Four stages of Neuronal Development

The nervous system. Central and peripheral, this system is integral to

every bodily function happening in you right now and at every waking
moment. From the rhythm of your heartbeat to the tiniest sensation of a
gentle itch, the nervous system drives all functions that contribute to your
survival.
Without it, well, you would be no more than a bag of bones with the
intelligence of a tardigrade (no offense to tardigrades).

So, where does the nervous system begin, and what makes it so
important?

Neurons and glial cells are perhaps the most important functioning
components of the nervous system. They are vital to the reception and
distribution of information from stimuli both inside and outside of your
body. These cells emerge before you even become a conscious being:
at embryonic development.

Embryonic Development: The Beginning

The three layers (endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm) give rise to

every physiological system in the body, beginning at embryonic
development.
The nervous system stems from the outermost layer, the ectoderm. At
the very beginning of this process, the cells begin to form what is called
the “neural plate” in the central portion of the ectoderm. As the
ectoderm continues to grow on either side of the neural plate, the varied
mitotic rates result in a sort of “U” shape from this neural plate, which is
known as the neural groove.
The tops of this groove eventually join to become the neural tube. The
neural tube later becomes cerebral ventricles of the brain and the
central canal of the spinal cord.

Neuronal Development Stages

There are four stages recognized in the process of neuron

development and the formation of the nervous system.
Throughout these formative stages, all cells which form the basis of
every organ and system that come together to ultimately develop into the
sentient creature. Organs and systems are formed and assigned to their
lifelong destinations and physiological roles.

Stage 1: Neurogenesis
This is the very first stage of the foundational process of neuronal
development. During this stage, cells that have yet to be differentiated
will undergo mitosis to produce either stem cells, or neuroblasts,
which will ultimately be differentiated into many different types of
neurons.
For now, neuroblasts and stem cells can be thought of as essentially the
same things. They are, functionally, precursors to what eventually
becomes a neuron.

The main difference is that neuroblasts are the stars of the show when
it comes to embryonic development, whereas stem cells have a stronger
presence in adult neurogenesis (development of neurons takes place
throughout the entire lifetime).
These cells continue dividing until they eventually form what is called the
“ventricular zone,” which is a densely-packed layer of cells. This
ultimately leads to the formation of three separate zones:
 the ventricular zone,
 intermediate zone,
 and the marginal zone.
The neurons and glial cells are formed in the intermediate zone.

Stage 2: Cell Migration

This is more complex stage. The cells that were previously responsible
for creating the ventricular zone now must move great distances to
establish distinct cell populations for further embryonic development.
These migrations are genetically pre-determined and so are not random
in any way.

Note that the formation of the ventricular, intermediate, marginal

zone is due to the movement of cells. So, even though the formal
process of migration has not officially begun, this is the mechanism
behind the formation of these zones.
Further, cells in the intermediate zone have already begun developing
into neural and glial cells.

What constitutes cell migration is the movement of more cells (which

are being formed during the ongoing process of neurogenesis)
along the radial glia toward the marginal zone from the ventricular zone.
Once they reach the marginal zone, they begin differentiation.

Stage 3: Differentiation

Now, the process of differentiation is different from normal cell

mitosis in that the embryo’s DNA dictates the nerve cells’ specific
physiology for their future core functions. Here is where it is determined
what type of nerve cell they will become.
This process continues on, hand-in-hand, with Stage 4.
Stage 4: Outgrowth

The foundational cells of the nervous system truly begin to take the
shape. Here is where the axons and dendrites begin to form.
Differentiation continues through this stage to direct these
developments, as each neuron requires a distinct physical appearance
based on their ultimate function.
The proliferation of synapses – the junction between nerve cells which
allows for communication throughout the entirety of the nervous system
begins here as well. The synapses, axons, and dendrites all work
together to create this system of communication. Dendrites receive
information from a given stimulus, pass it through the axon and to the
synapse, which then transfers that information to another neuron until all
information ends up in your brain.
Differentiation: As previously noted, there are many different types of
neurons. What the developing neurons will become is not only
determined by DNA expression, but also by the location of the cell during
development and relative position to neighboring nerve cells.
Neuronal Development in Adults

The neuron development continues throughout entire lifetime. This is

because the development of neurons is essential to functions such as
memory and learning.
In fact, without the ongoing process of neurogenesis into adult life,
scientists have found that intellectual and mental disorders and/or
challenges are likely to emerge (Olde et al., 2011).
Neuronal development in adults takes place in the
hippocampus. Researchers learned that both a complete lack of, and
low rates of, neurogenesis in adults is directly associated with difficulty in
differentiating stimuli that may be similar to one another. Eg. two food
items that smell the same but are completely different in taste or
ingredients.
This can also result in problems with long-term memory and has been
found to be related to conditions such as depression, anxiety, and post-
traumatic stress disorder. Other factors that can decrease rates of
neurogenesis in adults are stress, sleep deprivation, and aging. There
are things that can be done to combat the slowing of neurogenesis
throughout adult life. Exercise, learning (whether by schooling, reading a
book, or other ways of intaking new information) and even simple
conversation all effectively increase rates of neurogenesis in adults.
To illustrate just how active the hippocampus is in producing neurons,
the lab performed an experiment with mice to find that over 30,000
neurons were produced every single day. This demonstrates just how
much energy goes into constantly producing the proper synapses and
cells that allow you to take in new information and create memories
every second of every day.
Neuronal Development for Memory and
Learning

According to Olde et al. (2011), new proteins must be synthesized at

the synapses between neurons in order to create the ability to form
memories. This also constitutes the need to synthesize proteins at
dendrites as well.
Imagine this process happening every time you learn someone’s name.
When you meet someone at a coffee shop or follow a new person on
social media, you make a subconscious (or conscious) effort to
remember their name, right? Well, as minute as this act may seem, there
are proteins being synthesized and new neurons being created to aid
you in creating that one single memory.

As you are reading information, synapses are firing, dendrites and

neurons are working, and proteins are being synthesized in order for you
to retain this new knowledge.
Some of the major components to the development and functioning of
neurons have been identified as miRNA, a non-coding RNA involved in
gene expression, circRNA, another non-coding RNA, sodium (Na),
potassium (K) and more.
miRNA and circRNA are integral to the formation of neurons in that they
are involved in numerous stages of neuronal development: dendritic
branching, neuronal differentiation, etc. (Olde et al., 2011) and have also
been linked to some intellectual and psychological disorders.
Sodium and potassium, along with the previously mentioned RNA
molecules, of course, are vital to the neuron’s ability to receive and
transmit information via synapses (Gjedde, 2002).

Neuronal development is central to life’s most essential system: the

nervous system. Beginning at embryonic development, this process
gives rise to the very cells that allow us to function as sentient, feeling,
seeing, all-around perceptive organisms.

From the smallest sensation of the gentle touch of a feather to core

instinctual reflex mechanisms like “Fight or Flight,” growth and creation
of neurons is a part of human growth and development that we could
never do without.
References
1. Gjedde, A. (2002). Coupling of blood flow to neuronal excitability.
In W. Walz (Ed.), The neuronal environment: Brain homeostasis in
health and disease (pp. 233-257). Totowa, NJ: Humana Press.
2. Olde Loohuis, N. F., Kos, A., Martens, G. J., Van Bokhoven, H.,
Nadif Kasri, N., & Aschrafi, A. (2011). MicroRNA networks direct
neuronal development and plasticity. Cellular and Molecular Life
Sciences, 69(1), 89-102. doi:10.1007/s00018-011-0788-1