's court, and Isabella is preoccupied with the British Empire. Marlene, however, tries
to form a bond with the others by toasting to them all, saying, "Magnificent all of you. [...] I
want to drink a toast to you all." While Isabella insists they toast to Marlene's success,
Marlene responds, "And all of us. We've all come a long way. To our courage and the way
we changed our lives and our extraordinary achievements." They laugh and drink a
toast.Marlene wants the others to see her promotion as progress for all women, but the
others view it as her individual success. Isabella emphasizes this by proposing a toast "To
Marlene," which everyone (except Griselda, who hasn't arrived yet) celebrates. The other
women recognize Marlene's act of pseudo-sisterhood. While Marlene wants to believe her
success benefits all women, she knows it only helps herself. Her claim to sisterhood is a sign
that her feminism doesn't include her less fortunate sisters who haven't made it to the top.
The statements "there's not many top ladies about" and "there's not a lot of room upward"
indicate a strict hierarchical structure.
Marlene, representing right-wing feminism, supports the male-dominated system that
oppresses women. She has achieved professional success by adopting masculine behavior
and dominance techniques, as shown by the comment, "our Marlene’s got far more balls
than Howard and that’s that." Marlene's success highlights Churchill’s critique of bourgeois
feminist values, suggesting that a woman's rise to power without concern for the powerless
is not a feminist victory. Benedict Nightingale captures this idea by asking what use female
emancipation is if it turns clever women into predators and does nothing for the weak and
helpless. He questions whether freedom and feminism mean adopting the very values that
have oppressed women for centuries.Thus, Marlene embodies bourgeois or liberal feminism.
She is a highly successful "top girl" who, through her individual efforts, has left her
working-class roots and climbed the corporate ladder. She has a false sense of sisterhood,
pretending that her success is a triumph for all women, but she knows it only benefits
herself. Marlene is blind to class differences and feels no solidarity with Angie or Joyce.

Unlike Marlene, who climbs the corporate ladder, her sister Joyce is stuck in the domestic
sphere, doing unpaid housework, raising children, and cleaning houses. Joyce rejects the
idea that maintaining class differences within a dominant system is an acceptable feminist
model. Her character introduces materialist or socialist feminism, focusing on class
consciousness. Joyce clearly understands the power dynamics in a capitalist society. She
represents the oppressed people that women like Marlene exploit to rise up the social
hierarchy. Joyce is stuck in her home village, cleaning houses and raising Angie, Marlene’s
daughter, using her own resources.Angie is destined for a similar or worse fate because she
lacks the class consciousness that gives Joyce strength. She highlights the system's
divisiveness, ignoring the helpless and those from poor backgrounds who can't compete in
the job market. Joyce knows Angie’s limited job prospects: “She’s not going to get a job
when jobs are hard to get,” while Marlene has an even bleaker prediction: “Packer in Tesco
more like.” Angie is a victim of both her mother, who abandoned her, and a system that
offers her no opportunities, representing the next generation’s struggles.

In Act III, the class differences between the sisters, Marlene and Joyce, become increasingly
clear as they discuss politics, lifestyles, and family attitudes. Marlene praises Thatcher and
believes in the necessity of determination and individual effort: "Monetarism is not stupid...
First woman prime minister. Terrifico. Aces. Right on... Certainly gets my vote." Joyce, on the
other hand, is critical of Thatcher’s policies and mocks the idea that having a woman as
prime minister is automatically good: "What good’s first woman if it’s her? I suppose you’d
have liked Hitler if he was a woman. Ms Hitler. Got a lot done, Hitlerina... Great Adventures."
Marlene accuses Joyce of being stuck in her thinking and still loyal to their father's ideas,
whereas Marlene believes in individualism: "Bosses still walking on the workers’ faces? Still
Dadda’s little parrot? Haven’t you learned to think for yourself? I believe in the individual.
Look at me." Marlene is very optimistic about the 1980s, believing it will be a great decade
for her: "I think the eighties are going to be stupendous... For me. I think I’m going up up up."
Joyce counters this optimism, pointing out that the future may only be bright for Marlene and
her class: "Oh for you. Yes, I’m sure they will... the eighties is going to be stupendous all
right because we’ll get you lot off our backs." Joyce makes a clear distinction between
herself and Marlene, labeling Marlene as one of "them" (the oppressors), even though
Marlene tries to include Joyce and their family in the same group: MARLENE. Them, them.
Us and them? JOYCE. And you’re one of them. MARLENE. And you’re us, wonderful us,
and Angie’s us and Mom and Dad’s us. JOYCE. Yes, that’s right, and you’re them. Joyce
emphasizes the gap between them, highlighting that Marlene has aligned herself with the
oppressors, despite Marlene's attempt to deny this separation.

CONCLUSION

Caryl Churchill’s "Top Girls" emerged at a time when women, after the excitement of the
1970s women’s movement, began to recognize the diversity within feminism. Elaine Aston
notes that "Top Girls" coincided with a moment when women needed to examine the
complexities of feminism and question the politics of sisterhood through a lens of difference.
This period revealed a fractured and conflicted feminism, characterized by diversity and
contradictions rather than unity.Churchill portrays feminism in "Top Girls" as a site of tension
and contradiction, not one of solidarity. While the female characters cannot be simply
categorized as ‘sisters,’ they also cannot be seen as ‘foes,’ as they find common ground in
certain aspects. Equality, as Minnich suggests, involves recognizing differences in a
context-dependent manner. Churchill documents the inherent contradictions in feminism
without privileging one feminist view over another or labeling the women as allies or
enemies. Instead, she presents a range of female voices—daughters, mothers, sisters,
grandmothers, wives, mistresses, and co-workers—each with its unique historical, social,
cultural, political, and economic background, struggling for their place within the complex
world of feminisms.