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SURVEYING

1 FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

1. INTRODUCTION

Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of points above or beneath the surface
of the earth through direct or indirect measurements of distance, direction, and elevation.
All measurements of lengths in surveying are either horizontal or are reduced to horizontal
distances. The primary objective is to create a map or a plan to represent an area on the
horizontal plane.
Vertical distances can be shown by contour lines or by vertical sections that can be drawn
separately. The branch of surveying that facilitates measuring the elevations of points with
respect to a datum is called Levelling.

2. CLASSIFICATIONS OF SURVEYS

Primarily surveying can be divided into two classes:

A. Plane Surveying and B. Geodetic Surveying

A. Plane Surveying: It is that type of surveying where the earth's surface is considered plane

and spherical shape are neglected. Usually, an area under the survey is comparatively smaller;

in these cases, neglecting the earth's curvature does not significantly differ. Plane surveying

can be used in the following circumstances:

(i) When the difference between an arc of 12km length and its subtended chord is not greater

than 1 cm

(ii) When, for a triangle having an area of 195 sq. km., the difference between the sum of the

angles in a plane triangle and the sum of the angles in a spherical triangle is not greater than

one second.

Note: When these conditions are not satisfied, a geodetic survey should be used in place of a

plane survey.

B. Geodetic Surveying: It is that type of survey where the earth's shape, i.e., oblate spheroid,

is taken into account. All lines lying on the earth's surface are curved lines, and all the triangles

are spherical triangles. All geodetic surveys include work of larger magnitude and a higher

degree of precision.

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2.1. Classification based upon the nature of the field survey

A. Land surveying
(i) Topographical surveying
It is used to determine the natural features (topography) of a country, such as rivers,
streams, lakes, mountains, and artificial features such as roads, railway tracks, canals,
towns, etc.
(ii) Cadastral surveying
Shows boundaries of properties like fields, buildings, etc., useful for revenue engineers
for fixing property lines and transferring land property from one owner to another. They
are also made to set boundaries of municipalities, cities, and states, etc.
(iii) City surveying
They are made in connection with the construction of the streets, water supply systems,
sewers, and other works.
B. Marine or Hydrographic survey
It deals with bodies of water for navigation, water supply, harbor works, or the
determination of the mean sea level.
C. Astronomical survey
These surveys are done to determine the position of celestial bodies like stars and planets
and satellites, spaceships, etc. For this purpose, an imaginary sphere of the infinite radius
is conceptualized. Its center is at the earth's center.
2.2. Classification based on the object of the survey
1. Chain Surveying
It is the simplest type of surveying in which only linear measurements are taken either
with a chain or a tape.
2. Compass Surveying
In compass surveying, horizontal angles are measured with the help of a magnetic
compass, and linear measurements are taken with a chain or tape. The compass survey
is not very accurate. However, it is more accurate than a chain survey.
3. levelling
In this type of survey, a leveling instrument is used to determine relative elevations
(levels) of various points in the vertical plane.
3. Plane Table Surveys
Plane table surveying is a graphical method of surveying in which the field observations
and plotting are done simultaneously. It is simpler and cheaper than a theodolite survey.
It is suitable for small-scale maps.
5. Theodolite Surveys
In this type of survey, horizontal and vertical angles are measured with the help of
theodolite. A theodolite is a very precise instrument used for measuring horizontal and
vertical angles.
The theodolite surveys are classified into two types:

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(i) Traverse survey

In traverse survey, a polygon is formed by various stations. Horizontal angles are
measured by theodolite. Linear measurements are taken using tape.
(ii) Triangulation survey
In a triangulation survey, the lines form a system of triangles. The baseline is measured
accurately, and the lengths of all other lines are computed from the measured angles.
6. Tacheometric Surveys
In this type of survey, a particular kind of theodolite called a Tacheometer is used, fitted
with a
stadia diaphragm with two horizontal cross hairs and central horizontal hair. In
tachymetric
surveying, horizontal and vertical distances are measured without the use of a chain or
tape. It is
mainly used for contouring.
7. Photogrammetric Surveys
Photogrammetry is the practice of determining the geometric properties of objects from
photographic images. Photogrammetry is called horizontal photogrammetry when the
camera axis is horizontal. If the camera axis is vertical, it is called vertical
photogrammetry.

3. PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING

Different methods in plane surveying are based upon the two fundamental principles of
surveying:
1. Working from Whole to Part:
The major control points are selected and measured with a high degree of precision. Smaller
measurements are taken later with less degree of precision. In this way, errors in minor details
will not be reflected in major measurements.
2. Location of a point regarding two reference points:
At least two points of reference should be used to locate the relative positions of the points to
be surveyed.
Two points (A and B) are fixed as points of reference, and then their location is used to locate
the third point (C).
(a) Chain method:

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(b) Offset method:

(c) Compass method

(d) Traverse method

4. SCALES

The area that is surveyed is vast, and therefore plans are made to some scale. Scale is the
fixed ratio that every distance on the plan bears with the corresponding length on the round.
The following methods can represent scale.
(i) one cm on the plan represents some whole number of meters on the ground, such as 1 cm
= 10 m, etc.
(ii) one unit of length on the plan represents the number of same units of length on the ground
1
. This ratio of map distance to the corresponding ground distance is independent of units
1000
of measurement and is called representative factor (R.F.).
1/2000
Correct length = ×23.6 = 47.2m
1/4000

5. VERNIER

Vernier is an instrument that can be used to measure a fractional part of the smallest division
on the main scale of any kind. A small secondary scale slides along the main scale in a Vernier
to allow for more precise measurements.

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Exact measurement = Main scale reading + Vernier scale reading = Main scale reading + (n’
× least count)
Here,
'n' numbering of division which is matching with main scale division at the time of
measurement.
Least Count: It is the smallest measurement that can be made using any measuring device.
5.1. Types of Vernier
1. Direct Vernier
(i) It is calibrated in the same direction as the main scale.
(ii) Direct Vernier has divisions slightly smaller than the divisions of the main scale.
(iii) 'n–1' division of the main scale is distributed into 'n' division of Vernier scale.

Vernier Scale

Main Scale
Here, V < S
δ = least count of main scale or length of 1 division of Vernier scale.
V =length of 1 division of Vernier scale
N = total number of divisions on Vernier scale.
nV = (n – 1)s
n –1
V=  s
 n 

n –1
Least count = S – V = S –  s
 n 
Sn – Sn+ S
=
n
S
∴ least count =
n
Example: Design, a direct vernier for a theodolite circle having main scale graduations
up to 35 minutes if the least count required, is 35 seconds.
Sol.
𝑠
Least Count =
𝑛
35×60
Here, 35 =
𝑛

n = 60

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As in the case of a direct vernier, 𝑛 divisions of the Vernier are equal to (𝑛 − 1) divisions
of the main scale. Sixty divisions of the vernier scale should be equal to 59 divisions of
the main scale. A length of 59 divisions of the main scale should be taken and divided
into 60 divisions to form the vernier scale.
2. Retrograde Vernier
(i) This Vernier is calibrated in the opposite direction of the main scale.
(ii) Length of one division of the Vernier scale is slightly longer than one division of the
main scale.
(iii) 'n + 1' division of the main scale is distributed into 'n' division of Vernier scale.
Mathematically,
nv = (n + 1)s
n –1
V=  s
 n 

n –1
∴ Least count = V – S =   s–s
 n 

S
=
n
3. Extended Vernier
(i) it is calibrated in the same direction as the main scale.
(ii) (2n–1) division of the main scale distributed into 'n' division of Vernier scale.
4. Double Vernier
(i) Double Vernier is calibrated in both directions of the index line.
(ii) To use double Vernier, the main scale should also be calibrated in both directions.

5. Double Folded Vernier

The double folded Vernier is employed where the length of the corresponding double
Vernier would be so great as to make it impracticable. This type of Vernier is sometimes
used in compasses having zero in the middle of the length. The total length of Vernier is
employed for reading angles in either direction. The Vernier is read from the index
towards either of the extreme divisions and then from the other extreme division in the
one direction to the center.

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1
Fig show double folded Vernier in which ten divisions of Vernier are equal to 9 divisions
2

of the main scale (or 20 vernier divisions = 19 main scale divisions). The least count of
𝑠 1
the Vernier is equal to = degrees = 3’.
𝑛 20

Example: The value of the smallest division of the circle of a repeating theodolite is
10'. Design a suitable vernier to read up to 10".
Sol.
𝑠 10
L.C.= : 𝑠 = 10′ ; 𝐿. 𝐶. = 10′′ = minutes
𝑛 60
10 10
∴ = ; or 𝑛 = 60
60 𝑛
Take 59 such primary divisions from the main scale and divide them into 60 parts.
Example: The circle of a theodolite is divided into degrees and ¼ of a degree. Design a
suitable decimal vernier to read up to 0.005°.
Sol.
𝑠 10
L. C. = ; 𝑠 = ; L. C. = 0.005∘
𝑛 4
1 1
0.005 = ⋅
4 𝑛
1
or 𝑛 = = 50
4×0.005

Take 49 such primary divisions from the main scale and divide them into 50 parts for
the Vernier.

6. SHRUNK/EXTENDED SCALE

If a graphical scale is not drawn on the plan and the sheet on which the plan is drawn shrunk
due to variations in the atmospheric conditions, it becomes essential to find the shrunk scale
of the plan.
Mathematically,
Shrunk length
Shrinkage factor = SF =
Originallength

Shrunk scale = SF × Original scale

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Example
The area of the plan of on old survey plotted to a scale of 10m to 1cm measures now as 100.2
sq. cm as found by the planimeter. The plan is found to have shrunk so that a line initially 10
cm long now measures 9.7 cm only. Find
(i) the shrunk scale
(ii) true area of survey
Solution:
(i) Present length of 9.7 cm is equivalent to 10cm original length
∴ Shrunk age factor = = 0.97
1 1
True scale R.F. = =
10  100 1000

1 1
∴ R.F. of shrunk scale = 0.97 × =
1000 1030.93
(iii)Present length of 9.7 cm is equivalent to 10 cm original length.
2
 10 
∴ Present area of 100.2 sq cm is equivalent to    100.2 sq.cm = 106.49 sq.cm = original
 9.7 

area of plan scale of plan is 1 cm = 10 m

∴ Area of the survey = 106.49 × 102 = 10649 sq.m.

7. ERRORS DUE TO USE OF WRONG SCALES

If the length of a line existing on a plan or a map is determined using a wrong scale, the length
so obtained will be incorrect. The relation gives the true or correct length of the line is as follows
R.F of wrong scale
Correct length = × measured length
R.F of correct scale
Similarly, if the area of a map or plan is calculated with the help of using a wrong scale, then
the correct area is given by
2
 R.F of wrong scale 
Correct area =   × calculated area.
 R.F of correct scale 
Example: A rectangular plot of land measures 15cmx12.5cm on a village map drawn to a scale
of 50m to 1cm. Calculate its area in hectares.
Sol.
1cm on map = 50m on ground
(1cm)2 on map = (50m)2 on ground = 2500sq.m. = 0.25hectare
Area of plot on ground = 15x12.5x0.25 = 46.875 hectare
Example: A surveyor measured the distance between two points on the plan drawn to a scale
of 1cm = 40m, and the result was 23.6m. Later he discovered that he wrongfully used a scale
of 1cm = 20 cm. Find the actual distance between the points.
Solution:

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Measured length = 23.6m

1 1
R.F. for the wrong scale = =
20×100 2000
1 1
R.F. for correct scale = =
40×100 4000

8. DIAGONAL SCALE

On a diagonal scale, it is possible to measure three dimensions such as meters, decimetres,

and centimeters; units, tenths, and hundredths; yards, feet, and inches, etc. A short length is
divided into many parts using the principle of similar triangles. For example, let a short length
𝑃𝑄 be divided into ten parts (Fig. 1.4), At 𝑄 draw a line 𝑄𝑅 perpendicular to 𝑃𝑄 and of any
convenient length. Divide it into ten equal parts. Join the diagonal 𝑃𝑅. From each of the
divisions, 1,2,3, etc., draw lines parallel to 𝑃𝑄 to cut the diagonal in corresponding points 1,2,3,
etc., thus dividing the diagonal into ten equal parts.

Thus
1
1 − 1 represents 𝑃𝑄
10
2
2 − 2 represents 𝑃𝑄
10
…………………………………..
9
9 − 9 represents 𝑃𝑄 etc.
10

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