Urban Water Supply Management, 2iE, Burkina Faso, November 01-15, 2008.

WATER DISTRIBUTION NETWORK ANALYSIS

M L Kansal
Water Resources Development & Management
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Roorkee – 247 667 (India)
mlkgkfwt@iitr.ernet.in

A water distribution network (WDN) is designed and constructed to supply water to the user in accordance with the
demand (or load) at sufficient pressure. It is considered to be a key infrastructure requirement of a modern city and a
measure of the standard of living of the society.

Water distribution system typically consists of a network containing large number of interconnecting pipes with
occasional control valves. Reservoirs are connected at strategic points throughout the network to provide storage
capacity and maintain required hydraulic pressure for consumer water demands. Rivers, lakes and tube-wells are the
usual sources of water supply which is treated before being supplied to the consumers. A typical water supply scheme
thus can be broadly sub-divided into two basic systems which are:

i) Source, Treatment and Clear-water storage System.

ii) Pumping, Storage and Distribution System.

A conventional water treatment system consist of raw water supply unit, mixing unit, sedimentation chamber,
filtration and storage unit for clear water. Similarly, a typical urban water distribution system may be composed of
three major components, which are; pumping stations, distribution storage and distribution piping. These components
may further be divided into subcomponents which in turn be divided into sub-subcomponents. For example, the
pumping station component consists of structural, electrical, piping and pumping unit subcomponents which can
further be divided into sub-subcomponents like pump, driver, controls, power transmission, piping and valves etc.

PRINCIPLES OF FLOW

The first principle in dealing with pipe flows is the continuity of matter. According to the principle of continuity for an
incompressible fluid, the sum of volumes of water entering a junction (ΣVin) equals the flow leaving the junction
(ΣVout) over a given time, i.e.,
ΣVin = ΣVout (1)

Further, according to the principle of conservation of energy, the total energy of flow at two cross-sections will be the
same if there is no energy loss. The total energy in terms of the head of water is expressed by the Bernoulli equation.
For flow between two cross-sections 1 and 2, we have

2 2
P V P V
z1 + 1 + 1 = z 2 + 2 + 2 + h L,1−2 (2)
γ 2g γ 2g

where z1 is the elevation head, P1 is the pressure head, γ is the unit weight of water, V1 is the velocity of flow;
subscript 1 denotes that the variables refer to cross-section 1; and hL1-2 denotes head loss between cross-sections 1 and
2. The loss of energy in a pipe network takes place due to the roughness of pipes, turbulence, and viscous stress. Some
energy is also lost in contractions, expansions, bends, joints, and valves. This loss is termed as minor loss. Generally,
the minor headloss is proportional to (V2/2g).

During flow in pipelines, a part of energy contained in the fluid gets into a non-recoverable form of energy, which
thus leads to frictional head losses. There are several equations available in the literature , which can be used to
evaluate frictional head loss, but the most fundamentally sound method for computing such head losses is by Darcy
Weisbach equation, given by:

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2
LV 2
hL = f = KQ (3)
D 2g

where L is its length (m), and f is the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor which depends on relative roughness (ks/D) and
Reynolds number (Re). The. Here, ks is the equivalent sand roughness which is the resistance characteristics produced
by a pipe of the same diameter, internally coated with sand particles having diameter ks. The Reynolds number is the
ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces = VD/ν, ν being the kinematic viscosity.

Table 1. Summary of Friction Factor Equations for Darcy Weisbach Equation

Type of Flow Equations giving ‘f’ Range of Application

Laminar f = 64/Re Re < 2100
Hydraulically Smooth or Turbulent f = 0.316/Re 0.25 4000 < Re < 105
Smooth
1
= 2 log10 ( Re f ) − 0.8 Re > 4000
f
Transition between Hydraulically 1 k 93.5 Re > 4000
smooth and wholly rough = 1.14 − 2 log10 ( s + )
f D Re f
Hydraulically Rough or Turbulent 1 k Re > 4000
Rough = 1.14 − 2 log10 ( s )
f D

Besides the Darcy Weisbach equation, certain empirical equations are often used for determining frictional head losses
in a closed conduit. Some of these are summarised as follows :

Empirical Equations :

Hazen-Williams equation:

The most widely used empirical equation is the Hazen-Williams equation, which can be written as :

V = 0.849 C R0.63 Sf0.54 (4)

where V is the flow velocity in m/s, R is the hydraulics radius (m), Sf is the friction slope (hL / L), and C is the Hazen-
Williams roughness coefficient which depends upon the pipe properties. The hydraulic radius is the ratio of wetted
cross section area and wetted perimeter. For a pipe, R = A/P = πr2/2πr = r/2, where r is the radius of the pipe. The
head loss due to friction (in meters) can be computed by:

10.7 L
hL = Q1.852 = KQ1.85 (5)
C HW 1.852 D 4.87

where D is the diameter of pipe (m) and K is the pipe coefficient.

Values of Hazen William Coefficient for common Pipe Materials

Type of Pipe Hazen William Coefficient
PVC pipe 150
Very Smooth Pipe 140
New cast Iron or Welded Steel 130
Wood , Concrete 120
Clay , New Riveted Steel 110
Old Cast Iron , Brick 100
Badly Corroded Cast Iron or Steel 80

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Manning’s Equation:
Another empirical equation is the Manning’s Equation, which was developed for flow in open channels, expressed as:

1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V= R S0 (6)
n
where V is the velocity (m/s), S0 is the slope of the channel bed and S0 = hL / L and n is a coefficient known as
Manning’s roughness coefficient. Its values depend upon the properties of the channel cross-section/ pipe. Higher
values represent a ‘rough’ cross-section. The head loss due to friction (in meters) can be computed by:

⎛ 10.29 n 2 L Q 2 ⎞
hL = ⎜ ⎟ = KQ 2 (7)
⎜ D 5.333 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Values of Manning’s Roughness Coefficient for common Pipe Materials

Type of Pipe Manning’s Roughness Coefficient

PVC pipe 0.008
Very Smooth Pipe 0.011
New cast Iron or Welded Steel 0.014
Wood , Concrete 0.016
Clay , New Riveted Steel 0.017
Old Cast Iron , Brick 0.020
Badly Corroded Cast Iron or Steel 0.035

Chezy’s Equation:

Another empirical equation is the Chezy’s Equation, which was developed for flow in open channels, given by:

V = C (RS0)0.5
where, V is the velocity (m/s), S0 is the slope of the channel bed and S0 = hL / L and C is the Chezy’s resistance
coefficient. It is related with Manning’s Roughness coefficient ‘n’ by

1 1/ 6
C= R (8)
n

The headloss due to friction (in meters) can be computed by:

⎛ 6.48 L Q 2 ⎞
hL = ⎜ ⎟ = KQ 2 (9)
⎜ C D5 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
In general, the head loss in a pipeline can be written as :
hL = KQn (10)
values of ‘K’ and ‘n’ can be obtained directly from previously discussed equations. The value of ‘n’ usually varies
from 1.85 to 2.

Comparison of Empirical Equations with Darcy Weisbach Equation

The comparison of empirical Equations with Darcy Weisbach Equation can best be done by manipulating the
empirical equations in the form of Darcy Weisbach Equation, and then examining the relationship given by that
equation in defining friction factor ‘f’. So, Hazen William equation when manipulated into the form of Darcy
Weisbach Equation would result in :

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⎛ 1018.4 ⎞
f =⎜ ⎟ (11)
⎜ C 1.85 D 0.018 R 0.148 ⎟
⎝ e ⎠
provided, Kinematic viscosity = 1.31 * 10-6 m2/s at 15.6 °C and g = 9.81 m/s2.

Thus, from the above equation, it is clear that ‘f’ depends more on Re and to a lesser extent on pipe diameter as per
Hazen William equation. Similarly, Manning’s equation manipulated in the form of Darcy Weisbach Equation would
give:
⎛ 12.7 g n 2 ⎞
f =⎜ ⎟ (12)
⎜ D1 / 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
The above equation indicates that the Manning’s equation assumes that the friction factor is independent of Re (i.e. in
wholly rough range) and depends upon Manning’s roughness coefficient and pipe diameter.

Pipe Networks

In a WDN, pipes may be connected in series, in parallel, or in branches. For the purpose of solution, the sub-networks
are represented by an equivalent pipe. A network and a pipe are equivalent when both carry the same discharge for the
same headloss. When n pipes are joined in a series (see Fig. 1), the total headloss of the equivalent pipe (hLe) with the
pipe coefficient (Ke) is the sum of headlosses (hL) of individual pipes with pipe coefficient K:

hL1
hL2
hL3

Q
Fig. 1 An Example of Pipelines in Series.

n n
h Le = ∑ h Li and Ke = ∑ Ki (13)
i =1 i =1
and Q = Q1 = Q2 = …. (14)
When pipes are connected in parallel as shown in Fig. 2, the head loss in each pipe between the junctions will be the
same. Thus
hL1 = hL2 = hL3 = … (15)
and Q = Q 1 + Q2 (16)

hL1= hL2
Q1

Q = Q1 + Q2
Q2
Fig. 2

Substituting the value of Q, one obtains

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1/ n 1/ n 1/ n
⎛ hL ⎞ ⎛h ⎞ ⎛h ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =⎜ L ⎟ +⎜ L ⎟
⎜K ⎟ ⎜K ⎟
⎝ Ke ⎠ ⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 2⎠

1/ n 1/ n 1/ n
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
or ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟
⎜K ⎟ ⎜K ⎟
⎝ Ke ⎠ ⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 2⎠

When the Hazen-Williams equation is used, n will be 1.85 and it will be 2 when the Darcy-Weisbach equation is used.
Often, the division of flows in parallel pipes is also required. To that end, we have
hL1 = hL2

2 2
L1 V1 L 2 V2
or f1 = f2
D1 2 g D2 2 g

V ⎛ D ⎞
or 1 = ⎜ f2 L2 1 ⎟
V2 ⎜⎜ f L D ⎟⎟
⎝ 1 1 2 ⎠

Example:
Two tanks are connected through two pipes as shown in Fig. 3. The flow of water from the upper tank to the lower one
is at 0.04m3/s and the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor is 0.03. Find the elevation of water in the lower tank if the
elevation of water in the upper tank is 100m.

z1 = 100m
Tank
1 L = 600m
z2 = ?
D = 30 cm
L = 400m Tank
D = 20cm 2

Fig. 3 Two tanks connected by pipes in series.

Solution:
The velocity of water in the pipes is
V1 = Q/A1 = 0.04/[3.14*0.102] = 1.274 m/s.
V2 = Q/A2 = 0.04/[3.14*0.152] = 0.566 m/s.
The energy equation can be written as
z 2 = z1 − h L1 − h L 2

400 1.274 2 600 0.566 2

= 100 − 0.03 − 0.03 = 94.06m
0.20 2 * 9.81 0.30 2 * 9.81

Example:
Two tanks are connected through pipes as shown in Fig. 4. The length of each pipe is 100m. The diameter of pipe 1
and of pipe 2 is 40cm and that of pipe 3 is 30cm. The elevation of water in the first tank is 100m while it is 90m in the
second pipe. If the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor is 0.02 for all the pipes, find the velocity of water in the pipes and
discharge through pipe 1.

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z1 = 100m ZL = 100m
D = 30 cm
Tank
1 z2 = 90m

XL = 100m Tank
D = 40cm 2

YL = 100m
D = 40 cm
Fig. 4 Two tanks connected by pipes in parallel.

Solution:
Since pipe 2 and pipe 3 are in parallel connection, the head loss in them will be equal. Therefore, from the Darcy-
Weisbach equation, one has:

2 2 2 2
L3 V3 L 2 V2 100 V3 100 V2
f = f or f = f or V2 = 1.155 V3
D3 2 g D2 2 g 0.3 2 * 9.81 0.4 2 * 9.81

The discharge through pipe 1 will be the same as the sum of discharges through pipes 2 and 3. Hence,
A1V1 = A2V2 +A3V3
or 3.14*(402/4)V1 = 3.14*(402/4)V2 + 3.14*(302/4)V3
1600* V1 = 1600* V2 + 900* V3
= 1600*(1.155)* V3 + 900* V3
V1 = 1.7175* V3
The total headloss through the system is 10m. This permits us to write

2 2
100 V1 100 V3
0.02 + 0.02 = 10
0.4 2 * 9.81 0.3 2 * 9.81

Substituting the value of V1 and solving,

V3 = 3.027 m/s.
Hence, V1 = 1.762 m/s.
and Q1 = 3.14*(0.402/4)*1.762 = 0.2213 m3/s.

ANALYSIS OF A WATER DISTRIBUTION NETWORK (WDN)

The hydraulics of flow through a WDN with a known demand must satisfy basically the three principles/equations :
i) the law of conservation of mass or the continuity equation. i.e., at each junction, inflow must be equal to
outflow.
ii) the energy principle, or the head loss equation (Darcy Weisbach or Hazen-William) in each of the
pipeline should be satisfied.
iii) the algebraic sum of pressure drops should be zero around each basic loop.

Number of basic or primary loops in a network are given as :

No. of basic loops = P – J + 1
where, P is the number of pipelines, and J are the number of junctions.

Two approaches are commonly used for steady state analysis of a WDN. i.e., Discharge in the pipelines are considered
as unknown and secondly, the pressure heads are considered as unknown.

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Hardy-Cross Method

This method was developed by Cross (1936) and is frequently used to analyse the hydraulics of flow through a WDN.
In the Hazen-Williams, Manning’s or Darcy-Weisbach method, the headloss h (m) in a pipe carrying discharge at Q
(m3/s), is given by:
h = k Qn
where k is a constant and n is an exponent. If the Hazen-Williams equation is used, n = 1.85.

In the absence of the knowledge of discharge Q flowing through a pipe, let the assumed discharge be Q1. We can write
Q = Q1 + ∆
where ∆ is the error in the assumed discharge. Substituting Q in h = k Qn yields

kQn = k(Q1 + ∆)n = k[Q1n + n Q1n-1 ∆ + …]

If ∆ is small compared to Q, the higher-order terms can be neglected and this yields

kQn = k[Q1n + n Q1n-1 ∆ ]

For a pipe loop, the sum of head losses for all pipes must be zero. This yields

ΣkQn = 0
or, Σk[Q1n + n Q1n-1 ∆] = 0
n
ΣkQ1 Σh
∆=− =− (17)
n−1 n ( Σh / Q )
nΣkQ1
The above equation is used in the Hardy-Cross method to get the value of correction that is applied to the assumed
flow through a pipe to obtain a better value.

Basic steps of this method are as follows :

Steps of the Hardy-Cross Method
1. Assume a distribution of flow in the network which should satisfy the continuity equation. Ensure that at
a junction, the sum of flows entering must be equal to the sum of flows leaving.
2. Determine the head loss in each pipe. As per the conventions, clockwise flows are given positive sign
and anti-clockwise flows are given negative sign.
3. Compute head loss for each loop, i.e., ΣkQ1n should be determined with due regard to sign.
4. Determine, Σk n Q1n-1 without regard to sign.
5. Substitute these values in equation (17) to determine correction term.
6. Apply the correction and determine the revised flow in each pipeline.
7. Repeat steps 1 to 6 till the correction term is negligible.
8. Estimate the pressure heads at various nodes using the head loss equation.

Example:
A simple WDN having two loops is shown in Fig. 6. The diameters and lengths of the various pipes are shown in the
diagram. Water enters the WDN at node A and the direction of flows through the various pipes is shown with the help
of arrows. The demands at various nodes are shown in the diagram. Assume the roughness coefficient C = 100 for all
pipes. Compute flow in each pipe by the Hardy-Cross method.

Solution:
To begin the calculations, the flow in each pipe is assumed such that the demands are met and the mass balance is
maintained. The computations are carried out iteratively. The solution is given in the table below. As an example, the
head loss hL for pipe AB is computed by:

1.85
⎛ 151 * 0.9 ⎞
h LAB = ⎜ ⎟ = 40.4233m
⎝ 100 * 0.55 2.63 ⎠

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0.22 m3/s F 0.45m A1.5 m3/s

1000 m

0.4m 0.55m
1000m 1250m

0.25 m3/s E 0.4 m B 0.3 m3/s

1000 m

0.4m 0.4m
1200m 1200m

0.5 m3/s D 0.35m C

Fig. 6 WDN of the above Example
900 m 0.23 m3/s

Fig. 6. Illustrative Example of a Looped WDN.

First iteration:

Top loop ABEF

Pipe Q (m3/s) Diameter (m) Length (m) hL (m) hL/Q m/(m3/s)
AB 0.9 0.55 1250 40.4233 44.9147
BE 0.2 0.4 1000 9.4230 47.1151
EF -0.38 0.4 1000 -30.8947 81.3019
FA -0.6 0.45 1000 -40.5491 67.5819
Sum -21.5976 240.9136
Correction ∆1 = -(-21.5976)/(1.85*240.9136) = 0.0485
Bottom loop BCDE
BC 0.43 0.4 1200 40.7640 101.9100
CD 0.17 0.35 1000 13.3590 78.5825
DE -0.33 0.4 1200 -28.5573 86.5371
EB -0.2 0.4 900 -8.4807 42.4036
Sum 17.0850 309.4332
Correction ∆2 = -(-17.085)/(1.85*309.4332) = 0.0298

Therefore, the correction to the flows for the top loop is 0.0485 m3/s and for the bottom loop, it is –0.0298 m3/s. For
the pipe BE, which is common to both loops, the net correction will be 0.0485-0.0298 = 0.0187 m3/s. With the
corrected flows, we proceed to the second iteration.

Second iteration:

Top loop ABEF

Pipe Q (m3/s) Diameter (m) Length (m) hL (m) hL/Q m/(m3/s)
AB 0.9485 0.55 1250 44.5453 46.9639
BE 0.2187 0.4 1000 11.1174 50.8342
EF -0.3315 0.4 1000 -23.9982 72.3928
FA -0.5515 0.45 1000 -34.6945 62.9094
Sum -3.0300 233.1003
Correction ∆1 = -(-3.03)/(1.85*233.1003) = 0.007

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Bottom loop BCDE

BC 0.3702 0.4 1200 35.3243 95.4194
CD 0.1402 0.35 1000 9.3525 66.7083
DE -0.3598 0.4 1200 -33.5103 93.1360
EB -0.2187 0.4 900 -10.0057 45.7508
Sum 1.1607 301.0145
Correction ∆2 = -(-1.1607)/(1.85*301.0145) = -0.0021

At this stage, the largest of the corrections is quite small and the discharges obtained after this correction can be
considered to be close to the true values. Generally, the convergence is rapid in the Hardy-Cross method even if the
initial guess is not good.

Node Formulation – Non-linear

In this formulation, the analysis is carried out in terms of the unknown total head (H) at each junction node. Using the
continuity equation, the discharge in a pipe that connects nodes i and j can be written as
Qij = [ (hi – hj)/Kij]1/1.85 (18)
where hi and hj are the heads at nodes i and j, respectively; and Kij is pipe coefficient for the connecting pipe.
Fig. 7 shows a node that receives flow from node i and two pipes carry water to nodes i+1 and i+2. Also, the
discharge Qout leaves the network at this node.

j
i+1 i+2

Qout
Fig. 7 A WDN node with three pipe connections and an outflow.

The mass balance equation for node j can be written (flow towards node is positive) as

Qi,j - Qj,i+1 - Qj,i+2 - Qout = 0

0.54 0.54 0.54

⎛ hi − h j ⎞ ⎛ h j − hi +1 ⎞ ⎛ h j − hi + 2 ⎞
or ⎜ ⎟ −⎜ ⎟ −⎜ ⎟ − Qout = 0 (19)
⎜ K i, j ⎟ ⎜ K ⎟ ⎜ K ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ j ,i +1 ⎠ ⎝ j ,i + 2 ⎠
The above equation can be written for each node. Thus, there will be a system of non-linear equations with the same
number of equations as the number of unknowns. These are then solved to obtain the unknown heads and thereby
flows in the pipes.

Node Formulation - Linear

This method is quite similar to the loop formulation of the Hardy-Cross method. But it has many advantages over the
other traditionally used methods. Let Qi be the discharge in pipe i. Rewriting the Hazen-Williams equation,
hL = K Q1.85
If a link begins at node ‘a’ and ends at node ‘b’, we have
hb – ha = K Q1.85
and hb > ha. The above equation can be linearized using the Taylor series as

hb – ha =K Qi1.85 + 1.85 K Qio0.85 q

where Qio is the estimated discharge in pipe i and q is the correction term.

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We can write
Qi = Qio + q
where Qi is the updated discharge in pipe i.

Substituting for q and simplifying, one gets

Qi = 0.46 Qio + 0.54 [hb – ha ]/(K Qio0.85)

There will be n such equations for n nodes. Note that the equations are linear because the unknown head appears with
a power of unity. This set of equations can be solved to get the unknowns in an iterative manner. The Hardy-Cross
node method begins with a set of estimated heads. These form inputs for computing flows at the nodes and the
residual discharge rates are determined using the continuity equation. The heads are iteratively adjusted to get the
solution.

Linear Theory Method

Linear Theory Method (LTM) is used in solving a system of equations with unknown flow rates or Q’s values. This
system of equations is easy to use if the network is flow rate oriented i.e. all the external flows to the system are
known. The LTM has several distinct advantages over the Hardy Cross or Newton Raphson method. First, it does not
require an initialization and secondly, it always converges in a relatively fewer iterations. However, its use in solving
head oriented or collective loop oriented equations is not recommended.

Transforming Non- Linear Energy Equations into Linear

Linear Theory transforms the non-linear loop equations into linear equations, approximating the head in each pipe by:
hLi = [Ki Qi (0) n-1] Qi (20)
= Ki’ Qi
Combining these artificial linear loop equations with J-1 continuity equations (where, J is the total number of
junctions in the network), we get a system of ‘N’ linear equations that can be solved by linear algebra. Finding the
correct solution is essentially an iterative procedure because Qi (0)’s will probably not have been estimated equal to
Qi’s produced by the solution. So, by repeating the process, we can improve the estimates of Qi (1)’s, Qi (2)’s…. Qi
(m)’s and eventually Qi’s. In applying the LTM, it is not necessary to supply the initial guess. Instead, for the first
iteration, each Ki’ is set equal to Ki, which implies all flow rates Qi (0) are set equal to unity. Also, since the
successive iterations tend to oscillate about the final solution, hence when two iterative solutions are obtained, then
each flow rate used in computation can be the average flow rate from last two iterations. i.e.
Qi = {Qi (n-1) + Qi (n-2)} / 2 (21)

Steps of Linear Theory Method

1. Obtain ‘K’ and ‘n’ for Exponential Formula for a range of realistic flow rates. The ‘K’ and ‘n’ values may be
obtained for any of the previously discussed equations such as Darcy Weisbach, Hazen William etc.
2. Form equivalent pipes for those pipes containing global valves and orifice meter etc.
3. Write J-1 continuity equations, with due regard to sign of flow rates. As per convention, flow rates for pipes
whose flows are assumed into the junction may be taken as positive and those out from junction may be taken
as negative.
4. Linearize the head loss equations by forming a coefficient Ki’ for each Qi which equals the product of Ki and
Qi (0) n-1.
5. For the first iteration, assume each Qi (0) = 1. Now, you get a set of linearized energy equations, which can
be solved using Gaussian elimination, Gauss Jordan elimination or other appropriate methods.
6. Once the values of Ki’s and Qi’s, are obtained from the previous step, we can use these values to modify
coefficients in the energy equation. Thus, the value of ‘K’ and ‘n’ in Exponential formula may be modified
and so the value of Ki’s.
7. Repeat the procedure with modified energy equations and obtain the values of Ki’s and Qi’s for the second
iteration.
8. Use average of the flow rates obtained from first and second iteration to define again the coefficients in
energy equation for third iteration and Later from second and third iteration to define the coefficients in
energy equation for fourth iteration.
9. Carry on these iterations till the last two iterations for Qi’s and Ki’s are similar upto a desired accuracy.

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Newton Raphson Method

Newton Raphson (NR) Method is the most widely used method because it exhibits quadratic convergence, which
means that each subsequent error reduction is proportional to the square of the previous error. Thus, if initial guess is
20% in error, successive iterations will produce errors of 4% 1.6% and 0.026% etc. converges rapidly to the solution.

In general, a solution to the equation F(x) = 0 is obtained by iterative formula i.e.

F (x m )
x m +1 = x m − (22)
F '(x m )

NR method may be used to solve any of three sets of equations i.e. the equations considering (1) the flow rate in each
pipe as unknown (2) the head at each junction as unknown (3) the corrective flow rate around each loop as unknown.
Unlike the Linear theory method, NR method requires an initial guess to the solution and is the best method to use for
larger system of equations.

Newton Raphson Method for a System of Simultaneous Equations

The iterative NR formula for a system is:

( m +1) (m)
x =x − D −1 F ( x ( m ) ) (23)

The unknown vectors x and F replace the single variable ‘x’ and function ‘F’ and the inverse of the Jacobian matrix
D-1 replaces 1/dF/dx in NR formula for solving single equation. For solving equations with heads as unknowns (Head
Equations), the vector x becomes vector H and for solving equations containing corrective loop flow rates, the vector
x becomes the vector H and if solving the equations corrective loop flow rates it becomes ∆Q. The individual
elements for H and ∆Q are:

H1 ∆Q1
H ∆Q2
H = 2 with known H omitted from vector or ∆Q =
... ...
Hn ∆Ql

The Jacobian matrix ‘D’ consists of derivative elements. For head equations, the Jacobian matrix ‘D’ is:

⎡ ∂F1 ∂F1 ∂F1 ⎤

⎢ ∂H .... ⎥
⎢ 1 ∂H 2 ∂H j⎥
⎢ ∂F2 ∂F2 ∂F2 ⎥
...
D = ⎢ ∂H 1 ∂H 2 ∂H j⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ... ⎥
⎢ ∂F j ∂F j ∂F j ⎥
⎢ .... ⎥
⎢⎣ ∂H 1 ∂H 2 ∂H j ⎥⎦

In the above matrix, the rows and column corresponding to the known head are omitted. The last term D-1F implies
the inverse of Jacobian matrix ‘D’. However, in application, inverse is not done, rather solution vector ‘z’ of linear
system DZ = F is subtracted from previous iterative vector of unknowns. Selecting the ‘H’ equations in the following
notation, the NR iterative formula in practice becomes:

m +1 m m
H =H −z

Further, the above exercise results in fewer computations. This method is shown below by means of an illustrative
example.

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Example:
For the simple one loop network given below, use Newton Raphson method to solve the head equations.

2 1.5 cfs
10”
1000’ all C = 120
12”
100’ 1000’
10”
1500’ 3
3.0 cfs
1
Solution:
To simplify the problem, Hazen William equation will be used so that ‘K’ and ‘n’ in the exponential formula are
constant. The values of K for the three pipes are: K12 = 1.622, K23 = 0.667 and K13 = 2.432.The head at junction 1 is
known and is equal to 30.5 m. The heads at junctions H2 and H3 at 2 and 3 are unknown and to be determined. To
determine these two unknowns, the head equations will be written at junctions 2 and 3.

1 / n12 1 / n23
⎛ H − H2 ⎞ ⎛ H − H3 ⎞
F2 = −⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟
⎟ + 1.5 = 0
⎝ K 12 ⎠ ⎝ K 23 ⎠
1 / n23 1 / n13
⎛ H − H3 ⎞ ⎛ H − H3 ⎞
F3 = −⎜⎜ 2 ⎟
⎟ + ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟
⎟ + 3.0 = 0
⎝ K 23 ⎠ ⎝ K 13 ⎠

Substituting known values of H1 and K’s and n’s, those equations become:

0.54 0.54
⎛ 30.5 − H 2 ⎞ ⎛ H − H3 ⎞
F2 = −⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ + 1.5 = 0
⎝ 1.622 ⎠ ⎝ 0.667 ⎠
0.54 0.54
⎛ H − H3 ⎞ ⎛ 30.5 − H 3 ⎞
F3 = −⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + 3.0 = 0
⎝ 0.667 ⎠ ⎝ 2.432 ⎠

∂F2 ∂F2
∂H 2 ∂H 3
The Jacobian D =
∂F3 ∂F3
∂H 2 ∂H 3

Has the following elements:

1 1
−1 −1
∂F2 0.54 ⎛ H 1 − H 2 ⎞ n12 0.54 ⎛ H 2 − H 3 ⎞ n23
= ⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜ ⎟
∂H 2 K 12 ⎜⎝ K 12 ⎠ K 23 ⎜⎝ K 23 ⎟
⎠
−0.46 −0.46
⎛ 100 − H 2 ⎞ ⎛ H − H3 ⎞
= 0.333⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + 0.809⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ 1.622 ⎠ ⎝ 0.667 ⎠
1
−1 − 0.46
∂F2 0.54 ⎛ H 2 − H 3 ⎞ n23 ⎛ H − H3 ⎞
=− ⎜ ⎟ = −0.809⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
∂H 3 K 23 ⎜⎝ K 23 ⎟
⎠ ⎝ 0.667 ⎠

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 Urban Water Supply Management, 2iE, Burkina Faso, November 01-15, 2008.

1
−1 − 0.46
∂F3 0.54 ⎛ H 2 − H 3 ⎞ n23 ⎛ H − H3 ⎞
=− ⎜ ⎟ = −0.809⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
∂H 2 K 23 ⎜⎝ K 23 ⎟
⎠ ⎝ 0.667 ⎠
1 1
−1 −1
∂F3 0.54 ⎛ H 2 − H 3 ⎞ n23 0.54 ⎛ H 1 − H 3 ⎞ n13
=− ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟
∂H 3 K 23 ⎜⎝ K 23 ⎟
⎠ K 13 ⎜⎝ K 13 ⎟
⎠
−0.46 −0.46
⎛ H − H3 ⎞ ⎛ 100 − H 3 ⎞
= 0.809⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ + 0.222⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 0.667 ⎠ ⎝ 2.432 ⎠

H2 95 0.432 − 0.233 z 2 3.98

If the initialization H = = is used by the Newton Raphson equation, =
H3 85 − 0.233 0.329 z 3 − 3.98

The solution is z2 = 4.34 and z3 = -9.04. When these are subtracted from the initial guesses H2 = 90.66, H3 = 94.04.
After completing six iterations the solution is: H2 = 91.45 and H3 = 90.84 m. Using these heads the flow rates are
computed as: Q12 = 2.454 cfs, Q23 = 0.954 cfs, and Q13 = 2.046 cfs.

Many softwares are available to analyze a WDN. WADISCO (Water Distribution Simulation and Optimization) by
Walski et al. (1990) is one such package, which can be used for the analysis of a WDN. The software KYPIPE was
developed by Wood (1980) and Rossman (2000) has described the software EPANET. The software FlowMaster
(Meadows and Walski, 1998) can be used for hydraulic analysis and design of pipes, ditches, and open channels.

REFERENCES

1. Bhave, P.R., 1991, ‘Analysis of Flow in Water Distribution Networks’, Technomic Publishing Co.,
Lancaster, Pa..
2. Gessler, J., and Walski, T.M., 1985, ‘Water Distribution System Optimisation (WADISO)’, TREL-85-11,
U.S.Army Corps of Engrs.Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg.
3. Jeppson, R., 1976 ‘Analysis of Flow in Pipe Networks’, Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
4. Kansal, M. L., 1996, ‘Reliability Analysis of Water Distribution System’, PhD. Thesis, Delhi Univeristy,
Delhi, India.
5. Kumar, S.,1999, ‘Some Studies on Hydrologic and Hydraulic Reliability Analysis in Water Resource
Systems’, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. Department of Civil Engineering, Delhi College of Engineering, India.
6. Mays, L.W. (Editor),2000, ‘Water Distribution Systems Handbook’, McGraw-Hill, New York.
7. Meadows, M.E., and Walski, T.M.,1998, ‘Computer applications in Hydraulic Engineering’, Haestad Press,
Waterbury, Connecticut.
8. Rossman, L.A., 2000, ‘Computer Models/EPANET. In Water Distribution Systems Handbook’, Edited by
L.W. Mays. McGraw-Hill, New York.
9. Walski, T.M., Gessler, J., and Sjostrom, J.W., 1990, ‘Water distribution systems: Simulation and Sizing’,
Lewis Publishers Inc., Michigan.
10. Walski, T.M., 1987, ‘Analysis of Water distribution systems’, CBS Publishers, New Delhi.
11. Wood, D.J., 1980, ‘Computer Analysis of Flow in Pipe Networks Including Extended Period Simulations
(KYPIPE) – Users Manual’, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington.

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