Mechanical Properties

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
• Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent
deformation occur? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
• Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?

1
Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
δ
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
δ
2
Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

δplastic
δelastic + plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic δ
δplastic 3
Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, σ: • Shear stress, τ:
Ft Ft F

Area, Ao Fs
Area, Ao

Fs
Ft
F Ft
Ft lb f N τ= s F
σ= = 2 or 2
Ao
Ao in m
original area
before loading
∴ Stress has units:
N/m2 or lbf /in42
Common States of Stress
• Simple tension: cable
F F
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
σ= σ σ
Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy
• Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft P.M. Anderson)

M Fs Ao
Ac
Fs
τ =
Ao
M
2R Note: τ = M/AcR 5here.
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (i)
• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches σ= structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao (σ < 0 here).

6
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (ii)
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
σθ > 0

σz > 0 σh< 0
7
Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
δ/2
−δL
ε = δ εL =
Lo Lo wo
wo

δL /2
• Shear strain:
θ
∆x γ = ∆x/y = tan θ

y 90º - θ
Strain is always
90º dimensionless.
8
Adapted from Fig. 6.1(a) and (c), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
 Metals
3 ways on how a load may be applied:

a) Tension - a gradually increasing tensile force that is

applied uniaxially along the long axis of a specimen
b) Compression - a gradually increasing compressive force
that is applied uniaxially along the long axis of a specimen
Shear - a load or force imposed parallel to the upper and
lower faces, each of which has an area of A0
 Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test • Typical tensile
machine specimen

Adapted from
Fig. 6.2,
extensometer specimen Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

gauge
length

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials, 10
Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)
 Tensile Strength, TS
• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,

TS Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

F = fracture or
σy
ultimate
engineering

strength
stress

Typical response of a metal

Neck – acts
as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
11
aligned and about to break.
Linear Elastic Properties
• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

• Hooke's Law:
σ=Eε σ F
E

ε
Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test
12
Elastic Deformation: Hooke’s Law
 Stress-Strain Behavior: σ = Eє ; E (Young’s Modulus)

 E( expressed in GPa)
Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

• Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress, σ at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

εp engineering strain, ε

plastic strain Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
14
Elastic Def. (con’t)

 Elastic deformation – the relationship between

stress and strain is proportional
 E – corresponds to the slope of the linear
portion of
the graph
- may also be thought of as stiffness or a
materials
resistance to elastic deformation
- the greater the modulus, the stiffer the
material
and the smaller amount of elastic strain
Non linear elastic strain
Poisson’s Ratio
 is the ratio of the lateral and axial
strains
εx εy
υ=
− = −
εz εz

 there will be contractions in the x and

y directions resulting in negative
values; a negative sign is added to
ensure that ‘ν’ is positive
 for isotropic materials, shear and
elastic moduli are related by:

=E 2G (1 + υ )
 Poisson's ratio, ν
εL
• Poisson's ratio, ν:

εL
ν=−
ε ε

metals: ν ~ 0.33 -ν
ceramics: ν ~ 0.25
polymers: ν ~ 0.40

Units: ν > 0.50 density increases

E: [GPa] or [psi]
ν < 0.50 density decreases
ν: dimensionless (voids form)
21
Mechanical

Properties
Slope of stress strain plot (which is proportional to the elastic
modulus) depends on bond strength of metal

Adapted from Fig. 6.7,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
22
Young’s Moduli: Comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda AFRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B.2,
Aluminum
60 Glass fibers only

40
Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Concrete Composite data based on
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 CFRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester glass (GFRE)
4 PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4 23
0.2 LDPE
Yield Strength : Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140) qt

1000
Yield strength, σy (MPa)

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

700 W (pure)

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

600 Cu (71500) cw

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

500 Mo (pure)
Steel (4140) a
400
Steel (1020) cd Room temperature
300
Al (6061) ag values
Hard to measure ,

Hard to measure,
200 Steel (1020) hr
¨
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr Based on data in Table B.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
100
a = annealed
dry
70 PC
hr = hot rolled
60 Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 Al (6061) a PET
cd = cold drawn
40 PVC humid
cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered
20
24
LDPE
Tin (pure)
10
 Tensile Strength: Comparison
Metals/
Graphite/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Composites/
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

2000 Steel (4140) qt

AFRE(|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140)cw
Cu (71500) Si nitride
Cu (71500) hr Al oxide
300
Steel (1020)
Al (6061) ag
Ti (pure) a
Room temperature
200 Ta (pure)
values
Al (6061) a
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber) Based on data in Table B.4,
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
40 PVC GFRE( fiber) a = annealed
Concrete PP
30 CFRE( fiber) hr = hot rolled
AFRE( fiber)
HDPE ag = aged
20 Graphite
LDPE cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
10 qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
wood ( fiber)
composites,
25 with 60 vol%
fibers.
1
Yield Strength, σy
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when εp = 0.002
tensile stress, σ
σy = yield strength
σy

Note: for 2 inch sample

ε = 0.002 = ∆z/z
∴ ∆z = 0.004 in

engineering strain, ε
εp = 0.002 Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),
26
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Prob #1
 A cylindrical specimen of a titanium alloy having an elastic modulus of 107 GPa (15.5 × 106 psi)
and an original diameter of 3.8 mm (0.15 in.) will experience only elastic deformation when a
tensile load of 2000 N (450 lbf) is applied. Compute the maximum length of the specimen
before deformation if the maximum allowable elongation is 0.42 mm (0.0165 in.)
Solution

We are asked to compute the maximum length of a cylindrical titanium alloy specimen (before

deformation) that is deformed elastically in tension. For a cylindrical specimen

d 2
A0 = π  0 ÷
 2 

where d 0 is the original diameter. solving for l 0 leads to

d 2
∆l Eπ  0 ÷
∆l ∆l ∆l E  2  ∆l Eπ d 2
l0 = = = = 0
ε σ F F 4F
E A0

( 0.42 ´ 10 − 3 m ) (107 ´ 10 9 N / m 2 ) ( π ) ( 3.8 ´ 10 − 3 m ) 2

=
(4 )( 2000 N)

= 0.255 m = 255 mm (10.0 in.)

Prob #2

 A steel bar 100 mm (4.0 in.) long and having a square cross section 20 mm (0.8 in.)
on an edge is pulled in tension with a load of 89,000 N (20,000 lbf), and
experiences an elongation of 0.10 mm (4.0 × 10-3 in.). Assuming that the
deformation is entirely elastic, calculate the elastic modulus of the steel.
Solution

This problem asks us to compute the elastic modulus of steel. For a square cross-section, A0 = b02 , where

b0 is the edge length, solving for E, leads to

F
σ A Fl
E = = 0 = 20
ε ∆l b0∆ l
l0

(89,000 N) (100 ´ 10−3 m)

=
(20 ´ 10−3 m)2 (0.10 ´ 10−3 m)

= 223 x 109 N/m2 = 223 GPa (31.3´ 106 psi)

Prob. #3
 A cylindrical rod of copper (E = 110 GPa, 16 × 106 psi) having a yield strength of
240 MPa (35,000 psi) is to be subjected to a load of 6660 N (1500 lbf). If the length
of the rod is 380 mm (15.0 in.), what must be the diameter to allow an elongation
of 0.50 mm (0.020 in.)?
Solution

This problem asks us to compute the diameter of a cylindrical specimen of copper in order to allow an

elongation of 0.50 mm. Employing Equations 6.1, 6.2, and 6.5, assuming that deformation is entirely elastic

F F ∆l
σ = = = E
A0 d2  l0
π 0 
 4 
 

Or, solving for d 0

4 l0F
d0 =
π E ∆l

(4) (380 × 10−3 m) (6660 N)

=
(π) (110 × 10 9 N / m2 )(0.50 × 10−3 m)

= 7.65 × 10-3 m = 7.65 mm (0.30 in.

Prob. # 4

 A cylindrical specimen of some alloy 8 mm (0.31 in.) in diameter is stressed

elastically in tension. A force of 15,700 N (3530 lbf) produces a reduction in
specimen diameter of 5 × 10-3 mm (2 × 10-4 in.). Compute Poisson's ratio for this
material if its modulus of elasticity is 140 GPa (20.3 × 106 psi).
Solution

This problem asks that we compute Poisson's ratio for the metal alloy. From Equations 6.5 and 6.1

σ F F 4F
εz = = = =
E A0 E d 2 π d02 E
π 0  E
2 

Since the transverse strain εx is just

∆d
εx =
d0

and Poisson's ratio is defined by Equation 6.8, then

ε ∆d / d0 d ∆d π E
ν = − x = − = − 0
εz   4F
 4F 
 π d 2E 
 0 

= −
(8 × 10−3 m)(−5 × 10−6 m) (π) (140 × 10 9 N / m2 ) = 0.280
(4)(15, 700 N)
Ductility
 is a measure of the degree
of plastic deformation that
has been sustained at fracture

 Brittle material - experiences

very little or no plastic
deformation upon fracture

 l f −l0 
% EL =   x100
 l0 
 

 A0 − Af 
% RA =   x100
 A0 
Ductility
Lf − Lo
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL = x 100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress, σ larger %EL Ao
Lo Af Lf
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Engineering tensile strain, ε

• Another ductility measure: Ao - Af

%RA = x 100
Ao
32
Problem # 5
 A cylindrical metal specimen having an original diameter of 12.8 mm (0.505 in.) and gauge length of 50.80 mm (2.000 in.) is pulled in tension
until fracture occurs. The diameter at the point of fracture is 6.60 mm (0.260 in.), and the fractured gauge length is 72.14 mm (2.840 in.).
Calculate the ductility in terms of percent reduction in area and percent elongation.

 Solution
 This problem calls for the computation of ductility in both percent reduction in area and percent elongation. Percent
reduction in area is computed using Equation 6.12 as

 d 2  d f 2
π 0  − π 
2  2 
%RA = × 100
 d 2
π 0 
2

 in which d0 and df are, respectively, the original and fracture cross-sectional areas. Thus,

 12.8 mm 2  6.60 mm 2
π  − π 
 2   2 
%RA = × 100 = 73.4%
 12.8 mm 2
π 
 
While, for percent elongation, we use Equation2 6.11
 as

 l f − l0 
%EL =   × 100
 l0 
72.14 mm − 50.80 mm
= × 100 = 42%
50.80 mm
Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.

Engineering small toughness (ceramics)

tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, σ
Adapted from Fig. 6.13, very small toughness
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
(unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain, ε

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
34
 Resilience - the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is
deformed elastically and then, upon unloading, to have this energy
recovered. The associated property is the modulus of resilience, Ur,
which is the strain energy per unit volume required to stress a material
from an unloaded state up to the point of yielding.

1
U r = 2 σ yε y
 For a linearly elastic region...

1 σy  σ
2
1 y
Ur =
= σ yε y σ y=
 
2 2  E  2E

 Toughness -ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically

deform before fracturing. Also indicative of a material’s resistance
to fracture when a crack is present (fracture toughness)
Resilience, Ur
 Ability of a material to store energy
 Energy stored best in elastic region

εy
Ur = ∫ σdε
0
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to

1
Ur ≅ σy ε y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15, 36
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Elastic Strain Recovery
σyi D

σyo
2. Unload
Stress

1. Load 3. Reapply
load
Strain

Adapted from Fig. 6.17, Elastic strain

Callister & Rethwisch 8e. recovery 37
 Hardening
• An increase in σ due to plastic deformation.
y
σ
large hardening
σy
1
σy small hardening
0

ε
• Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
hardening exponent:
σT = K εT ( ) n n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(L/L
38o)
Hardness
 is a measure of a material’s resistance to localized
plastic deformation (e.g., a small dent or a scratch)
 Early hardness tests were based on natural minerals
called the Moh’s scale of hardness (qualitative).
 Quantitative hardness techniques have been developed
over the years in which a small indenter is forced into
the surface of a material to be tested, under controlled
conditions of load and rate of application. The depth or
size of the resulting indentation is measured, which in
turn is related to a hardness number.
 Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
-- resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
-- better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
40
Hardness: Measurement

 Rockwell
 No major sample damage
 Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range
20-100.
 Minor load 10 kg
 Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
 A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

 HB = Brinell Hardness
 TS (psia) = 500 x HB
 TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB

41
Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5

42
Hardness tests con’t

Hardness tests are performed more frequently than any

other mechanical test for several reasons:
1. They are simple and inexpensive—ordinarily no special
specimen need be prepared, and the testing apparatus is
relatively inexpensive.
2. The test is nondestructive—the specimen is neither
fractured nor excessively deformed; a small indentation is
the only deformation.
3. Other mechanical properties often may be estimated
from hardness data, such as tensile strength.
True Stress & Strain F
σT =
Ai
li
ε T = ln
l0
 Up to the start of ‘necking ‘ and
with no volume change:

σ
= T σ (1 + ε )

A comparison of typical ε T ln (1 + ε )
=
tensile engineering stress–strain and
true stress–strain behaviors. Necking
begins at point M on the engineering
curve, which corresponds to M on the
 Use of strain-hardening exponent
true curve. The “corrected” true  Valid only till the onset of “necking”
stress–strain curve takes into account
the complex stress state within the
neck region.
σ T = K ε Tn
True Stress & Strain
Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched

σT = σ(1 + ε )
 True stress
σT = F Ai
 True strain εT = ln( i  o ) εT = ln(1 + ε )

Adapted from Fig. 6.16,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

46
Tension vs Compression
3 Differences
1.
Beyond the elastic region, the tension curve lies
below the compression one. The reason for this
is that, during compression, the cross-sectional
area of the specimen is increasing—that is, for
two specimens that have the same initial cross-
sectional area (A0), at some specific strain value
the instantaneous cross-sectional area in
compression will be greater than in tension.
Consequently, the applied force necessary to
continue deformation will be greater for
compression than for tension; and, since stress is
defined according to Equation 6.1 as
the applied force is greater for compression, so
also will the stress be greater (since A0 is the
same for both cases).

2.
The compression curve will not display a
maximum inasmuch as the specimen tested in
compression will not experience necking—the
cross-sectional area over which deformation is
occurring is continually increasing for
compression.

3.
The strain at which failure occurs will be greater
for compression. Again, this behavior is
explained by the lack of necking for the
specimen tested in compression.
Variability of Material Properties
 measured material properties are not exact quantities
 this also exists for other properties like density, electrical
conductivity, etc...
 Factors that may lead to inconsistencies in measurements:
- test method
- variations in specimen fabrication procedures
- apparatus calibration
- operator bias
- inhomogeneities for the same lot of
material/compositional differences

Solution: subject material tests to statistical treatment (i.e.

have a typical value and degree of dispersion)
Variability in Material Properties
 Elastic modulus is material property
 Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
 Statistics n
Σ xn
 Mean
x=
n
1
n  2
( )
2
 Σ xi − x 
s = 
 Standard Deviation  n −1 
 
where n is the number of data points
49
Design/Safety Factors
 Safety factors are introduced due to:
all engineering materials exhibit a variability in their
-
measured mechanical properties
- have imperfections that were introduced during
manufacture
- will have sustained damage during service

Design Stress or Working Stress :

σy
σw =
N
;where N is known as the factor of safety
4 < N < 1.2
Design or Safety Factors
• Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
• Factor of safety, N Often N is
σy between
σworking = 1.2 and 4
N
• Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.
d
σy 1045 plain
σworking = carbon steel:
N σy = 310 MPa Lo
220,000N TS = 565 MPa
5
(
π d /42
) F = 220,000N
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm 51
Criteria upon which factors of safety are based

 consequences of failure
 previous experience
 accuracy of measurement of mechanical forces
and/or material properties
 economics
Summary
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches σy.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

53
 Metal Alloys
Classification, Application, Processing
Types of Metal Alloys
 Ferrous Alloys
 Iron (Fe) is a principal constituent
a) Steels
b) Cast Irons

 Non-Ferrous Alloys
 alloys that are not iron (Fe) based

a) Copper alloys e) Refractory Alloys

b) Aluminum Alloys d) Super Alloys
c) Magnesium Alloys f) Noble Metals
d) Titanium Alloys g) Misc.: nickel,Pb
Factors that favor production of Fe-based alloys
 abundant quantities of Fe-based compounds
 metallic & steel alloys are economical to extract, refine, alloy and
fabricate
 ferrous alloys have a wide range of mechanical & physical properties (e.g.
many are heat-treatable)

Disadvantages of Ferrous Alloys

• High density (i.e. heavy)
• comparatively low electrical conductivity
• susceptibility to corrosion in common environments
Classification of Metal Alloys
Classification of Metal Alloys
Metal Alloys

Adapted from Fig.

Ferrous Nonferrous 11.1, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

Steels
Steels Cast Irons
Cast Irons
<1.4 wt% C
<1.4wt%C 3-4.5 wt% C
3-4.5 wt%C

T(ºC) microstructure: ferrite,

1600 graphite/cementite
δ
1400 L
γ+L Adapted from Fig. 9.24, Callister &
1200 γ 1148ºC L+Fe3C Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 9.24 adapted from
austenite Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed.,
Eutectic: Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-in-Chief),
1000 4.30
ASM International, Materials Park, OH,
γ+Fe3C 1990.)
α800 727ºC Fe3C
ferrite Eutectoid: cementite
600 0.76 α+Fe3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7 5
(Fe)
Co , wt% C
Steels
 iron–carbon alloys that may contain concentrations of other
alloying elements
 mechanical properties are sensitive to the content of carbon;
usually < 1 %
 common low-alloy steels are classified according to carbon
content:
 Low, medium, high
 subclasses of common steels:
 plain carbon steels: contain only carbon & a little Mn
 alloy steels: more alloying elements are added
Steels
Low Alloy High Alloy
low carbon Med carbon high carbon
<0.25 wt% C 0.25-0.6 wt% C 0.6-1.4 wt% C

heat
Name plain HSLA plain
plain tool stainless
treatable
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 4340 1095 4190 304, 409
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ varies
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ varies
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades Very corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility 7
Based on data provided in Tables 11.1(b), 11.2(b), 11.3, and 11.4, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Plain Low Carbon Steels
 > 0.25% C content
 are produced in the greatest quantities
 can be strengthened by cold work, i.e., not heat treatable
 soft & weak by highly ductile & tough
 machinable & weldable
 least expensive to produce
 used in car components, structural shapes(I-beams, channel, angle
iron)
 σy around 275 MPa; σts ≈ 415-550 MPa; %EL ≈25
High Strength Low-Alloy Steels (HSLA)
 contain other alloying elements: Cu, V, Ni, Mo in combined
concentrations
 higher strengths than plain carbon steels
 can be strengthened by heat treatments
 ductile, formable & machinable
 σts in excess of 480 MPa
 more corrosion-resistant than plain-carbon steels
 replaced low carbon steels where structural strength is critical
(e.g. bridges, towers, support columns, etc)
SAE/AISI Classification System
The SAE system uses a basic four-digit system to designate the chemical
composition of carbon and alloy steels. The simplest system for designation of
steel is schematically shown in Figure below.

Figure 1 demonstrates that the SAE-AISI system uses a four-digit number to

designate a carbon and alloy steel and refers to its specific chemical composition. It
is worth noting however, that there are also certain types of alloy steels that are
designated by five digits (51XXX; 52XXX).
SAE/AISI cont’d...
 The first digit (1), of this designation indicates a carbon steel; i.e., carbon
steels comprise 1xxx groups in the SAE-AISI system and are subdivided into four
categories due to the variance in certain fundamental properties among them.
Thus the plain carbon steels are comprised within the 10xx series (containing
1.00% Mn maximum); resulfurized carbon steels within the 11xx series;
resulfurized and rephosphorized carbon steels within the 12xx series; and non-
resulfurized high-manganeze (up-to 1.65%) carbon steels which are produced
for applications requiring good machinability are comprised within the 15xx
series
 The SAE-AISI system then classifies all other alloy steels using the same four
digit index as follows:
2 - Nickel steels;
3 - Nickel-chromium steels;
4 - Molybdenum steels;
5 - Chromium steels;
6 - Chromium-vanadium steels;
7 - Tungsten-chromium steels;
9 - Silicon-manganese steels.
 The second digit of the series indicates the concentration of the major
element in percentiles (1 equals 1%). The last two digits of the series indicate
the carbon concentration to 0.01%
 Example:
SAE 5130 indicates a chromium steel alloy, containing 1% of chromium and
0.30% of carbon.
Ferrous Alloys
Iron-based alloys
• Steels
• Cast Irons

Nomenclature for steels (AISI/SAE)

10xx Plain Carbon Steels
11xx Plain Carbon Steels (resulfurized for machinability)
15xx Mn (1.00 - 1.65%)
40xx Mo (0.20 ~ 0.30%)
43xx Ni (1.65 - 2.00%), Cr (0.40 - 0.90%), Mo (0.20 - 0.30%)
44xx Mo (0.5%)

where xx is wt% C x 100

example: 1060 steel – plain carbon steel with 0.60 wt% C

Stainless Steel >11% Cr

12
Refinement of Steel from Ore
Coke
Iron Ore Limestone

BLAST FURNACE
heat generation
gas C+O2 →CO2
refractory
vessel reduction of iron ore to metal
layers of coke CO2 + C → 2CO
and iron ore 3CO + Fe2O3 →2Fe+3CO2
air purification
slag
Molten iron CaCO3 → CaO+CO2
CaO + SiO2 + Al2O3 → slag

16
Medium Carbon Steels
 0.25 wt % < carbon concentration < 0.60 wt%
 heat treatable: austenitizing, quenching, tempering
 heat treated alloys are stronger than low-carbon steels but less
ductile & tough
 usually used in a tempered condition: tempered martensite
 combination of high strength, wear resistance, toughness
 used in railway tracks, gears, crankshafts, etc.
High-Carbon Steels

 0.60 wt % < carbon concentration < 1.4 wt %

 hardest, strongest but least ductile among plain-
carbon steels
 almost always used in a hardened & tempered
condition
 tool & die steels contain other elements: V, Cr, W
& Mo
 wear resistant & capable of holding a sharp edge
 used as cutting tools, dies for forming & shaping
materials, springs & high strength wire
Stainless Steels
 contains at least 11 % wt Cr
 highly resistant to corrosion in ambient atmosphere
 addition of Ni & Mo further enhance corrosion
resistance
 3 classes based on microstructures
 martensitic

 ferritic

 austenitic
Cast Irons
 Carbon content > 2.14 wt %
 usually 3 – 4.5 wt % C + other alloying elements
 carbon exists as graphite for most cast irons
 graphite formation is helped by the presence of Si
greater than 1 wt %
 common cast irons are: gray, nodular, white, malleable,
and compacted graphite
Cast Irons

 Ferrous alloys with > 2.1 wt% C

 more commonly 3 - 4.5 wt% C
 Low melting – relatively easy to cast
 Generally brittle

 Cementite decomposes to ferrite + graphite

Fe3C  3 Fe (α) + C (graphite)

 generally a slow process

22
 Types of Cast Iron Adapted from Fig.

Gray iron 11.3(a) & (b),

Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
 graphite flakes
 weak & brittle in tension
 stronger in compression
 excellent vibrational dampening
 wear resistant; least expensive
 C 2.5 – 4 wt%; Si 1-3 %
Ductile iron
 add Mg and/or Ce
 graphite as nodules not flakes
 matrix often pearlite – stronger
but less ductile 23
Types of Cast Iron (cont.) Adapted from Fig.
White iron 11.3(c) & (d),
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
 < 1 wt% Si
 pearlite + cementite
 C as cementite not graphite
 very hard and brittle
 wear resistant; white fracture surface

Malleable iron
 heat treat white iron at 800-900ºC
 graphite in rosettes
 reasonably strong and ductile
 produced in smaller quantities like
white iron 24
Types of Cast Iron (cont.)
Compacted graphite iron
 relatively high thermal conductivity
 good resistance to thermal shock
 lower oxidation at elevated
temperatures
 Graphite has wormlike/vermicular
shape Adapted from Fig. 11.3(e),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
 Si content: 1.7 – 3.0 wt %
 C content: 3.1 – 4 wt %
 properties are intermediate
between gray & nodular cast irons
25
Non-Ferrous Alloys
 Cast Alloys – are brittle alloys that
forming/shaping by deformation is not possible;
they are casted

 Wrought Alloys – can be mechanically deformed

during forming/shaping operations

 Heat-treatable alloys – are alloys whose

mechanical characteristics can be improved by
heat treatments (e.g. precipitation hardening,
martensitic transformation)
Copper Alloys
 properties of pure copper:
 soft & ductile
 highlyresistant to corrosion in: ambient conditions,
seawater, some industrial chemicals
 unlimited capacity to be cold-worked
Copper properties can be improved by alloying!
Two (2) common copper alloys:
a) Brass
b) Bronzes
Brasses
 Zn is added up to 35 wt %
 brasses are still soft & ductile but can be both hot
worked and cold worked
 Types of brasses:
 yellow brass
 naval brass
 cartridge brass
 muntz metal
 gilding metal
Bronzes
 alloying metals such as: tin, aluminum, silicon, nickel,
beryllium are added
 Properties:
 stronger than brasses
 high corrosion resistance
 good tensile properties
 berylliumbronzes are the best in terms of
mechanical properties
table_11_06
Aluminum Alloys
 have low densities: 2.7 g/cm3(steel:7.9 g/cm3 )
 High electrical and thermal conductivities
 resistance to corrosion in common environments
 highly ductile even at very low temperatures
 strength can be improved by cold work/alloying
 Cons: low melting temp. ( 660 ˚C), alloying & cold
work diminishes resistance to corrossion
Magnesium Alloys
 lowest density among structural metals: 1.7 g/cm3
 used where light weight is important
 soft & low elastic modulus (45 GPa)
 Cons:
 unstable& susceptible to corrosion in marine
environments
 at room temp. Mg/Mg alloys are difficult to deform
Titanium Alloys
 are light; density : 4.5 g/cm3
 extremely strong: σts = 1400 MPa ambient conditions
 quite stiff : E = 107 GPa
 high melting points: 1668 ˚C
 highly ductile; easily forged & machined
 Extremely corrosion resistant to air, marine & a variety of
industrial environments
 Cons: highly reactive with other materials at elevated temp.;
expensive to produce
Refractory Metals
 extremely high melting temps.:
 2468˚C - 2410˚C
 niobium, molybdenum, tantalum
 large elastic moduli, high strength & hardness
Superalloys
• are used in nuclear reactors & petrochemical
equipment
Noble Metals
• expensive; soft, ductile & oxidation resistant:
 - silver, gold, platinum, palladium, rhodium,
 ruthenium, iridium, and osmium
Nonferrous Alloys
• Cu Alloys • Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -low ρ: 2.7 g/cm3
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip.
Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurities aircraft parts
(bushings, landing & packaging)
gear)
Cu-Be:
NonFerrous • Mg Alloys
-very low ρ: 1.7g/cm3
precip. hardened Alloys -ignites easily
for strength -aircraft, missiles
• Ti Alloys
• Refractory metals
-relatively low ρ: 4.5 g/cm3
-high melting T’s
vs 7.9 for steel • Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T’s -Ag, Au, Pt
-space applic. -oxid./corr. resistant
40
Based on discussion and data provided in Section 11.3, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
Metal Fabrication
 How do we fabricate metals?
 Blacksmith - hammer (forged)
 Cast molten metal into mold

 Forming Operations
 Rough stock formed to final shape

Hot working vs. Cold

working • Deformation below
recrystallization
• Deformation temperature temperature
high enough for • Strain hardening occurs
recrystallization • Small deformations
41
• Large deformations
Forming Operations
 are operations at which the shape of the material is
changed by plastic deformation
 an external force or stress is used that must exceed the
yield strength of the material
 Hot working – deformation of the material above its
recrystallization temp.
 Cold working – deformation below its recrystallization
temp.
fig_11_07
Metal Fabrication Methods (i)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Forging (Hammering; Stamping) • Rolling (Hot or Cold Rolling)

(wrenches, crankshafts) (I-beams, rails, sheet & plate)
force
die roll
Ad
A o blank A d often at Ao
elev. T
roll
Adapted from
force Fig. 11.8,
• Drawing • Extrusion Callister &
(rods, wire, tubing) (rods, tubing) Rethwisch 8e.

Ao
die Ad container
tensile die holder
Ao force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die
container die
44
die must be well lubricated & clean ductile metals, e.g. Cu, Al (hot)
 Forging

 mechanically working or deforming a single piece of

a normally hot metal
 Closed Die
a force is brought to bear on two or more die halves
having the finished shape such that the metal is
deformed in the cavity between them
 Open Die
 two dies having simple geometric shapes (e.g.,
parallel flat, semicircular) are employed, normally
on large workpieces
Metal Fabrication Methods (ii)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Casting- mold is filled with molten metal

– metal melted in furnace, perhaps alloying
elements added, then cast in a mold
– common and inexpensive
– gives good production of shapes
– weaker products, internal defects
– good option for brittle materials

46
Casting
 A totally molten metal is poured into a cavity having
the desired shape. When the metal solidifies it assumes
the shape of the mold but experiences shrinkage.

 Casting Technics are used when:

 the finished shape is so large or complicated that any other

method would be impractical
 a particular alloy is so brittle that it cannot be hot worked or
cold worked
 it more economical compared with other fabrication methods
Metal Fabrication Methods (iii)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g.,
• What material will withstand T >1600ºC
auto engine blocks)
and is inexpensive and easy to mold?
• Answer: sand!!!
Sand Sand
• To create mold, pack sand around form
molten metal (pattern) of desired shape

48
Metal Fabrication Methods (v)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Die Casting • Continuous Casting
-- high volume -- simple shapes
-- for alloys having low melting (e.g., rectangular slabs,
temperatures cylinders)

molten
solidified

49
Metal Fabrication Methods (vi)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Powder Metallurgy • Welding
(metals w/low ductilities) (when fabrication of one large
part is impractical)
pressure
filler metal (melted)
base metal (melted)
fused base metal
heat
heat-affected zone
area unaffected unaffected
contact piece 1 piece 2 Adapted from Fig.
11.9, Callister &
densify Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 11.9 from Iron
• Heat-affected zone: Castings
point contact densification Handbook, C.F.
by diffusion at
(region in which the Walton and T.J.
at low T
higher T microstructure has been Opar (Ed.), 1981.)

changed). 50
fig_11_09
Thermal Processing of Metals
 thermal processes or heat treatments alter the
mechanical properties of metals
Annealing
- a heat treatment in which a material is exposed
to an elevated temperature for an extended time
period and then slowly cooled

Objectives of annealing:
- relieve stresses
- increase softness, ductility, and toughness
- produce a specific microstructure
Stages of Annealing:
a) heating to the desired temperature
b) holding or “soaking” at that temperature
c) cooling, usually to room temperature

- annealing time and temperature are important

factors
- too high temp. may lead to warping & cracking
of the metal due to high temp. gradients and
internal stresses
- there should be enough annealing time for the
transformation of the microstructure
Annealing Processes
 Process Annealing
 is a heat treatment that is used to negate the effects of
cold work
 to soften and increase the ductility of a previously strain-
hardened metal
 a fine-grained microstructure is desired, and therefore,
the heat treatment is terminated before appreciable
grain growth
 Stress Relief
 the piece is heated to the recommended temperature, held
there long enough to attain a uniform temperature, and finally
cooled to room temperature in air
 distortion and warpage may result if these residual
stresses are not removed
Causes of Internal Residual Stresses:

- plastic deformation processes such as machining

and grinding
- nonuniform cooling of a piece that was processed
or fabricated at an elevated temperature
- phase transformation that is induced upon cooling wherein parent and product phases
have different densities
Annealing of Ferrous Alloys
 Normalizing
 Is used to refine the grains in the microstructure to
produce a more uniform and desirable grain size
distribution
 fine-grained perlitic steels are tougher than course-
grain steels
 used for steels that have been plastically deformed
like in a rolling operation
 Full Anneal
 used for low and medium-carbon steels that will be
machined or will experience extensive plastic
deformation during a forming operation
 themicrostructural product of this anneal is coarse
pearlite that is relatively soft and ductile
a microstructure having small grains and a uniform
grain structure results
Spheroidizing
used for medium and high-carbon steels whose
-
microstructure contain coarse perlite and are too hard
to machine or plastically deform
- heat treated to develop the spheroidite
structure
- spheroidite steels result in maximum softness &
ductility and are easily machined
Heat Treatment of Steels
 martensitic steels are steels that have been quenched
and tempered
 they are the best among the steels
 involve continuous and rapid cooling of an austenitized
specimen in some type of quenching medium, such as
water, oil, or air
 a martensite microstructure has the best combination
of mechanical properties
Hardenability
 - is a term that is used to describe the ability of an
alloy to be hardened by the formation of martensite as
a result of a given heat treatment
 describesthe relationship between the cooling rate
and a material’s mechanical properties
 takes into account the alloys composition on its
ability to transform into martensite
 itis a qualitative measure of the rate at which
hardness drops off with distance into the interior of
a specimen as a result of diminished martensite
content
Thermal Processing of Metals
Annealing: Heat to Tanneal, then cool slowly.

• Stress Relief: Reduce • Spheroidize (steels):

stresses resulting from: Make very soft steels for
- plastic deformation good machining. Heat just
- nonuniform cooling below Teutectoid & hold for
- phase transform. 15-25 h.

• Full Anneal (steels):

Types of Make soft steels for
Annealing good forming. Heat
to get γ, then furnace-cool
to obtain coarse pearlite.
• Process Anneal:
Negate effects of
• Normalize (steels): Deform
cold working by
steel with large grains. Then heat
(recovery/
treat to allow recrystallization
recrystallization)
and formation of smaller grains.
60
Based on discussion in Section 11.7, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
 Hardenability -- Steels
• Hardenability – measure of the ability to form martensite
• Jominy end quench test used to measure hardenability.

Adapted from Fig. 11.11,

flat ground Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
specimen (Fig. 11.11 adapted from
A.G. Guy, Essentials of
(heated to γ Materials Science,
phase field) Rockwell C McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York,
24ºC water hardness tests 1978.)

• Plot hardness versus distance from the quenched end.

Hardness, HRC

Adapted from Fig. 11.12,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
61
Distance from quenched end
Reason Why Hardness Changes with
Distance
• The cooling rate decreases with distance from quenched end.

Hardness, HRC
60

40

20 distance from quenched end (in)

0 1 2 3
T(ºC) 0%
600 100%
Adapted from Fig. 11.13, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 11.13 adapted from H.
400 Boyer (Ed.) Atlas of Isothermal
Transformation and Cooling
M(start) Transformation Diagrams, American
200 Society for Metals, 1977, p. 376.)
A→M

0 M(finish)

0.1 1 10 100 1000

Time (s) 62
Influences of Quenching Medium &
Specimen Geometry
• Effect of quenching medium:
Medium Severity of Quench Hardness
air low low
oil moderate moderate
water high high
• Effect of specimen geometry:
When surface area-to-volume ratio increases:
-- cooling rate throughout interior increases
-- hardness throughout interior increases
Position Cooling rate Hardness
center low low
surface high high

63