NAV n Radio both

1. Diff between GPWS n EGPWS. Kind of warning EGPWS gives, how does it work

Ans : EGPWS reduces nuisance callouts and also has mode 6 (minimums & bank angle)
and mode 7 as windshear . It also has a predictive windshear capability.

2. RNP, what exactly is that, RNP 1 better or RNP 10

Ans : RNP means a defined airspace where lateral accuracy is expected to be

maintained by the operating aircraft . Other then Navaids on board the aircraft and
within the RNAV network to achieve the levels of lateral accuracy it also calls for
accuracy and monitoring systems to be on board the aircraft. 1 means 1nm of lateral
accuracy and 10 means 10nm of lateral accuracy. In mnps while lateral accuracy
required is 12.6 it is refrred to as RNP10 in order to escape the certification costs. RNP
1 may be DME DME and RNP10 may be IRS GPS hence is u r RNP1 able it is not
necessary that you are good to enter RNP10. It depends on the Navaids and their
capability on board the aircraft to maintain the required lateral Nav Perf.

3. GRID MORA on jepp chart

Ans : Min Off route Alt within a grid of Lat/ Long . When in green it signifies below
10,000ft and when below 5000ft assures a 1000ft clearance from all man made and
natural obstacles , when above 5000ft assures 2000ft of vertical clearance. Above
10,000ft it is depicted in Magenta and signifies oxygen consideration by the crew.

4. CANPA-Constant angle non precision approach

Ans : http:/ / dgca.nic.in/ circular/ ops01_05.pdf

5. VOR, DVOR(Doppler VOR), NDB, which one would you prefer to use and why

Ans: Primary difference between a VOR and a Doppler VOR is that variable signal is
anti clockwise in a DVOR and is FM while the reference signal is AM . A normal VOR is
vice versa . Also a DVOR reduces Site error . There is no way for a pilot to know which
type of VOR has he tuned onto. Aggregate errors of a VOR are basically ground n site
propogation errors but in a NDB there are also quadrantal,coastal refraction,night
effect etc errors hence making a VOR a better choice . VOR are good both by night
and day as far as you are within the DOC limits. NDB is only good by day and approx
within 70nm by night. VOR error can be detected by listening into the morse code as
well as comparing it with another VOR on board but a NDB no way of finding out
errors.

6. RADIO ALT:

Ans: Extremely accurate primary radar working between 4200 Mhz and 4400Mhz
 works on freq comparison of waves.Time lapsed between Txn & Reception is
calculated into distance which in turn gives you height of the aircraft wheels above
ground. A Rad Alt Failure renders a GPWS unserviceable. No question of partial
servicibility and a aircraft can be only flown with DGCA permission for the purpose of
fixing the Rad Alt ie Maint Ferry only.

7. RVSM contingencies

Ans : It has Crew actions / decision making , The procedure , Actual Actions .

Aircrafts don’ t fall out of the sky hence incase for some reason u are unable RVSM you
will first “
Think”, and then try to communicate your problem to the control via relay or
direct comn and then most pref be vectored out of the airspace. Incase of No comn
you will try n relay . Stillno joy then you will transmit intentions on 123.45 and 121.5 . At
all times you will monitor the TCAS . You shall then switch on every light on the aircraft
and turn . If between 000deg and 179 deg you can turn right or left but at the end of
the offset (10+nm) you shall climb 300ft if turned right and desend 300ft if turned left .
Vice Versa if between 180deg and 359 deg . Incase less then 10nm offset say due Wx
etc then no need to climb or desend 300ft. Incase of emergency decent out of RVSM
you will desend below 28500ft and level which is in between the FL’ s , ie keeping 2000ft
vert separation in mind it is advisable to level off at FL250 if flying between 180deg and
359 deg. It reduces the probability of knocking into traffic by 50%. Any lateral offsets
have to factored into any deviations.

8. ALL types of projections, if you are at equator which type of chart would you
use(projection type)

Ans: Lambert , Mercator , Polar Stereographic ..We use Lambert in aviation. (Std Parallels &P
arallel of origin + scale reduces between the parallels and expands outside them). At equator
we can use Mercator which is accurate upto +- 8 deg from equator.
8. What are ILS components

Ans: An instr u ment landing system (ILS) is a ground-based instrument approach system that provides precision
guidance to an aircraft approaching a runway for landing, using a combination of radio signals and, in many cases,
high-intensity lighting arrays to enable a safe landing during instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), such as
low ceilings or reduced visibility due to fog, rain, or blowing snow.

An ILS consists of two independent sub-systems, one providing lateral guidance (localizer), the other vertical
guidance (glide slope or glide path) to aircraft approaching a runway. Aircraft guidance is provided by the ILS
receivers in the aircraft by performing a modulation depth comparison.
The emission patterns of the localizer and glideslope signals. Note that the glide slope beams are partly formed by
the reflection of the glideslope aerial in the ground plane.

A localizer (LOC, or LLZ until ICAO designated LOC as the official acronym)[1 ] antenna array is normally located
beyond the departure end of the runway and generally consists of several pairs of directional antennas. Two signals
are transmitted on one out of 40 ILS channels between the carrier frequency range 108.10 MHz and 111.95 MHz
(with the 100 kHz first decimal digit always odd, so 108.10, 108.15, 108.30, and so on are LOC frequencies but
108.20, 108.25, 108.40, and so on are not). One is modulated at 90 Hz, the other at 150 Hz and these are transmitted
from separate but co-located antennas. Each antenna transmits a narrow beam, one slightly to the left of the runway
centerline, the other to the right.

The localizer receiver on the aircraft measures the difference in the depth of modulation (DDM) of the 90 Hz and
150 Hz signals. For the localizer, the depth of modulation for each of the modulating frequencies is 20 percent. The
difference between the two signals varies depending on the position of the approaching aircraft from the centerline.

If there is a predominance of either 90 Hz or 150 Hz modulation, the aircraft is off the centerline. In the cockpit, the
needle on the horizontal situation indicator (HSI, the instrument part of the ILS), or course deviation indicator (CDI),
will show that the aircraft needs to fly left or right to correct the error to fly down the center of the runway. If the
DDM is zero, the aircraft is on the centerline of the localizer coinciding with the physical runway centerline.

A glide slope (GS) or glide path (GP) antenna array is sited to one side of the runway touchdown zone. The GP
signal is transmitted on a carrier frequency between 328.6 and 335.4 MHz using a technique similar to that of the
localizer. The centerline of the glide slope signal is arranged to define a glide slope of approximately 3° above
horizontal (ground level). The beam is 1.4° deep; 0.7° below the glideslope centerline and 0.7° above the glideslope
centerline.

These signals are displayed on an indicator in the instrument panel. This instrument is generally called the omni-
bearing indicator or nav indicator. The pilot controls the aircraft so that the indications on the instrument (i.e., the
course deviation indicator) remain centered on the display. This ensures the aircraft is following the ILS centreline
(i.e., it provides lateral guidance). Vertical guidance, shown on the instrument by the glideslope indicator, aids the
pilot in reaching the runway at the proper touchdown point.

Localizer backcour se

Modern localizer antennas are highly directional. However, usage of older, less directional antennas allows a
runway to have a non-precision approach called a localizer backcourse. This lets aircraft land using the signal
transmitted from the back of the localizer array. A pilot may have to fly opposite the needle indication, due to
reverse sensing. This would occur when using a basic VOR indicator. If using an HSI, one can avoid reverse sensing
by setting the front course on the course selector. Highly directional antennas do not provide a sufficient signal to
support a backcourse. In the United States, backcourse approaches are commonly associated with Category I
systems at smaller airports that do not have an ILS on both ends of the primary runway. Pilots may notice that they
receive false glide slope signals from the front course ILS equipment. All glide slope information should be
disregarded, when on a back course.

M ar ker beacons

Main article: marker beacon

On some installations, marker beacons operating at a carrier frequency of 75 MHz are provided. When the
transmission from a marker beacon is received it activates an indicator on the pilot's instrument panel and the tone
of the beacon is audible to the pilot. The distance from the runway at which this indication should be received is
published in the documentation for that approach, together with the height at which the aircraft should be if
correctly established on the ILS. This provides a check on the correct function of the glideslope. In modern ILS
installations, a DME is installed, co-located with the ILS, to augment or replace marker beacons. A DME
continuously displays the aircraft's distance to the runway.

Blue outer marker ( Final Approach Fix)

The outer marker is normally located 7.2 kilometres (3.9 nmi; 4.5 mi) from the threshold except that, where this
distance is not practical, the outer marker may be located between 6.5 to 11.1 kilometres (3.5 to 6.0 nmi; 4.0 to 6.9
mi) from the threshold. The modulation is repeated Morse-style dashes of a 400 Hz tone. The cockpit indicator is a
blue lamp that flashes in unison with the received audio code. The purpose of this beacon is to provide height,
distance and equipment functioning checks to aircraft on intermediate and final approach. In the United States, a
NDB is often combined with the outer marker beacon in the ILS approach (called a Locator Outer Marker, or LOM);
in Canada, low-powered NDBs have replaced marker beacons entirely.

Amber middle marker ( Missed Approach Point)

The middle marker should be located so as to indicate, in low visibility conditions, the missed approach point, and
the point that visual contact with the runway is imminent, ideally at a distance of approximately 3,500 ft (1,100 m)
from the threshold. It is modulated with a 1.3 kHz tone as alternating Morse-style dots and dashes at the rate of two
per second. The cockpit indicator is an amber lamp that flashes in unison with the received audio code. Middle
markers are no longer required in the United States so many of them are being decommissioned.[citation needed]

White inner marker ( Category II ILS Minima)

The inner marker, when installed, shall be located so as to indicate in low visibility conditions the imminence of
arrival at the runway threshold. This is typically the position of an aircraft on the ILS as it reaches Category II
minima. Ideally at a distance of approximately 1,000 ft (300 m) from the threshold. The modulation is Morse-style
dots at 3 kHz. The cockpit indicator is a white lamp that flashes in unison with the received audio code.

ILS DM E

Distance measuring equipment (DME) provides pilots with a slant range measurement of distance to the runway in
nautical miles. DMEs are augmenting or replacing markers in many installations. The DME provides more accurate
and continuous monitoring of correct progress on the ILS glideslope to the pilot, and does not require an installation
outside the airport boundary. When used in conjunction with an ILS, the DME is often sited midway between the
reciprocal runway thresholds with the internal delay modified so that one unit can provide distance information to
either runway threshold. On approaches where a DME is specified in lieu of marker beacons, the aircraft must have
at least one operating DME unit to begin the approach, and a DME Required restriction will be noted on the
Instrument Approach Procedure.

M onitor ing

It is essential that any failure of the ILS to provide safe guidance be detected immediately by the pilot. To achieve
this, monitors continually assess the vital characteristics of the transmissions. If any significant deviation beyond
strict limits is detected, either the ILS is automatically switched off or the navigation and identification components
are removed from the carrier. [2] Either of these actions will activate an indication ('failure flag') on the instruments of
an aircraft using the ILS.

Appr oach lighting

Some installations include medium- or high-intensity approach light systems. Most often, these are at larger airports
but many small general aviation airports in the U.S. have approach lights to support their ILS installations and
obtain low-visibility minimums. The approach lighting system (abbreviated ALS) assists the pilot in transitioning
from instrument to visual flight, and to align the aircraft visually with the runway centerline. Pilot observation of the
approach lighting system at the Decision Altitude allows the pilot to continue descending towards the runway, even
if the runway or runway lights cannot be seen, since the ALS counts as runway end environment. In the U.S., an ILS
without approach lights may have CAT I ILS visibility minimums as low as 3/4 mile (runway visual range of 4,000
feet) if the required obstacle clearance surfaces are clear of obstructions. Visibility minimums of 1/2 mile (runway
visual range of 2,400 feet) are possible with a CAT I ILS approach supported by a 1,400-to-3,000-foot-long (430 to
910 m) ALS, and 3/8 mile visibility 1,800-foot (550 m) visual range is possible if the runway has high-intensity
edge lights, touchdown zone and centerline lights, and an ALS that is at least 2,400 feet (730 m) long (see Table 3-
5a in FAA Order 8260.3b). In effect, ALS extends the runway environment out towards the landing aircraft and
allows low-visibility operations. CAT II and III ILS approaches generally require complex high-intensity approach
light systems, while medium-intensity systems are usually paired with CAT I ILS approaches. At many non-towered
airports, the intensity of the lighting system can be adjusted by the pilot, for example the pilot can click their
microphone 7 times to turn on the lights, then 5 times to turn them to medium intensity.

9. Gyro:

Ans : Any rotating object is a Gyro . When rotating with sufficient speed it displays the
qualities of rigidity and precission. Different types of gyros ie Rate/ Tied and Earth Gyro’
s . No of Gymbals= No of Axis of Freedom. Increase in speed of rotation then higher
the rigidity and increase in mass then greater the precision.

10. What airspaces are there in India?

Ans : D,E,F,G

11. How many satellites are required for RAIM?

Ans : 5 for Raim and 6 for RAIM with fault detection and elimination.

12. Diff b/ w ILS X& ILS Y&ILS Z

Ans : When a particular instrument approach for a particular runway has multiple
approach procedures . eg- ILS X27 may have radar vectors to the loc , ILSY27 may
have u fly the DME Arc and ILSZ 27 may have you come over head the VOR n fly the
 outbound procedure prior to doing a proc turn n intercepting the loc . There may also
be a difference in the Missed appch procedure.

14. Instruments VOR, NDB, DME, INS, IRS, GPS, Working of a Servo Altimeter,
TCAS

Ans: Refer to Oxford Instruments and Radio Aids.

15. ILS reference point

Ans : 50ft above Rwy Threshold.

16. Degrees of freedom is plane of freedom

Ans : Depends on the No of Gymbals for Gyro’ s . Again the basics of Earth/ Rate/ Tied Gyro’
s
come into play . Basically what do you want the gyro to do and what info do you want to
generate from it which will be depicted through a series of mech linkages on a instrument?

17. TCAS TA,RA range - Forward Range for TCAS 2 = 40 Nm

18. Speed to be maintained in a DME arc .

Ans: Unless published or otherwise depending on category we maintain 230Kt for Cat C
aircraft.

19. TODA and TORA / Clearway and stopway.

Ans: Stopway only for ASDA . Runway gradient to be factored to find out if TODA>ASDA or
not ? Also contaminated Rwy,Over weight conditions etc effect on ASDA. Clearway for T/ Ois
where u should be V2 at 35ft above clearway during T/ O.

20. Can you do ILS approach without Glideslope?

Ans.-Yes , but then it is a NPAor Loc only Appch.

21. What is the required instrumentation for RVSM?

Ans : Alt monitoring , Alt Alerting , Alt controlling & Alt reporting capability. (MARC)

22. If a pilot is unable to maintain RVSM, what is the RT phraseology?

Ans: Station:Call Sign: A/ C CallSign: “

Unable RVSM”.
23. What is ETOPS, Different extensions available

Ans: ETOPS ( J eppesen Definition... ( Ext ended Range Op erat io n wit h t wo -engine airp lanes)…
 ETOPS [1 ] is an acronym for extended operations[2 ] as re-defined by the US Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA) in 2007.[3 ] This rule allows twin-engined airliners (such as the Airbus A300, A310, A320, A330 and A350,
the Boeing 737, 757, 767, 777, 787, the Embraer E-Jets, ATR) to fly long-distance routes that were previously off-
limits to twin-engined aircraft. ETOPS operation has no direct correlation to water or distance over water. It refers
to single-engine flight times between diversion airfields, regardless as to whether such fields are separated by water
or land.

According to the FAA in the Federal Register, "This final rule applies to air carrier (part 121), commuter, and on-
demand (part 135) turbine powered multi-engine airplanes used in extended-range operations. However, all-cargo
operations in airplanes with more than two engines of both part 121 and part 135 are exempted from the majority of
this rule. Today's rule [January 16, 2007] establishes regulations governing the design, operation and maintenance of
certain airplanes operated on flights that fly long distances from an adequate airport. This final rule codifies current
FAA policy, industry best practices and recommendations, as well as international standards designed to ensure long
-range flights will continue to operate safely." [4] Prior to 2007, FAA defined ETOPS as "Extended Range Operations
with two-engine airplanes" and applied to twins only. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Standard
and Recommended Practice (SARP) applies only to twins and defines ETOPS as "Extended-range Twin-engine
Operational Performance Standards".

ETOPS applies to twins on routes with diversion time more than 60 minutes at one engine inoperative speed. For
rules that also cover more than two engines, as in the case of the FAA, ETOPS applies on routes with diversion time
more than 180 minutes for airplanes with more than two engines in respect of ICAO.

Until the mid-1980s, the term EROPS (extended range operations) was used before being superseded by ETOPS
usage. In 1997, when Boeing proposed to extend ETOPS authority for twins to beyond 180 minutes, Airbus
proposed to replace ETOPS by a newer system, referred to as LROPS or Long Range Operational Performance
Standards, which would affect all civil airliners, not just those with a twin-engine configuration with more than 180
minutes ETOPS. [5] According to the FAA in 2007, "Several commenters …recommended use of the acronym
"LROPS"—meaning 'Long Range Operations'—for three- and four-engine ETOPS, to avoid confusion, particularly
for those operations beyond 180- minutes diversion time. The FAA has decided to use the single term, 'extended
operations,' or ETOPS, for all affected operations regardless of the number of engines on the airplane."[6]

Government-owned aircraft (including military) do not have to adhere to ETOPS regulations.

[edit]History

The first direct transatlantic air crossing was made in 1919, by John Alcock and Arthur Brown, in a twin-engined
Vickers Vimy. It took sixteen hours. Due to the unreliability of piston engines at the time, long-distance flight using
twin engines was considered very risky. More than two engines were seen as a must for flight over long distances
and inhospitable terrain, or over the ocean.

In 1953 the US Federal Aviation Administration, having recognized piston engine limitations, introduced the 60-
minute rule for 2-engine aircraft. This rule stated that the flight path of twin-engined aircraft should not be farther
than 60 minutes of flying time from an adequate airport. This forced these aircraft, on certain routes, to fly a dogleg
path to stay within regulations; they were totally excluded from certain routes due to lack of en-route airports.
The 60-minute rule was also called the 60-minute diversion period. The totally excluded area was called
the exclusion zone.

In the 1950s Pan Am flew Convair 240s across the Caribbean, Barranquilla to Kingston, and Avensa flew 340s
Maracaibo to Montego Bay; if the 60-minute rule applied to them it must have been 60 minutes at all-engine speed.
(Barranquilla to Kingston was about 808 km with almost no other airports to help.) Delta's Convair from New
Orleans to Havana flew a longer trip but could arc north to stay within reach of an airport.

[edit]Early turbine engine experience

Jet turbine engines in the 1950s and 1960s demonstrated that they had much higher thrust and reliability than any
then-available piston engines. Pratt & Whitney jet engines were then reliably powering the 2-engined Boeing 737
series, the 2-engined DC-9 and 3-engined Boeing 727. The 60-minute rule was waived in 1964 for 3-engined
aircraft. This opened the way for the development of wide-body intercontinentaltrijets such as the Lockheed Tristar
and DC-10. By then, only 2-engined jets were restricted by the 60-minute rule.

[edit]Early twin-engine high-bypass turbofan airliners

When the FAA restricted the twins to 60 minutes in 1953, ICAO limited it to 90 minutes at all engine speed.
Countries outside the US, which adopted the ICAO standards permitted their airlines to operate up to 90 minutes.
This allowed many twins to be operated in SE Asia and Australia without significant restriction.

[edit]Early ETOPS experience

Boeing 767-300ER, the ETOPS pioneer

The FAA and ICAO concluded a properly designed twin-engined airliner can make intercontinental transoceanic
flights. In 1985 the FAA was first to approve ETOPS guidelines spelling out conditions for allowing a 120 minutes'
diversion period, sufficient for most transatlantic flights. TWA was awarded the first ETOPS rating in May 1985 for
the Boeing 767 service between St. Louis and Frankfurt, allowing TWA to fly its aircraft up to 90 minutes away
from the nearest airfield: this was later extended to 120 minutes after a federal evaluation of the airline's operating
procedures. Most transatlantic flights now use ETOPS.

[edit]ETOPS extensions

In 1988, the FAA amended the ETOPS regulation to allow the extension to a 180-minute diversion period subject to
stringent technical and operational qualifications. This made 95% of the Earth's surface available to ETOPS flights.
The first such flight was conducted in 1989. This set of regulations was subsequently adopted by the Joint Aviation
Authorities (JAA), ICAO and other regulatory bodies.

In this manner the Boeing 737, 757 and 767 series and the Airbus A300-600, A310, A320 and A330 series were
approved for ETOPS operations. The success of ETOPS aircraft like 767 and 777 killed the intercontinental trijets.
This ultimately led Boeing to end the MD-11 program a few years after Boeing's merger with McDonnell Douglas,
as well as to scale down the production of its own Boeing 747.

The cornerstone of the ETOPS approach is the statistics that show that the turbine itself is an inherently reliable
component, and it is the engine ancillaries that have a lower reliability rating. Therefore an engine for a modern twin
jet airliner has twin sets of all ancillaries mounted in the engine, which gives the required reliability rating.

The North Atlantic airways are the most heavily used oceanic routes in the world. Most North Atlantic airways are
covered by ETOPS 120-minute rules, removing the necessity of using 180-minute rules. However, some of the
North Atlantic diversion airports, especiallyKangerlussuaq Airport, are subject to adverse weather conditions
making them unavailable for use. As the 180-minute rule is the upper limit, the JAA & FAA has given 15%
extension to the 120-minute rules to deal with such contingencies, giving the ETOPS-138min, thereby allowing
ETOPS flights with such airports closed.

ETOPS 240 and beyond are now permitted[7] on a case-by-case basis, with regulatory bodies in nations ranging from
the USA, to Australia, to New Zealand adopting said regulatory extension. Authority is only granted to operators of
two-engine airplanes between specific city pairs. The certificate holder must have been operating at 180 minute or
greater ETOPS authority for at least 24 consecutive months, of which at least 12 consecutive months must be at 240
-minute ETOPS authority with the airplane-engine combination in the application.

[edit]Early ETOPS

Boeing 777-200ER.

The original 1985 regulations allowed an airliner to have ETOPS-120 rating on entry into service. ETOPS-180 was
only possible after 1 year of trouble-free 120-minute ETOPS experience. In 1990 Boeing convinced the FAA that it
could deliver an airliner with ETOPS-180 on its entry into service. This process was called Early ETOPS. The
Boeing 777 was the first aircraft to carry an ETOPS rating of 180 minutes at its introduction.

In the 1990s the JAA disagreed and the Boeing 777 was rated ETOPS-120 in Europe on its entry into service.
European airlines operating the 777 had to demonstrate one year of trouble-free 120-minutes ETOPS experience
before obtaining 180-minutes ETOPS for the 777.

Today regulations in Europe and US permit up to 180 minutes ETOPS at entry.

[edit]ETOPS exclusions

Private jets are exempted from ETOPS by the FAA, but are subject to the ETOPS 120-minute rule in JAA's
jurisdiction.

Until the rule change in US, Australia, several commercial airline routes were still economically off-limits to
twinjets because of ETOPS regulations. There were routes traversing the South Pacific (e.g., Sydney, Australia -
Buenos Aires, Argentina, which is the longest over sea distance flown by a commercial airline), South Atlantic (e.g.,
Capetown, South Africa - São Paulo, Brazil) Southern Indian Ocean (e.g., Perth, Australia - Johannesburg, South
Africa) and Antarctica.

[edit]Beyond ETOPS-180

Effective February 15, 2007, the FAA ruled that US-registered twin-engined airplane operators can fly more than
180 minute ETOPS to the design limit of the aircraft. Airbus is planning to certify its A350XWB to 350 minute
ETOPS, while Boeing is planning to certify its 787 to 330 minute ETOPS. [8]

On December 12, 2011, Boeing received type-design approval from the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
for up to 330-minute extended operations for its 777 fleet. This certification applies to the 777-200LR, 777-300ER,
777F and 777-200ER equipped with GEengines.[9 ]

EASA also has updated its twin-engine (ETOPS) rules. It has not formally declared its timing for ETOPS type rules
for airplanes with more than two engines, or whether it will use the acronym ETOPS or LROPS for these operations.

[edit]ETOPS ratings

The following ratings are awarded under current regulations according to the capability of the airline:

§ ETOPS-75
§ ETOPS-90

§ ETOPS-120/138
§ ETOPS-180/207

§ ETOPS-240
§ ETOPS->240
However, ratings for ETOPS type approval are fewer. They are:

§ ETOPS-90, which keeps pre-ETOPS Airbus A300B4 legally operating under current rules
§ ETOPS-120/138

§ ETOPS-180/207, which covers 95% of the Earth's surface.

§ ETOPS->180 to Design Limit

[edit]Approval for ETOPS

ETOPS approval is a two-step process. Firstly: the airframe and engine combination must satisfy the basic ETOPS
requirements during its type certification. This is called ETOPS type appr oval. Such tests may include shutting
down an engine and flying the remaining engine during the complete diversion time. Often such tests are performed
in the middle of the ocean. It must be demonstrated that, during the diversion flight, the flight crew is not unduly
burdened by extra workload due to the lost engine and that the probability of the remaining engine failing is
extremely remote. For example, if an aircraft is rated for ETOPS-180, it means that it should be able to fly with full
load and just one engine for 3 hours.

Secondly, an operator who conducts ETOPS flights must satisfy their own country's aviation regulators about their
ability to conduct ETOPS flights. This is called ETOPS oper ational cer tification and involves compliance with
additional special engineering and flight crew procedures on top of the normal engineering and flight procedures.
Pilots and engineering staff must be qualified and trained for ETOPS. An airline with extensive experience
operating long distance flights may be awarded ETOPS operational approval immediately, others may need to
demonstrate ability through a series of ETOPS proving flights.

Regulators closely watch the ETOPS performance of both type certificate holders and their affiliated airlines. Any
technical incidents during an ETOPS flight must be recorded. From the data collected, the reliability of the
particular airframe-engine combination is measured and statistics published. The figures must be within limits of
type certifications. Of course, the figures required for ETOPS-180 will always be more stringent than ETOPS-120.
Unsatisfactory figures would lead to a downgrade, or worse, suspension of ETOPS capabilities either for the type
certificate holder or the airline.

24. Questions on runway lighting (from jeppesons)

Ans: Pilot should be able to refer to the airway manual and read the answer. Not a memory ite
m nor should one try to showoff by speaking from memory. (Caution)

25. Questions on runway marking (Jeppesons)

Ans: Same as 26.

26. Radio failure procedure in Radar, Non-Radar and during a SID

Ans: Pilot should know where to find it.. Airport Briefing –SID’
s –Comn Failure. Also given
on SID Chart at times.

27. Requirements for ILS Cat IIIb? What DHand RVR requirement for cat IIIb

Ans : It has changed.. Need to recheck on latest parameters.

28. Is middle marker mandatory for ILS approaches .

Ans : No
29. -Marker Locators(NDB co-located with the fan markers)

Ans: Normally indicate the DH/ DAin an approach. Not compulsory.

30. Outer marker –colour of visuallighting, frequency, morse code and distance

Ans : Blue –Dashes –morse@ 2/ sec.- Approx 3.5 to 4.5nm . A good thumbrule is to check A
/ c at approx 1000 to 1200ft and stabilized over OM.

31. Wind shear mode in EGPWS. What is predictive wind shear.

Ans: Mode 7 . senses any major change in wind direction and speed.

32. If you are navigating using triple INS and if all three fail, how will you navigate.

Ans: Use GPS.

33. What is CANPA? How is it useful?

Ans : Ref Canpa link.

34. Why is 50 feet added to MDAto calculate DDHin a CANPA approach?

Ans : Ref Canpa link. 50Ft helps compensate for momentum of aircraft during desent and
ensures no busting the minimums.

35. Why is 50 feet not added to the DHin an ILS approach if the same if done for a
CANPA approach to calculate the DDH? (ILS more accurate and inline with r/ w
center line)

Ans: ILS more precise and is a precision appch while Canpa is NPA.

36. What is FANS?

Ans : FANS
( In a nut shell, The use of automation and satellite communication per mits contr oller s to play a mor e passive
monitor ing r ole and yet enhance the efficiency of C NS/ATM ) by positive and pr ocedur al contr ol).

C ommunication.... AC AR S and C PDLC have over come the pr oblems associated with HF communication.

Navigation.....G NSS has over come the pr oblems associated with long ter m er r or s of INS. Fur th er the
deter minist ic natur e of Satellite navigation systems, the pilot is not only constant ly awar e of the navigation
accur acy, he is also war ned if the ANP (Actual Nav Per for mance) is infer ior to the R NP.

Sur veillance ..... ADS-C (Automatic Dependent Sur veillance-C ontr act). R eplaces voice communication by
sett ing up vir tually a “
contr act ”between the Navigation System of an air cr aft and the contr ol to give a timely
upd ate of ac position and aler t in case of deviations beyond the desir ed R NP. This r educes the pilot wor kload
tr emend ously.

The explanation of what is summar ised above is given below.......

FANS stands for Future Air Navigation System. FANS1 is the Controller Pilot Data link communication system in
current use. The Futu r e Air Navigation System (FANS) is an avionics system which provides direct data link
communication between the pilot and the Air Traffic Controller. The communications include air traffic control
clearances, pilot requests and position reporting. In the FANS-B equipped Airbus A320 family aircraft models, an
Air Traffic Services Unit and a VHF Data Radio (VDR3) in the avionics rack and two Data link Control and
Display Units (DCDUs) in the cockpit enable the flight crew to read and answer the Controller Pilot Data Link
Communications (CPDLC) messages received from the ground.

Air Traffic Control's ability to monitor aircraft was being rapidly outpaced by the growth of flight as a mode of

travel. In an effort to improve aviation communication, navigation, surveillance (CNS), and air traffic management

(ATM), ICAO standards for a future system were created, this integrated system is known as the Future Air

Navigation System (FANS) and allows controllers to play a more passive monitoring role through the use of

incr eased automation and satellite based navigation. Aircraft are operated using two major methods; Positive

Control and Procedural Control.

Positive C ontr ol is used in areas which have radar. The controller "sees" the airplanes in the control area and uses

VHF voice to provide instructions to the flight crews to ensure separation. Because the position of the aircraft is

updated frequently and VHF voice contact timely, separation standards (the distance one aircraft must be separated

by another) is less. This is because the air traffic controller can recognize problems and issue corrective directions to

multiple airplanes in a timely fashion. Separation standards are what determines the number of airplanes which can

occupy a certain volume of airspace.

Pr ocedur al C ontr ol is used in areas (such as oceanic and landmasses) which do not have radar. The FANS concept

was developed to improve the safety and efficiency of airplanes operating under Procedural Control. This methods

uses time-based procedures to keep aircraft separated. The separation standard is determined by the accuracy of the

reported positions, frequency of position reports, and timeliness of communication with respect to intervention.
Non-FANS pr ocedur al separ ation uses Inertial Navigation Systems for position, flight crew voice reports of

position (and time of next waypoint), and High Frequency radio for communication. The INS systems have error

introduced by drifting after initial alignment. This error can approach 10 nmi (19 km). HF radio communication

involves contacting an HF operator who then transcribes the message and sends it to the appropriate ATC Service

Provider. Responses from the ATC Service Provider go to the HF radio operator who contacts the airplane. The

voice quality of the connection is often poor leading to repeated messages. The HF radio operator can also get

saturated with request for communication. This leads to procedures which keeps air planes separ ated by as much

as 100 nmi (190 km) later ally, 10 minut es in tr ail, and 4,000 ft (1,200 m) altitude. These pr ocedur es r educe

the numb er of air planes which can oper ate in a given air space. If market demand pushes airlines to operate at

the same time on a given route, this can lead to airspace congestion; an issue which is handled by delaying

departures or separating the airplanes by altitude. The latter can lead to very inefficient operation due to longer

flying times and increased fuel burn.

The fut ur e

The FANS concept involves impr ovements to communication, navigation and sur veillance (C NS).

[ edit ]Co mmunicat io n imp ro vement s

This involved a transition from voice communications to digital communications. Specifically ACARS was used as

the communication medium. This allowed other application improvements. An application was hosted on the

airplane known as Controller Pilot Data Link Communications (CPDLC). This allows the flight crew to select from

a menu of standardATC communications, send the message, and receive a response. A peer application exists on the

ground for the Air Traffic Controller. They can select from a set of messages and send communications to the

airplane. The flight crew will respond with a WILCO, STANDBY, or REJECT. The current standard for message

delivery is under 60 seconds one way.

[ edit ]Navigat io n imp ro vement s

This involves a transition from Inertial Navigation to Satellite Navigation using the GPS satellites. This also

introduced the concept of Actual Navigation Per for mance (ANP). Previously, flight crews would be notified of

the system being used to calculate the position (radios, or inertial systems alone). Because of the deterministic

nature of the GPS satellites (constellation geometry), the navigation systems can calculate the worst case error based

on the number of satellites tuned and the geometry of those satellites. (Note: it can also characterize the potential

errors in other navigation modes as well). So, the improvement not only provides the airplane with a much more

accurate position, it also provides an alert to the flight crew should the actual navigation performance exceed the

required navigation performance (RNP).

[ edit ]Surveillance imp ro vement s

This involves the transition from voice reports (based on inertial position) to automatic digital reports. The

application is known as ADS-C (Automatic Dependent Surveillance - Contract). In this system, an Air Traffic

Controller can set up a contract with the airplane navigational system to automatically send a position report on a

specified periodic basis (such as every 5 minutes). The controller can also set up deviation contracts which would

automatically send a position report if a certain lateral deviation was exceeded. This contracts are set up between

ATC and the aircraft systems. The flight crew has no workload associated with this set up.

FANS p ro cedural co nt ro l

The improvements to CNS allow new procedures which reduce the separation standards for FANS controlled
airspace. In the South Pacific, they are targeting 30/30 (this is 30 nmi (56 km) lateral and 30 nmi (56 km) in trail).
This makes a huge difference in airspace capacity

37. What is RNP? Required equipment for RNP-5,2,1.Why is the instrumentation for
RNP-10 more complex than RNP-5?

Ans: Discussed earlier.

38. ETOPS: What is the difference between adequate airport and suitable airport?

Ans: All airports enroute a particular route which can support you A/ c Ops , have atleast 1 inst
Appch or Surface based radar , Misc facilities like fuel and first aid as well as Wx reporting are
adequate airports . The Airport which you will consider at the time of flight planning your plan
(most suitable at that time) is a suitable airport.

39. What is MORA? How is MORAcalculated?

Ans: Assures obstacle clearance 10nm either side of a published airway. Again good refer to
airway manual for clarification.

40. What is mountainous areas and Hilly Areas?

Ans: Height and length of the features. Airway manual.

41. Questions on lighting in TVASI, Pulsating VASI

Ans: Airway Manual.

42. ILS error

Ans: Critical area, Sensitive Area , Scalloping , Heavy Rain and Ice can degrade signals.

43. How do you carry out a CANPAapproach if FAF is not published? How is theFAF
crossing height calculated?
Ans: Canpa CAR.

44. How is the height of cloud base calculated using weather radar?

Ans: Use formulae 1/ 2Ant Dia+BW ..multiply Ans into Range *Ans*100 , subtract from A/ c Ht.

45. Frequency of operation, working of weather radar?

Ans: Cosecant Beam principle. Fan and conical beams. Measures largest water droplets and
wet Hail.

46. In NDB chart for Runway 07 chennai, visibility minima for cat c and cat d aircraft
is published as 3400 and 5000 m respectively. If prevailing visibility is3400 m, can
the approach be carried out for a cat b category aircraft?

Ans: Chart Specific.

47. VOR interception angles while going outbound and inbound to a station

Ans: Depends on Published procedure , Radial approaching and Cat of Aircraft.

48. Working of GPS35.Questions on WAAS and LAAS36.Questions on type of FMS

aboard the aircraft you fly

Ans: GPS

Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based satellite navigation system that provides location and time
information in all weather, anywhere on or near the Earth, where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or
more GPS satellites. It is maintained by the United States government and is freely accessible by anyone with a GPS
receiver with some technical limitations[clarificatio n needed ] which are only removed for authorized users.

The GPS program provides critical capabilities to military, civil and commercial users around the world. It is an
engine of economic growth and jobs, and has generated billions of dollars of economic activity. In addition, GPS is
the backbone for modernizing the global air traffic system.

The GPS project was developed in 1973 to overcome the limitations of previous navigation systems, [1 ] integrating
ideas from several predecessors, including a number of classified engineering design studies from the 1960s. GPS
was created and realized by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) and was originally run with 24 satellites. It
became fully operational in 1994. Now there are 29 (Plus Four Spare Satellites) in orbit... as in 2010..

Basic concept of GPS

A GPS receiver calculates its position by precisely timing the signals sent by GPS satellites high above the Earth.
Each satellite continually transmits messages that include

· the time the message was transmitted

· precise orbital information (the ephemeris)
 · the general system health and rough orbits of all GPS satellites (the almanac).

The receiver uses the messages it receives to determine the transit time of each message and computes the distance
to each satellite. These distances along with the satellites' locations are used with the possible aid of trilateration,
depending on which algorithm is used, to compute the position of the receiver. This position is then displayed,
perhaps with a moving map display or latitude and longitude; elevation information may be included. Many GPS
units show derived information such as direction and speed, calculated from position changes.

Three satellites might seem enough to solve for position since space has three dimensions and a position near the
Earth's surface can be assumed. However, even a very small clock error multiplied by the very large speed of light[36]
— the speed at which satellite signals propagate — results in a large positional error. Therefore receivers use four
or more satellites to solve for both the receiver's location and time. The very accurately computed time is effectively
hidden by most GPS applications, which use only the location. A few specialized GPS applications do however use
the time; these include time transfer, traffic signal timing, and synchronization of cell phone base stations.

Although four satellites are required for normal operation, fewer apply in special cases. If one variable is already
known, a receiver can determine its position using only three satellites. For example, a ship or aircraft may have
known elevation. Some GPS receivers may use additional clues or assumptions (such as reusing the last known
altitude, dead reckoning, inertial navigation, or including information from the vehicle computer) to give a less
accurate (degraded) position when fewer than four satellites are visible.[37 ][38 ]

The current GPS consists of three major segments. These are the space segment (SS), a control segment (CS), and a
user segment (US).[42 ] The U.S. Air Force develops, maintains, and operates the space and control segments. GPS
satellites broadcast signals from space, and each GPS receiver uses these signals to calculate its three-dimensional
location (latitude, longitude, and altitude) and the current time.[43]

The space segment is composed of 24 to 32 satellites in medium Earth orbit and also includes the payload adapters
to the boosters required to launch them into orbit. The control segment is composed of a master control station, an
alternate master control station, and a host of dedicated and shared ground antennas and monitor stations. The user
segment is composed of hundreds of thousands of U.S. and allied military users of the secure GPS Precise
Positioning Service, and tens of millions of civil, commercial, and scientific users of the Standard Positioning
Service (see GPS navigation devices).

Augment at io n

Integrating external information into the calculation process can materially improve accuracy. Such augmentation
systems are generally named or described based on how the information arrives. Some systems transmit additional
error information (such as clock drift, ephemera, or ionospheric delay), others characterize prior errors, while a third
group provides additional navigational or vehicle information.

Examples of augmentation systems include the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS), European Geostationary
Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS), Differential GPS, Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) and Assisted GPS.

Frequency L1 1575.42 MHz transmits C/A (Course Acquisition) Code and P Code. Frequency L2 1227.6 MHz
transmits only P Code. The accuracy in Standard Positioning Service using C/A code is 15 mtrs and in Precise
Positoning Service using P code is 3 mtrs only.

R AIM

R eceiver Autonomous Int egr ity M onitor ing (R AIM) is a technology developed to assess the integrity of Global
Positioning System (GPS) signals in a GPS receiver system. It is of special importance in safety-critical GPS
applications, such as in aviation or marine navigation. Traditional RAIM uses fault detection (FD) only, however
newer GPS receivers incorporate Fault Detection and Exclusion (FDE) which enables them to continue to operate in
the presence of a GPS failure.

Because RAIM operates autonomously, that is without the assistance of external signals, it requires redundant
pseudorange measurements. To obtain a 3D position solution, at least 4 measurements are required. To detect a fault,
at least 5 measurements are required, and to isolate and exclude a fault, at least 6 measurements are required,
however often more measurements are needed depending on the satellite geometry. Typically there are 7 to 12
satellites in view.

Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) provides integrity monitoring of GPS for aviation applications.
In order for a GPS receiver to perform RAIM or Fault Detection (FD) function, a minimum of five visible satellites
with satisfactory geometry must be visible to it. RAIM has various kind of implementations; one of them performs
consistency checks between all position solutions obtained with various subsets of the visible satellites. The receiver
provides an alert to the pilot if the consistency checks fail. RAIM availability is an important issue when using such
kind of algorithm in safety-critical applications (as the aeronautical ones); in fact, because of geometry and satellite
service maintenance, RAIM is not always available at all, meaning that the receiver's antenna could have sometimes
less than five satellites in view. Availability is also a performance indicator of the RAIM algorithm. Availability is a
function of the geometry of the constellation which is in view and of other environmental conditions. If availability
is seen in this way it is clear that it is not an on–off feature meaning that the algorithm could be available but not
with the required performance of detecting a failure when it happens. So availability is a performance factor of the
algorithm and characterizes each one of the different kinds of RAIM algorithms and methodologies.

Fault det ect io n and exclusio n

An enhanced version of RAIM employed in some receivers is known as Fault Detection and Exclusion (FDE). It
uses a minimum of 6 satellites to not only detect a possible faulty satellite, but to exclude it from the navigation
solution so the navigation function can continue without interruption. The goal of fault detection is to detect the
presence of a positioning failure. Upon detection, proper fault exclusion determines and excludes the source of the
failure (without necessarily identifying the individual source causing the problem), thereby allowing GNSS
navigation to continue without interruption. Availability of RAIM and FDE will be slightly lower for mid-latitude
operations and slightly higher for equatorial and high latitude regions due to the nature of the orbits. The use of
satellites from multiple GNSS constellations or the use of SBAS satellites as additional ranging sources can improve
the availability of RAIM and FDE.

Local Area Augmentation System

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
LAAS Architecture

The Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS) is an all-weather aircraft landing system based on real-time
differential correction of the GPS signal. Local reference receivers located around the airport send data to a
central location at the airport. This data is used to formulate a correction message, which is then transmitted to
users via a VHF Data Link. A receiver on an aircraft uses this information to correct GPS signals, which then
provides a standard ILS-style display to use while flying a precision approach. The International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) calls this type of system a Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS).

[edit] History

The Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS) is designed to correct some of the errors inherent to GPS. One
problem is the lack of a real-time, rapid-response monitoring system. Category I equipment will normally alert
the user of the problem within ten seconds of detecting a problem. GPS has no such rapid-warning system. For
example, if a satellite develops a clock problem, there is no way to rapidly warn the user not to use that
satellite. WAAS, LAAS and other differential solutions fix this problem and provide GPS system integrity.
Another problem is positional accuracy. Sources of error such as satellite clock drift or ionospheric delays can
introduce several meters of error in an aircraft's position. These errors must be corrected in real time for a
precision approach where there is little or no visibility.
Honeywell has developed a Non-Federal CAT-1 LAAS which received System Design Approval (SDA) from the
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in September 2009[1] Current proposed installations include: airports in
Newark, NJ; Memphis, TN; Atlantic City, NJ; and Olathe, KS. [1]

[edit] Operation

Local reference receivers are located around an airport at precisely surveyed locations. The signal received
from the GPS constellation is used to calculate the position of the LAAS ground station, which is then
compared to its precisely surveyed position. This data is used to formulate a correction message which is
transmitted to users via a VHF data link. A receiver on the aircraft uses this information to correct the GPS
signals it receives. This information is used to create an ILS-type display for aircraft approach and landing
purposes. Honeywell’
s CAT I system provides precision approach service within a radius of 23 NM surrounding
a single airport. LAAS mitigates GPS threats in the Local Area to a much greater accuracy than WAAS and
therefore provides a higher level of service not attainable by WAAS. LAAS's VHF uplink signal is currently
slated to share the frequency band from 108 MHz to 118 MHz with existing ILS localizer and VOR navigational
aids. LAAS utilizes a Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) technology in servicing the entire airport with a
single frequency allocation. With future replacement of ILS, LAAS will reduce the congested VHF NAV band.

[edit] Accuracy

The current Non-Fed LAAS is capable of achieving a Category I ILS accuracy of 16 m laterally and 4 m
vertically.[citation needed] The goal of the LAAS program is to provide Category III ILS capability. The minimum
accuracy for lateral and vertical errors of a Category III system are specified in RTCA DO-245A, Minimum
Aviation System Performance Standards for Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS). Category III GBAS will
allow aircraft to land with zero visibility utilizing 'autoland' systems.

[edit] Benefits

One of the primary benefits of LAAS is that a single installation at a major airport can be used for multiple
precision approaches within the local area. For example, if Chicago O'Hare has 12 runway ends each with a
separate ILS, all 12 ILS facilities can be replaced with a single LAAS system. This represents a significant cost
savings in maintenance and upkeep of the existing ILS equipment.

Another benefit is the potential for approaches that are not straight- in. Aircraft equipped with LAAS technology
can utilize curved or complex approaches such that they could be flown on to avoid obstacles or to decrease
noise levels in areas surrounding an airport.

The FAA also contends that only a single set of navigational equipment will be needed on an aircraft for both
LAAS and WAAS capability. This lowers initial cost and maintenance per aircraft since only one receiver is
required instead of multiple receivers for NDB's, DME, VOR, ILS, MLS and GPS. The FAA hopes this will result
in decreased cost to the airlines and passengers as well as general aviation.
 [edit] Drawbacks

LAAS shares in some of the same threats as all RF based landing systems; that being unintentional jamming,
signal degredation due to multipath causing loss of accuracy or signal fading.

In order to mitigate these problems, the resulting national system will likely have LAAS capability at major
airports, WAAS capability for the rest of North America with a limited amount of conventional navaids as a
national backup.

Wide Area Augmentation System

From Wikip edia, the free encyclop edia

"WAAS" redirects here. For other uses of the acronym "WAAS", see WAAS (disambiguation).

The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is an air navigation aid developed by the Federal
Aviation Administration to augment the Global Positioning System (GPS),with the goal of improving its
accuracy, integrity, and availability. Essentially, WAAS is intended to enable aircraft to rely on GPS for
all phases of flight, including precision approaches to any airport within its coverage area.[1 ]

WAAS uses a network of ground-based reference stations, in North America and Hawaii, to measure
small variations in the GPS satellites' signals in the western hemisphere. Measurements from the
reference stations are routed to master stations, which queue the received Deviation Correction (DC)
and send the correction messages to geostationary WAAS satellites in a timely manner (every 5 FAA WAAS logo
seconds or better). Those satellites broadcast the correction messages back to Earth, where WAAS-
enabled GPS receivers use the corrections while computing their positions to improve accuracy.

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) calls this type of system a satellite-based
augmentation system (SBAS). Europe and Asia are developing their own SBASs, the Indian GPS
Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN), the European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service
(EGNOS) and the Japanese Multi-functional Satellite Augmentation System (MSAS), respectively.
Commercial systems include StarFireand OmniSTAR.

[edit] WAAS objectives

WAAS system overview

Typical WAAS service area. Dark red indicates best WAAS coverage. The service contours change over time with satellite geometry and ionospheric conditions.
[edit] Accuracy

The WAAS specification requires it to provide a position accuracy of 7.6 metres (25 ft) or better (for both lateral and vertical measurements), at least 95% of the
time. [2] Actual performance measurements of the system at specific locations have shown it typically provides better than 1.0 metre (3 ft 3 in) laterally and 1.5
metres (4 ft 11 in) vertically throughout most of the contiguous United States and large parts of Canada andAlaska. [3] With these results, WAAS is capable of
achieving the required Category I precision approach accuracy of 16 metres (52 ft) laterally and 4.0 metres (13.1 ft) vertically. [ 4]

[edit] Integrity

Integrity of a navigation system includes the ability to provide timely warnings when its signal is providing misleading data that could potentially create hazards. The
WAAS specification requires the system detect errors in the GPS or WAAS network and notify users within 6.2 seconds. [2] Certifying that WAAS is safe for
instrument flight rules (IFR) (i.e. flying blind) requires proving there is only an extremely small probability that an error exceeding the requirements for accuracy will
go undetected. Specifically, the probability is stated as 1×10−7, and is equivalent to no more than 3 seconds of bad data per year. This provides integrity information
equivalent to or better than Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM).[ 5]

[edit] Availability

Availability is the probability that a navigation system meets the accuracy and integrity requirements. Before the advent of WAAS, GPS could be unavailable for up
to a total time of four days per year.[cit at ion needed ] The WAAS specification mandates availability as 99.999% (five nines) throughout the service area, equivalent to a
downtime of just over 5 minutes per year.[2] [5]

[edit] Operation

WAAS referen ce station in Barrow , Alaska

As with GPS in general, WAAS is composed of three main segments: the Ground segment, Space segment, and User segment.

[edit] Ground segment

The ground segment is composed of multiple Wide-area Reference Stations (WRS). These precisely surveyed ground stations monitor and collect information on
the GPS signals, then send their data to three Wide-area Master Stations (WMS) using a terrestrial communications network. The reference stations also monitor
signals from WAAS geostationary satellites, providing integrity information regarding them as well. As of October 2007 there were 38 WRSs: twenty in the
contiguous United States (CONUS), seven in Alaska, one in Hawaii, one in Puerto Rico, five in Mexico, and four in Canada.[ 6][ 7][ 8][ 9]

Using the data from the WRS sites, the WMSs generate two different sets of corrections: fast and slow. The fast corrections are for errors which are changing
rapidly and primarilyconcern the GPS satellites' instantaneous positions and clock errors. These corrections are considered user position-independent, which
means they can be applied instantly by any receiver inside the WAAS broadcast footprint. The slow corrections include long-term ephemeric and clock error
estimates, as well as ionospheric delay information. WAAS supplies delay corrections for a number of points (organized in a grid pattern) across the WAAS service
area[ 1] (see User Segment, below, to understand how these corrections are used).

Once these correction messages are generated, the WMSs send them to two pairs of Ground Uplink Stations (GUS), which then transmit to satellites in the Space
segment for rebroadcast to the User segment.[ 10]

[edit] List of reference stations

Each FAA Air Route Traffic Control Center in the 50 states has a WAAS reference station, except for Indianapolis. There are also stations positioned in Canada,
Mexico and Puerto Rico. [1] Listed below are the coordinates of the site centroids in North America (see List of WAAS reference stations for the coordinates of
individual receiving antennas).[11]
[edit] Space segment

Current WAAS satellite signal footprint

The space segment consists of multiple geosynchronous communication satellites which broadcast the correction messages generated by the WAAS Master
Stations for reception by the user segment. The satellites also broadcast the same type of range information as normal GPS satellites, effectively increasing the
number of satellites available for a position fix. The space segment consists of three commercial satellites:Inmarsat-4 F3, Telesat's Anik F1R, and Intelsat's Galaxy
15. [12]

The original two WAAS satellites, named Pacific Ocean Region (POR) and Atlantic Ocean Region-West (AOR-W), were leased space onInmarsat III satellites.
These satellites ceased WAAS transmissions on July 31, 2007. With the end of the Inmarsat lease approaching, two new satellites (Galaxy 15 and Anik F1R) were
launched in late 2005. Galaxy 15 is a PanAmSat, and Anik F1R is a Telesat. As with the previous satellites, these are leased services under the FAA's
Geostationary Satellite Communications Control Segment contract withLockheed Martin for WAAS geostationary satellite leased services, who is contracted to
provide up to three satellites through the year 2016. [13] A third satellite was later added to the system. From March to November 2010, the FAA broadcast a WAAS
test signal on a leased transponder on the Inmarsat-4 F3 satellite. [14] The test signal was not usable for navigation, but could be received and was reported with the
identification numbers PRN 133 (NMEA #46). In November 2010, the signal was certified as operational and made available for navigation.[15]

The Galaxy 15 satellite ceased responding to control commands between April 5, 2010, when solar activity damaged the spacecraft’ s communication package, and
December 23, 2010, when its battery drained and the Baseband Equipment command unit reset. [16] During this time, the satellite drifted from its original location of
133 degrees west to 93 degrees west, but the WAAS signal continued to be broadcast until December 16, 2010. Since Inmarsat-4 F3 is to the east of Anik F1R,
this left 16 airports in Northwest Alaska experiencing temporary service outages four to five times a month due to lack of redundant WAAS signals.[17] By January
2011, Intelsat expected to be able to return the Galaxy 15 satellite to its original location by early March 2011.[1 8] As of 3:24 p.m. U.S. Eastern Time on March 18,
2011, Galaxy 15 was once again transmitting WAAS signals from 120 degrees west, moving west at 0.8 degrees longitude per day, and expected to arrive at its
assigned geostationary orbit at 133.1 degrees west on April 4, 2011.[ 12]
 PR NME Locatio
Satellite Name & Detail s
N A n

Inmarsat 4F3 133 46 98°W

Galaxy 15 135 48 133°W

Anik F1R 138 51 107.3°W

Pacific Ocean Region (POR)

Ceased WAAS 134 47 178°E
transmissions

Atlantic Ocean Region-West

Ceased WAAS 122 35 142°W
transmissions

In the table above, PRN is the satellite's actual Pseudo-Random Number code. NMEA is the satellite number sent by some receivers when outputting satellite
information. ( NMEA = PRN - 87 ).

[edit] User segment

The user segment is the GPS and WAAS receiver, which uses the information broadcast from each GPS satellite to determine its location and the current time,
and receives the WAAS corrections from the Space segment. The two types of correction messages received (fast and slow) are used in different ways.

The GPS receiver can immediately apply the fast type of correction data, which includes the corrected satellite position and clock data, and determines its current
location using normal GPS calculations. Once an approximate position fix is obtained the receiver beginsto use the slow corrections to improve its accuracy.
Among the slow correction data is the ionospheric delay. As the GPS signal travels from the satellite to the receiver, it passes through the ionosphere. The receiver
calculates the location where the signal pierced the ionosphere and, if it has received an ionospheric delay value for that location, corrects for the error the
ionosphere created.

While the slow data can be updated every minute if necessary, ephemeris errors and ionosphere errors do not change this frequently, so they are only updated
every two minutes and are considered valid for up to six minutes. [19]

[edit] History and development

This article needs addition al citati ons for verificatio n . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources.
Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2006)

The WAAS was jointly developed by the United States Department of Transportation (DOT) and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) as part of the Federal
Radionavigation Program (DOT-VNTSC-RSPA-95-1/DOD-4650.5), beginning in 1994, to provide performance comparable to category 1 instrument landing system
(ILS) for all aircraft possessing the appropriately certified equipment. [1] Without WAAS, ionospheric disturbances, clock drift, and satellite orbit errors create too
much error and uncertainty in the GPS signal to meet the requirements for a precision approach (See GPS sources of error). A precision approach includes altitude
information and provides course guidance, distance from the runway, and elevation information at all points along the approach, usually down to lower altitudes
and weather minimums than non-precision approaches.

Prior to the WAAS, the U.S. National Airspace System (NAS) did not have the ability to provide lateral and vertical navigation for precision approaches for all users
at all locations. The traditional system for precision approaches is the instrument landing system (ILS), which used a series of radio transmitters each broadcasting
a single signal to the aircraft. This complex series of radios needs to be installed at every runway end, some offsite, along a line extended from the runway
centerline, making the implementation of a precision approach both difficult and very expensive.

For some time the FAA and NASA developed a much improved system, the microwave landing system (MLS). The entire MLS system for a particular approach
was isolated in one or two boxes located beside the runway, dramatically reducing the cost of implementation. MLS also offered a number of practical advantages
that eased traffic considerations, both for aircraft and radio channels. Unfortunately, MLS would also require every airport and aircraft to upgrade their equipment.
During the development of MLS, consumer GPS receivers of various quality started appearing. GPS offered a huge number of advantages to the pilot, combining
all of an aircraft's long-distance navigation systems into a single easy-to-use system, often small enough to be hand held. Deploying an aircraft navigation system
based on GPS was largely a problem of developing new techniques and standards, as opposed to new equipment. The FAA started planning to shut down their
existing long-distance systems (VOR and NDBs) in favor of GPS. This left the problem of approaches, however. GPS is simply not accurate enough to replace ILS
systems. Typical accuracy is about 15 metres (49 ft), whereas even a "CAT I" approach, the least demanding, requires a vertical accuracy of 4 metres (13 ft).

This inaccuracy in GPS is mostly due to large "billows" in the ionosphere, which slow the radio signal from the satellites by a randomamount. Since GPS relies on
timing the signals to measure distances, this slowing of the signal makes the satellite appear farther away. The billows move slowly, and can be characterized
using a variety of methods from the ground, or by examining the GPS signals themselves. By broadcasting this information to GPS receivers every minute or so,
this source of error can be significantly reduced.

This led to the concept of Differential GPS, which used separate radio systems to broadcast the correction signal to receivers. Aircraft could then install a receiver
which would be plugged into the GPS unit, the signal being broadcast on a variety of frequencies for different users (FM radio for cars, longwave for ships, etc.).
Unfortunately broadcasters of the required power generally cluster around larger cities, making such DGPS systems less useful for wide-area navigation.
Additionally, most radio signals are either line-of-sight, or can be distorted by the ground, which made DGPS difficult to use as a precision approach system or
when flying low for other reasons.

The FAA considered systems that could allow the same correction signals to be broadcast over a much wider area, such as from a satellite, leading directly to
WAAS. Since a GPS unit already consists of a satellite receiver, it made much more sense to send out the correction signals on the same frequencies used by
GPS units, than to use an entirely separate system and thereby double the probability of failure. In addition to lowering implementation costs by "piggybacking" on
a planned satellite launch, this also allowed the signal to be broadcast from geostationary orbit, which meant a small number of satellites could cover all of North
America.

On July 10, 2003, the WAAS signal was activated for general aviation, covering 95% of the United States, and portions of Alaska offering 350 feet (110 m)
minimums.

On January 17, 2008, Alabama-based Hickok & Associates became the first designer of helicopter WAAS with LP and LPV approaches, and the only entity with
FAA-approved criteria (which even FAA has yet to develop).[20] [ 21][ 22] This helicopter WAAS criteria offers as low as 250 foot minimums and decreased visibility
requirements to enable missions previously not possible. On April 1, 2009, FAA AFS-400 approved the first three helicopter WAAS GPS approach procedures for
Hickok & Associates' customer California Shock/Trauma Air Rescue (CALSTAR). Since then they have designed many approved WAAS helicopter approaches for
various EMS hospitals and air providers, within the United States as well as in other countries and continents.

On December 30, 2009, Seattle-based Horizon Air flew the first scheduled-passenger service flight[ 23] using WAAS with LPV (localizer performance with vertical
guidance) on flight 2014, a Portland to Seattle flight operated by a Bombardier Q400 with a WAAS FMS from Universal Avionics. The airline, in partnership with the
FAA, will outfit seven Q400-aircraft with WAAS and share flight data to better determine the suitability.

49. How do you navigate to the north pole?

Ans: (the answer examiners are looking for is grid Navigation & Why Grid Navigation?)

50. In Chennai, what is the direction of the runway slope? (the whole idea is
supposedly to check if you are familiar with the aerodrome you operate out of)

Ans: Place specific.

51. Why is circle to land operations not allowed south of RWY27 in Mumbai?

Ans: Important to understand the salient actions of circle to land . Positive Vis contact with
terrain, complete stabilized downwind abeam to Rwy of intended landing , GPWS will be
inhibited , Speed control , Safe zone depending on cat of aircraft ,& Missed Appch Proc and
actions.

52. If the wavelength is 2 cm, what is the frequency?

Ans: 3*1000000/ WL Hz

53. Primary radar v/ s secondary radar.

Ans: Basics . Primary Rdr is like a game of Squash and Secondary is Like Tennis. Once you can
explain the basics one can go into depth as in Freq , Transponders , Interrogators’etc..

54. Working of weather radar. Why Cosecant Beam ?

Ans: Transmission power increases with range and ability to search a wider area without
degrading quality of received signals.

55. How is cloud height calculated using weather radar?

Ans: Exp earlier .

56. Frequency band of SHF.

Ans 3-30 Ghz

57. What is a BFO?

Ans : for Non A1A NDB Txn the onboard ADF has to have a BFO to Tune , ID and Monitor the
Txn.
58. Construction of various Instruments like ASI, IVSI, Mack Meter, etc

Ans: Oxford Radio Manual .

59. Fail Passive and Fail OperationalApp.

Ans: Passive- Autopilot fail then manual appch can be executed. In FailOps when AP fails then
secondary autopilot will auto take over and carry out auto land.

60. Difference between tcas i and tcas ii. What type is on you’
re a/ c. also what version
of TCAS used TCAS 7.0? What is TCAS 3 likely to achieve ?

Ans: TCAS1- Dist 30mn and no RA . TCAS 2 –40nm with RA in the vert plane only. TCAS3 –lik
ely to have RA in horizontal plane as well.

61. What is TAU in terms of TCAS

Ans: The estimated time in wich a intruder aircraft becomes a thread is called TAU.
There is a different TAU value for TA as there is for RA because the RA range is
Smaller.TCAS primarily uses time-to-go to CPA rather than distance to determine when a TA
or an RA should be issued. The time to CPA is called the range tau and the time
to co-altitude is called the verticaltau. Tau is an approximation of the time, in
seconds, to CPA or to the aircraft being at the same altitude. CPA (Closest Point of
Approach)

62. What is TAWS, FANS?

Ans: Covered earlier.

63.Where is the EGT sensor located…. As in have u ever

physically seen it ?

Ans: At the HP outlet . Depends on aircraft . Never seen it on Jets but have seen on piston engi
nes.

64. How does GPS give positions information?

Ans: L1 & L2 signals , Sat Txn positions , the signal recd by Gd receiver is Psuedo range as it
has yet to be corrected for errors . The receiver then re cals the signal and gives correct
range.

65. Difference between Predicted Wind shear (PWS) and Reactive Wind shear which
one is given by weather radar and which one by EGPWS?

Ans : EGPWS will give predictive windshear.

66. Projections and Charts (Practicalusage)

s choice to have fun J

Ans : Examiner’

67. NDB & VOR Errors (Why??)

Ans: Discussed earlier. Primarily Freq Bands hence errors , Type of propogation and
associated errors.

68. Radio Wave Basics and Polarization of waves . Electronics and Electrical ??

Ans: Plane of polarization is the plane of the electrical component of of the signal. If RW only
carrying energy to power a appliance then it is electrical but when carrying information is
called intelligence and powers electronics.

69. Altimeters (Types with differences)

Ans: Baro Alt , Sensitive Alt (Has Bi-Metallic Leaf to reduce friction) , Servo Altimeters(has
elctro Mag Pickoff’s)

70. VSI & IVSI.

Ans: Oxford for specifics but by n large a IVSI is a VSI with accelerometers and gets precise st
at Pr info through ADC.

80. ADC ( What does it do?)

Ans : a computer that gets inputs of St Pr , Pitot Pr , TAT and computes it in conjunction with
info from IRS to give multiple data (very minimal erros) to multiple instrument and displays.

81. ASI ( Practical usage of IAS,CAS,EAS,TAS & Mach No)

Ans : Ice Tea …IAS corrected for position and instrument error will give CAS/ RAS which
further corrected for compressibility will give EAS which further corrected for density will give
TAS. Mach is ratio of TAS by LSS . Used due to very large errors in Stat errors at high alt .
prevent A/ c from exceeding Mach Crit.

82. Mach Crit and its importance.

Ans: Speed in Mach where the shock induced by the oncoming air over the wings renders all
controls ineffective.

83. Flying in Icing conditions (Basics to be borne in mind)

Ans: Practical consideration in terms of Types of icing , when to look out for Icing , De-Icing
(always refer to checklist/ AFM for procedure) , T/ O & Landing considerations etc.

84. Wet Runway Operations .

Ans : Contaminated , Wet , Damp Rwy –TR,Wind shield wipers and Anti Skid importance.
Aquaplaning speed 9*Underroot of Tyre Pr. Pilot should refer to AFM for manual data
calculation .

85. VOR Holds , Basics.

Ans: Type of entry , standard and non standard holds , Leg length , Equipment required (DME,
VOR,NDB , Clock)

86. GAGAN, Galelio and new WAAS technologies.

Ans: Explained earlier.

87. HF Communication.

Ans : Freq Band , Crtical angle , Dead space , Skip distance , Errors, Selcal : Ref Oxford

88. ADS-C , ADS-B .

Ans : Exp earlier.

89. Procedures for opening Jepp Enroute Charts ?

Ans: Start by ref the comn section first to id the stn u r looking for and follow the instructions.

90. Basic understanding of Jet Engines .

Ans: Wikipedia.

91. Propellers.

Ans: It is a wing .When driven through air it creates a pr diff as a result causing the high pr on
the outer surface to push towards the inner surface thereby causing forward propulsion.
Feathering and fixed pitch are two different types of common props. Both achieve different
performance for different parameters ie Weight , Speed , Air density etc. Unlike Jets the RPM
of a prop engine controls climb and desend where as in a Jet it’ s the attitude of the aircraft.

92. Fly by Wire Technology ?

Ans: Manual inputs are converted digitially through a computer and are electrically sent to a
Servo which then moves the controls.

93. Auto Throttles , How do they function ?

Ans: Throttles basically give manualinputs which are relayed electrically through
potentiometers to the FADEC which further applies the signals to increase or decrease the
supply of fuel to the engine. The FADEC along with DEEC prevents any chance of the engine
overspeeding at any point of time .

94. Practical Situations to roughly calculate decent plan in Flight.

Ans: Thumb rules and airport awareness.

95. Practical Fuel Planning.

Ans: DGCA reqmnts and NBAAreqmnts..Pilot practical thought process.

96. Command decisions by PICprior to diverting or carrying out contingency actions in flight.

Ans: To assess command capability of a prospective commander.

97. Circle to Land Ops ( Do’

s &Don’
t’
s ) , Incl Missed Appch Procedure . CFIT.

Ans: Discussed earlier.

98. FAF & Maltese cross ( relationship)

Ans: Maltese cross indicates the glide slope intercept height above ground. FAF may not be at
the same point as the cross. FAF implies that a A/ C will commence desent over this point and
upto its DA/ MDA.
99. Approach Chart Briefing ( Should be methodical and Systematic )

100. CRM.

101. INS & IRS ( Basics / Properties/ Limitations)

Ans: Oxford Manual . Ring Laser Gyro’

s included.

102. Compass ( Effect of Lighting Strike in Air? )

Ans : Blue Pole and Red Pole , Deviation calculation , Co-Eff A,B&C. Cpmass swing carried out
when –Lightning strike , large change in Lat of ops for 30 days , aircraft on ground for
prolonged time , hammering or repairs of elctricals etc.

103. Lost Comn Procedures , Where will you find it ?

Ans: Jepp Charts –Airport briefing and Radar Comn Page.

104. Jepp Airway manual –

a. Sun set and Sun rise

b. Definitions and Legends

c. ICAO procedures

d. Airport Information.

105. Emergency Equipment on board the aircraft? How will you use a Fire Axe?

106. Types of Fire and Types of Extinguishers?

107. Basics on Aviation medicine.

108 . Width of a Airway and Width of a Track ?

Ans: Track width is 0 . its just a line between two points. Airways are RNP specific.

109. Aquaplaning.

110. SLOP and Offsets ( in RNP and RNAV environments)

Ans 0.1,2 nm lateral offset.No ATCclearance required . Good to broadcast intention on 123.45.
Helps avoid wake of A/ c in front and above as well as incase of emergency contingencies.
Pilot should remember to correct SLOP prior to TOD.

111. MNPS basics .

Ans: M NPS
M NPS is Minimum Navigation Performance Specification. This defines the navigation systems that are required on
aircraft flying in MNPS airspace, e.g. The North Atlantic.

The concept of Minimum Navigation Performance Specification(MNPS) was introduced on a world wide basis in
1977 after establishing criteria for MNPS in the North Atlantic Air Navigation Meeting. The objective of MNPS
Airspace is to enable operators to derive maximum economic benefit from the improvement in the capabilities of
latest navigation equipment while ensuring safety of operations.

NAT MNPS (North Atlantic Minimum Navigation Performance Specification)

The vertical dimensions of the MNPSA is between FL 285 and FL 420 (i.e. in terms of normally used cruising
levels from FL 290 to FL 410 inclusive)

The lateral dimension include the following control areas:

REYKJAVIK(to the North Pole)

SHANWICK AND GANDER OCEANIC

SANTA MARIA OCEANIC North of 27 degree N

NEW YORK OCEANIC North of 27 degrees N but excluding the area West of 60 degrees W and south of 38
degrees 30 minutes N

1. AIR CR AFT SYSTEM /EQUIPMENT R EQUIR EM ENTS FOR M NPS:

1.1 In order to consider each aircraft for DGCA approval for unrestricted operation in the MNPSA, an
aircraft shall be equipped with the following types of Long Range Navigation System (LRNS).
1.2
a) Two Inertial Navigation Systems (INS)
or

Two navigation systems using the inputs from one or more Inertial Reference Systems (IRS) or any
sensor system complying with MNPS

b) Each LRNS must be capable of providing a continuous indication to the flight crew of the aircraft
position relative to track
c) It is essential that the navigation system employed for the provision of steering guidance is capable
of being coupled to the auto-pilot.
Note: Current Inertial Navigation Systems have demonstrated the capability of meeting NAT MNPS.
Dual Navigation Systems which have been installed, operated and maintained in accordance
with Appendix C of FAR 121 or JAR specifications or any other specifications acceptable to
DGCA can be approved for operation in NAT MNPS airspace.

d) In case RVSM operations are required to be conducted in MNPS airspace, the following
additional equipment shall also be installed.
i) Two fully serviceable independent primary altitude measurement systems;
ii) One automatic altitude-control system; ( accuracy upto 50 feet)..
iii) One altitude-alerting device; and
iv) A functioning Mode-C SSR Transponder.
e) Carriage of standby navigation equipment shall be governed by ICAO Annex 6 Part I and Part II -
Chapter 7
 f) Any other equipment which meets MNPSA accuracy criteria and is acceptable to DGCA may be
installed.

2. OPER ATIONAL R EQUIR EM ENT :

2.1 Each operator shall develop MNPSA operational procedures. The crew training guidance information
may be taken from the North Atlantic MNPS Airspace Operations Manual published by UK National
Air Traffic Services.
2.2 The operating crew shall be adequately trained and kept proficient for operation of aircraft in MNPS
airspace and shall be fully aware of the procedures to be followed. During operations in MNPS airspace if
there is any failure, the pilot shall inform the concerned ATC immediately and comply with their
instructions.
2.3 Each operator shall have a system of evaluation and recording Inertial Navigation System radial errors and
ensure that such defects when reported are duly rectified.
3. M AINTENANCE R EQUIR EM ENTS :
3.1 All equipment/systems as mentioned in paragraph 4 shall be maintained in accordance with the
manufacturers approved maintenance program.
3.2 Aircraft Maintenance Engineers(AME) shall scrutinize the Flight Reports for pilot reported Inertial
Navigation System radial errors or failures and ensure that such defects are promptly rectified.
4. M INIM UM EQUIPM ENT LIST (M EL)
Each operator shall reflect requirements of minimum navigation systems for MNPSA as indicated in para 4
above in their MEL.

112. Jeppessen Legends , where to find them ?

Ans: Airway Manual

113. Documentation on board before flight on VT Regd Aircrafts ?

Ans: DGCA CAR

114. Aircraft Accident / Incident Reporting ?

Ans: Accident within 24 hrs and Incident within 72hrs .

115. Position Reports Demo .

Ans : Mumai Radio –VT ARR –Postion ABC –At time XYZ –FL410 –Mach .82- DEF at time
123 , GHI Next.

116. CPDLC n Datalink.

Ans : Explained earlier.

117. Can a RNP1 Aircraft fly RNP 10 if Yes Why and if No Why ?

Ans . Yes and No ..Depends on Equipment on board the aircraft to maintain the lateral
performance required .