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SURVEYING

8 PHOTOGRAMMETRY

1. INTRODUCTION

• Photogrammetry is the science of obtaining information about physical objects through

process of recording, measuring and interpreting of photographs of the area.
• Aerial photogrammetry is the branch of photogrammetry in which photographs of the area
are taken with a camera mounted on an aircraft.
• Terrestrial photogrammetry is the branch of the photogrammetry in which photographs are
taken with a camera fixed on or near the ground. It is also called as Ground
Photogrammetry.
• In terrestrial photogrammetry the instrument used is a photo-theodolite, a combination of
a photographic camera fitted on a tripod with its axis horizontal and a theodolite.
• Use of terrestrial photogrammetry is limited to the plotting of special features e.g. vertical
cliff, mountaineous terrain etc. However, aerial photograph is used for topographical
surveys, preliminary route surveys, i.e. highways, railway pipelines, etc., forest and
agricultural surveys
• The main advantages of aerial photogrammetry are the speed with which an area is covered,
the ease with which topography of inaccessible areas can be detailed, there is no possibility
of omitting any field data, and the tremendous amount of details shown.

2. TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHS

Aerial photographs are classified into two types:

1 Vertical photographs

2 Oblique photographs.

Vertical Photographs

• Vertical photographs are taken when the camera axis is vertical i.e. it coincides with line of
the gravity of camera.

• When the camera axis is perfectly vertical, the photo plane is parallel to the datum plane
and the resulting photograph is truly vertical photograph. When the camera axis is tilted
slightly from vertical, the resulting photographs is known as tilted photograph. The tilt is
generally less than 1∘ and rarely exceeds 3∘ . This tilt is unintentional.

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Oblique aerial photographs

• Oblique aerial photographs are taken with a camera axis considerably inclined to the vertical.
The camera axis is intentionally kept oblique from the vertical.

• A low oblique photographs does not include the horizon. Whereas a high oblique photograph
includes the horizon.

3. IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS

(i) Exposure Station: Point in the atmosphere occupied by centre of camera lenses at the

instant of photography.

(ii) Flying Height: Vertical distance between exposure station and mean sea level.

(iii) Flight Line: Line traced by exposure station in atmosphere (track of aircraft).

(iv) Photo Principal Plane: Point on photograph obtained by projecting camera axis to

intersect at a point on photograph.

(v) Photo Nadir Point: Point on photograph obtained by dropping vertical line from camera

centre.

(vi) Horizontal Point: Point of intersection of horizontal line through centre of lenses and

principal line on photograph.

(viii) Azimuth: Clockwise horizontal angle measured about ground nadir point from true

north to the principal plane of photograph.

(viii) Swing: Angle measured in plane of photograph from +Y axis clockwise to photo nadir

point.

(ix) Iso Centre: Point on photo where bisection of tilt falls on photo.

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4. FOCAL PLANE AND FIDUCIAL MARKS

• The focal plane is a plane in an aerial camera on which all incident rays from the object are
brought to focus.
• The focal plane is set exactly at a distance equal to the focal length behind the nodal point
and the upper surface of the focal plane frame defines the focal plane.

• Fiducial marks are located in a camera image plane to provide reference lines for the
measurement of image distances.

• Lines joining the opposite fiducial marks are known as the fiducial lines. These lines intersect
at a point called the centre of collimation.

• In aerial cameras, the centre of collimation is at or very close to the principal point.

• The principal point is one of the most important reference point in the focal plane where a
line from the rear nodal point of the lens and perpendicular to the focal plane cuts the focal
plane.

• In other words, we can say that the principal point is the foot of the perpendicular from the
rear nodal point to the focal plane.

• Fiducial lines provide a rectangular coordinate system for the measurement of positions of
the images on the photographs.

5. MAP VERSUS AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH

i. Map is an orthographic projection, where as an aerial photograph is a central projection, i.e.

perspective projection.

ii. Map has a single constant scale, whereas it varies from point to point depending upon their
elevations in an aerial photograph. In the case of photograph the terrain area which has higher
elevation is closer to the camera and therefore appears larger than the terrains area laying at
lower elevation.

iii. The amount of details on a map are selective where as in an aerial photograph there is a
large number of details.

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iv. Due to the symbolic representation the clarity of details is more on the maps than on photo.

6. VERTICAL PHOTOGRAPH

The above figure shows the geometry of a vertical photograph.

• The lens L is at the exposure station.

• The negative is placed at a distance = focal length (f), behind the rear nodal point (N) of
the camera.

• The object space ABCD is projected as a’b’c’d’ on the negative of the photograph.

• Point O’ is the principal point of the photograph.

• The distance LO from the lens to the photograph is equal to the focal length f of the camera.

• As the printing process produces a reversal of the tone and geometry of the negative, the
tone and geometry of the positive are exactly the same as that of the object space ABCD on
the ground.

• The plane of a contact-printed positive is situated at a distance OL equal to the focal length
measured from the front nodal point (N) of the camera lens.

• The geometry of the positive abcd is the same as that of the object space ABCD on the
ground.

7. SCALE OF A VERTICAL PHOTOGRAPH

photo distance
Scale of photograph (𝑠) =
ground distance

7.1 Flat terrain

The elevation of the lens above the datum is called the flying height (H), The elevation of
A and B are h above the datum. The datum is usually taken at Mean Sea Level (M.S.L.).

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𝑎𝑏
Scale of photograph, 𝑆 =
𝐴𝐵

As we can observe that Δ LAP & ΔLAO are similar triangles

∴ From ΔLAP & ΔLAO

ab/2 LO
=
AB/2 LP
ab LO
=
AB LP
ab f
=
AB H ′

Where f is the focal length of the camera and H’ is the flying height above ground given
by

H = H -h

f
 S=
H−h

For a camera of a fixed focal length, the scale of the photograph varies with variation in
the flying height H'. Because the height H of the aircraft above the datum is assumed as
constant, the scale of the photograph varies with elevation (h) of the terrain above the
datum. Obviously, when the elevation ℎ is higher, the scale is larger.

In case of variable elevation terrain scale of a point at higher elevation will be larger than
those at lower elevation

7.2 Datum scale (𝐒𝒅 )

• The datum scale of a vertical photograph is the scale that would be effective over the
entire photograph if all the ground points were projected vertically downwards on the
datum (M.S.L.) before being photographed.

Ao LO f
Datum Scale, Sd = = =
A0 P LP H

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7.3 Average scale (Sav)

• The average scale is the scale that would be effective over the entire photograph if all
the ground points were projected vertically downwards or upwards on a plane of the
average elevation of the terrain before being photographed.

• In the fig. above the average elevation of the terrain between two points A and B is h.
Therefore, the average scale for the terrain

between A and B is

𝑓
𝑆𝑎𝑣 =
𝐻−ℎ

• The average elevation of the entire terrain between points C and D is also indicated by
hav. Therefore, the average scale for the entire terrain between points C and D is

f
Sav =
H − hav

Example

The elevations of three points A,B and C above the datum are respectively 1500m, 1200m and
1000 m. If the flying height above the datum is 3000m, determine the maximum scale.
minimum scale and average scale. The focal length of the camera is 150mm.

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Sol.

f 0.150
Scale of photograph at A, SA = = = 1 × 10−4 ≃ 1 in 10,000
H−HA 3000−1500

f 0.150
Scale of photograph at B, SB = = = 8.33 × 10−5 ≃ 1 in 12,000
H−HB 3000−1200

f 0.150
Scale of photograph at C, SC = = = 7.5 × 10−5 or 1 in 13,333
H−HC 3000−1000

1
Average elevation of the train hav hav = (1500 + 1200 + 1000) = 1233.33m
3

f 0.150
Average scale of the photograph Sav Sav = =
H−hav 3000−1233.33

= 8.491 × 10–5 or 1 in 11778

8. GROUND COORDINATES AND HORIZONTAL DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS

(i) For point A

𝑥𝐴 𝑦𝐴 𝑓
𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 = = =
𝑋𝐴 𝑌𝐴 (𝐻 − ℎ𝐴 )
(𝐻−ℎ𝐴 ) (𝐻−ℎ𝐴 )
⇒ 𝑋𝐴 = [ × 𝑥𝐴 ] and 𝑌𝐴 = [ × 𝑦𝐴 ]
𝑓 𝑓

Here,
f is the focal length, distance between O and picture plate.

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XA & YA are ground coordinates of any point A on the ground and xA & yA are its photograph
coordinates.
(ii) Similarly, for point B
𝑥𝐵 𝑦𝐵 𝑓
𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 = = =
𝑋𝐵 𝑌𝐵 𝐻 − ℎ𝐵
𝐻−ℎ𝐵 𝐻−ℎ𝐵
⇒ 𝑋𝐵 = [( ) × 𝑥𝐵 ] and 𝑌𝐵 = [( ) × 𝑦𝐵 ]
𝐹 𝐹

∴ Horizontal distance between A and B = √(𝑋𝐴 − 𝑋𝐵 )2 + (𝑌𝐴 − 𝑌𝐵 )2

Example:
A vertical photograph was taken from a height of 3200 m above mean sea level with a camera
of focal length 120 mm. It contained two points ‘a’ and ‘b’, corresponding to ground points ‘A
and B’. Calculate the horizontal length AB, as well as the average scale along line ab from the
following data:

Photo Elevation Photo co-ordinates

Points Above msl n(m) x(mm) y(mm)
a 640 +19.50 -14.60
b 780 +26.70 +10.80

Sol.

Flying height (H) = 3200m

Focal length (f) = 120mm

Elevation of point A above MSL (ha) = 640m

Elevation of point B above MSL (hb) = 780m

f
We know that, Scale =
H−h

Let the ground coordinates of A be XA and YB and the ground coordinates for B XB and YB.

Calculation of ground coordinates for A:

X A H − ha H − ha
= ⇒ XA = ( ) xA
xA f f

3200 − 640
⇒ 𝑋𝐴 = ( ) × 19.50 = 416m
120

XA = 416m

YA H − ha H − ha
= ⇒ YA = ( ) yA
yA f f

(3200 − 640)
YA = × (−14.60)
120

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⇒ YA = – 311.47m

Ground coordinates of A = (416 m, – 311.47 m)

Calculation of ground coordinates for B:

XB H−hb H−hb
=( ) ⇒ XB = ( ) × xb
xB f f

3200 − 780
⇒ 𝑥𝐵 = ( ) × 26.70
120

⇒ XB = 538.45m

YB H − hb H − hb
=( ) ⇒ YB = ( ) yB
yb f f

3200 − 780
⇒ YB = ( ) × 10.80
120

⇒ YB = +217.8m)

Ground coordinates of B = (538.45 m, 217. 8m)

Distance between A and B

= √(𝑋𝐴 − 𝑋𝐵 )2 + (𝑌𝐴 − 𝑌𝐵 )2
= √(416 − 538.45)2 + (−311.47 − 217.8)2

= 543.25

∴ Ground distance between A and B = 543.25 m

f ha +hb
Average scale, Savg = where havg =
H−havg 2

0.120
=
640 + 780
3200 − ( )
2
0.120 1
= =
3200 − 710 20,750

Average scale = 1 in 20,750

9. RELIEF DISPLACEMENT

Any displacement on photo plate which represents height of object on ground is known as relief

displacement. It exists because photos are a perspective projection.

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Mathematically
Relief displacement, d = r – r1 … (1)
From Δ Oka and Δ OKA
𝑟 𝑓
=
𝑅 𝐻−ℎ
𝑓𝑅
⇒𝑟= … (2)
𝐻−ℎ

From Δ oka’ and Δ OK’A’

𝑟1 𝑓
=
𝑅 𝐻
𝑓𝑅
⇒ 𝑟1 = … (3)
𝐻

From equations (1), (2) and (3), we get

𝑓𝑅 𝑓𝑅
𝑑= −
𝐻−ℎ 𝐻
𝐻−𝐻+ℎ
𝑑=[ ] 𝑓𝑅
(𝐻 − ℎ)𝐻
𝑓𝑅. ℎ ℎ𝑟 𝑓𝑅
𝑑= = {∵ = 𝑟}
(𝐻 − ℎ). 𝐻 𝐻 𝐻−ℎ
Or, relief displacement,
ℎ𝑟
𝑑=
𝐻
Here,
h = height of object
d = radial distance to top of object – radial distance to bottom of object
r = radial distance to top of object
H = height of flight as measured from the bottom of the object
The scale of an aerial photograph is partly a function of flying height. Thus, variation in
elevation causes variation in the scale of an aerial photograph. The higher the elevation of an
object, the farther the object will be displaced from its actual position away from the principal
point of the photograph.
If the average elevation of ground level is h avg then relief displacement would be,

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ℎ𝑟
𝑑=
𝐻 − ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑔
Here,
h = height of object
H = flying height
havg = elevation of ground level
r = distance of image of top from principle point of positive plate.
Example:

A section line AB 300 m long on a flat terrain measures 102.4 mm on the vertical photograph.
A radio tower also appears on the photograph. The distance measured from the principal point
to the image of the bottom and top of the radio tower found to be 7 cm and 8 cm respectively.
The average elevation of the terrain was 553 m. Determine the height of the tower. Take f =
152. 4 mm.

Sol. Given

Length of line AB = 300m

Length of AB on photograph = 102.4mm

Average elevation of terrain (havg) = 553 m

Focal length f = 152.4 mm

Calculation of flying height, H:

We know that

Photograph dis tance 0.1024 1

Scale = = =
Ground dis tance 300 2929.69

Also

f
Scale (S) = (for line)
H − havg
1 0.1524
= ⇒ H = 999.48m
2929.69 H − 553

∴ Flying height, H = 999.48 m

Calculation of height of tower

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r0 = 7cm ; r = 8cm
Relief displacement = r-r0 = (8 – 7) cm = 1 cm
Let the height of tower be ‘h’ metres
hr
Relief displacement, d = (H−h′)

d(H − h′ )
⇒ℎ=
r
0.01 × (999.48 − 553)
⇒h= = 55.81m
0.08
∴ Height of the lower = 55.81m

10. PARALLAX

In normal binocular vision, the apparent movement of a point viewed first with one eye and
then with the other is known as parallax. Parallax is the displacement of two images in
successive photographs.
The same tower AB is photographed from two positions, O1 and O2. The camera positions are
at a distance B apart from each other.

a2 a1
x2 x1

parallax of top
(pto p )

From Δoa1a2 and ΔAO1O2,

𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝐵
=
𝐹 𝐻 − ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑝

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𝐵𝐹
Or, parallax for top, 𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑝 =
𝐻−ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑝

𝐵𝐹
Similarly, parallax for bottom, 𝑝𝐵𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 =
𝐻−ℎ𝐵𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚

Here,
B = length of air base
F = focal length of camera
htop = elevation of tower top
hBottom = elevation of tower bottom
H = flying height
Example:
A pair of overlap aerial photographs was taken with a camera from an altitude of 3000m above
datum. The focal length of camera was 120 mm and the mean distance between two principal
points, both of which lie on the datum, was 71.20 mm. In the common overlap area, a tall
chimney 200 m high with its base in the datum surface was observed. Find out the difference
of parallax for the top and bottom of the chimney.

Sol.

Given:

Focal length, f = 120 mm

Mean distance between two principal points, b = 71.20 mm

Flying height, H = 3000m

Chimney height, h = 200m

bH 71.20×3000
Length of airbase, B = = = 1780m
f 120

fB 120×1780
Parallax for top of chimney = =
H−h 3000−200

= 76.286 mm

fB 120×1780
Parallax for bottom of chimney = =
H 3000

= 71.2 mm

Difference of parallax for the top and bottom of chimney = 76.286 – 71.2 = 5.086 mm

11. PHOTOGRAPHIC OVERLAPS

• In aerial survey, vertical photographs are taken at the proper interval to give the desired
overlap of photographs in the strip. The photographs are exposed in such a way that any
two consecutive photographs have some common coverage. This overlapping of the
photographs along the flight strip is known as longitudinal overlap, end lap. forward overlap
or simply overlap.

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• It is the general practice to have longitudinal overlap of 60%

• Two adjacent flight strips are so photographed that there is a side lap or lateral overlap.
The side lap generally varies from 25 to 35%, with an average value of 30%. As shown in
above figure (c) the width of the flight strip is 2 km. A width of 0.6 km is common between
the two strips.

• Alternate photographs have an end overlap of 20%. In the fig. the first and the third
photographs have an overlap of 0.2 km.

11.1 Required Number of Photographs

The number of photographs required to cover given a ground area can be determined
using the net area covered by a photograph.

Method-1

When ground area ‘A’ is given

𝐴
No. of photographs required =
𝑎

Where a = area covered by one photograph

A= total area to be covered

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Approximately. The area is calculated as

(1 − p1 ) × 1 w
a= × (1 − ps ) ×
S S

where P1 = longitudinal lap/end lap [0.6]

Ps = side lap [0.3]

I = length of photograph in the direction of flight
w = width of photograph normal to the direction of flight
S = Scale of photograph

A AS 2
∴N= =
a (1 − p1 )(1 − ps ) × l x w

Note:

We have taken only lap area to account for the area covered.

Method-2

When length & width of the area on ground to be covered is given.

If we taken only the lapped area to account for the area covered then

𝑙
(a) (1 − P1 ) × (N1 − 1) = L1 [one extra photograph is taken to cover area at ends]
S

w
(b) (1 − Pw ) (N − 1) = W1
S 2

Where

𝑝1 = over lap in the direction of flight

𝑝𝑤 = Overlap in the direction perpendicular to the direction of flight

l = length of photograph in the direction of flight

𝑤 = width of photograph

N1 = no. of photograph in the direction of flight

N2 = no. of photograph perpendicular to the direction of flight

𝐿1 = length of ground to be covered

𝑊1 = width of ground to be covered
⇒ Total no. of photograph req. = N1 N2

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𝐿1 𝑤1
=[ + 1] [ 𝑤 + 1]
1 (1 − 𝑝𝑤 )
(1 − 𝑝1 ) 𝑠
𝑠

Time Interval Between Exposures

Exposures of the photographs should be made at the required time interval (T). This time
interval depends upon the ground speed (V) of the aircraft and the ground length (L)
covered between exposures.

𝐿
𝑇=
𝑉

where,
L = ground length covered by each photograph in the direction of flight(in meter)

V = ground speed of the aircraft (in m/sec )

Intervalometer used to determine the time interval between exposure.

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑑

Number of photographs to cover on area =
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜
𝐴
Or, number of photographs =
𝑎

Let, the size of each photograph = l × w

Net effective size of each photograph = (1 – Pl) l × (1 – Pw) w
Ground area covered by each photograph, a = S (1 – Pl) l × S (1 – Pw) w
Here,
a = net ground area covered by each photo
A = total area to be photographed
l = length of photo in direction of flight
w = width of photo normal to direction
Pl = % overlap for direction of flight (length)
Pw = % overlap for side (width)
S = scale of photograph (f/H)
If actual geometry of the photograph L and B are known, then number of photographs
can be calculated as shown below,
𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Total number of flight lines = (1−𝑃𝑤 )𝑆𝑤
+1
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝
Total number of photographs in each flight line = (1−𝑃𝑙 )𝑆𝑙
+1
3600×𝐿
Time lag between exposure, T = 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑉

Here,
L = Ground length of each photo (1 – Pl) S, in km.
V = speed of aeroplane in kmph.

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Example:
An area of 10 km × 20 km is to. Be surveyed using aerial photogrammetry. Average scale
of photograph is 1 : 10, 000 at ground elevation of 400 m above the datum. Focal length
of camera used is 20 cm and size of photographs are 23 cm× 23 cm. The speed of aircraft
is 270 kmph. The forwards lap in photographs is 70% and side lap is 30% Determine the
flying height, exposure interval and number of photographs required to compete the
survey.

Sol.

Taking 20 km as dimension along length and flight is assumed to, travel along the 20 km
direction

Given that

f = 0.2 m

S= 1/10,000

Side lap = 0.3

Forward lap = 0.7

Size of photograph 23 cm × 23 cm

We know that

f
S=
H−h
1 0.2
⇒ =
10,000 H − 400

 H = 2400 m

So, flying height = 2400 m

Number of photograph

20 × 1000
N1 = +1
(1 − 0.7) × 10000 × 0.23

= 28.98 + 1 = 29 + 1 = 30

10×1000
Similarly, N2 = +1
(1−0.3)×10,000×0.23

= 6.21 + 1 = 7 + 1 = 8

So, total no. of photograph = N1 × N2 = 30 × 8 = 240

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For exposure interval

Length covered in one photograph = (1 – 0.7) × 10, 000 × 0.23 = 690 m

690
So, exposure interval = 5 = 9.2sec
270×
18

12. CRAB AND DRIFT

• Crab of a photograph is the angle formed between the flight line & edges of the photograph
in the direction of flight.

• Crab occurs when the aircraft is not oriented with the flight line; photo edges are not parallel
to the flight line and it usually occurs when the pilot is trying to compensate for a cross wind
and orients the plane into the wind to maintain the flight line.

• Crabbing should be eliminated as far as possible because it reduces the effective coverage
of the photograph.

• To correct crab there is an arrangement to rotate the camera about the vertical axis of
mount.

• Drift is the lateral shifting of the photograph. The photograph does not stay on the
predetermined flight line due to winds. If the aircraft is set on its course without considering
the wind velocity, drift will occur.

13. PHOTOMAPS AND MOSAICS

• Photomaps are the aerial photographs which are used as a substitute of maps.

• The photomap may consist of one photograph, but generally photomaps are obtained by
assembling two or more photographs to form a large map. These large photomaps are
assembled from two or more photographs are known as mosaics.

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• A mosaic is required if a single photo does not cover the complete area. A mosaic is also
required when the given photograph cannot be enlarged to the required scale.

Mosaics are classified as below.

1 Strip mosaic

2 Index mosaic

• A strip mosaic is prepared by assembling a series of photographs taken along a single flight
strip covering the project area such as roads, canals, railways, etc.

• An index mosaic is prepared by assembling a number of photographs by matching the

images. These photographs are pasted on a fibre board, and the whole assembly is
photographed again.

Advantages of photomaps and mosaics over maps

1. The cost of the preparation of photomaps and mosaics is generally less than the maps
prepared from the photographs.

2. The mosaics of a large area can be prepared in a shorter period than maps.

3. The mosaics show all the objects and features in the project area, whereas maps show only
a selected features.

4. A layman can easily understand a photomap or a mosaic.

Disadvantages of Photomaps and mosaics

1. Photomaps and mosaics are not the true planimetric representations of the area as they are
perspective projection of that area.

2. Photomaps and mosaics cannot be used for quantitative analysis. The measured distances and
angles are not the correct values. Therefore photomaps and mosaics can be used only for
qualitative analysis.

14. PROBLEMS

Problem 1: A vertical photograph was taken at an altitude of 1200 m above mean sea level.
Determine the scale of the photograph for terrain lying at elevations of 80 m and 300 m if the
focal length of camera is 15 cm.
Ans. Scale = 60 m to 1 cm
Problem 2: Two points A and B having elevations of 500 m and 300 m respectively above
datum appear on the vertical photograph having a focal length of 20 cm and flying altitude of
2500 m above datum. The corrected coordinates on the photograph are ‘a’ (2.65 cm, 1.36 cm)
and ‘b’ (-1.92cm, 3.65 cm). Determine the length of the ground line AB.
Ans. 545 m.

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Problem 3: The distance from the principal point to an image on the photograph is 6.44 cm,
and the elevation of the object above the datum is 250 m. What is the relief displacement of
the point if the datum scale is 1/10,000 and the focal length of the camera is 20 cm?
Ans. 0.805 cm
Problem 4: A photograph was taken from a flight altitude of 2500 m above datum of a tower
AB. The reduced level of point B was 1250 m. The distance of the top of the tower from the
principal point on the image is 6.35 cm. Find out the displacement of the image of the top of
the tower with respect to the image of the bottom.
Ans. 0.25 cm
Problem 5: The scale of an aerial photograph is 1cm = 100m. The photograph size is 20 cm
× 20 cm. Determine the number of photographs required to cover an area of 100 sq. km if the
longitudinal lap is 60% and the side lap is 30%.
Ans. 90
Problem 6: In a pair of overlapping vertical photographs, the mean distance between the two
principal points is 6.375 cm. Both the points lie on the datum. The camera has a focal length
of 150 mm and the height of the aircraft is 600m. If the height of a chimney is 120 m with its
base at the datum surface, find out the difference of parallax for top and bottom of chimney.
Ans. 15.94 mm
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