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RENAISSANCE (14th to 16th century) (1350 CE to 1550

CE)
Meaning –
- Rise of a new consciousness.
- Beginning of a new era.
- Revival of classical learning and wisdom.

Why Renaissance?
- Rise of wealthier class due to advancement of trade and
commerce.
- Rise of institutions in place of guilds.
- Universities were founded.
- Cities were developed.
- Invention of paper.
- The fact that the Earth is round got established.
- An eagerness to explore other countries through sea voyages.
- New discoveries in physics.
- A great longing to get free from too much interference of the
Church in every domain of life.
- Use of folk languages in place of Latin.
- Renowned Italian poet Dante (1265–1321 CE) preferred
Italian language over Latin as the medium of expression.
- The departure of scholars from Constantinople to Italy (1453 CE).
- The statement of Roger Bacon (1214-1292 CE) - "Nothing can be
known without experimentation."

Renaissance trends –
- Humanitarian view.
- Supremacy of logic and reasoning.
- Completely in favour of freedom and independence.
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- Scientific inventions and discoveries (Kepler, Galileo, Newton etc.)

- The prominence of imagination, beauty and love in literature.
- English language and Literature was at its best era of
Shakespeare.
- Development of art (Michel Angelo, Rafael, Leonardo da Vinci).
- The art of painting flourished the most.
- Depiction of life.
- Use of canvas.
- Use of bright colors.
- Introduction of Oil painting.
- Lots of experimentation.

- Development of national monarchies.

- Dominance of the Catholic Church lessened.

- The predominance of civilian life.

- Social life became more complicated.

Evaluation –
- The pioneer of the modern era.
- The rise of Martin Luther King.
- Ground for the French Revolution was prepared.
- Paved the way for scientific ideas.
- Hampered the nexus of religion and politics.
- The beginning of globalization.

Evolution of Society / Civilization

Origin of Organism –
- Indian Philosophy.
- Darwin’s Theory of Evolution.
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- Struggle for Existence

- Survival of the Fittest
- Selection of Nature

The Hunting Age –

- Power centric society (clan).
- Matriarchal.

Pastoral Age –
- Nomadic tribes.
- Cultural exchange.

Agricultural Age –
- Development of civilizations along the banks of rivers.
- States came into existence.
- Creation of art / literature / philosophy etc.
- Society and Culture were feudal in nature.

Modern Age –
(A) Commercial Era (pre-industrialization period - 16-17th century)
- Expansion of market.
- Currency based economy (standard currency by the end of the
18th century).
- Trading companies were formed–
- East India Company.
- Dutch East India Company.
- French East India Company.

(B) Industrial Revolution - (late 18th century)

- Scientific inventions translated into increase in production.

- Rolling machines were introduced for steel production in the
year 1754.
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- James Watt invented the engine in the year 1764.

- Spinning Jenny for spinning in the year 1765.
- Steam run spinning wheel in the year 1769.
- Faster means of transportation.
- Rise of the middle class.
- Proletariat class emerged.
- Exploitation by colonist nations.
- Beginning of industrial capitalist system.

Industrial Culture –
- Migration from villages to cities –
- Dependency on agriculture reduced.
- The Fall of Handicraft.
- Struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
- Growing consumerism.
- Urban life-style.
- Karl Marx’s ideas –
- Class Structure
- Class Struggle
- Revolution
- Social discontent and conflict was surging.
- In Indian context –
- Influence of western culture.
- Disintegration of joint families.
- Change in social / cultural values.
- Predominance of individualistic consciousness.
Industrial Capitalism –
- Publication of Adam Smith's book ‘The Wealth of Nations’ in the
year 1776.
- Introduction of free trade system.
- Formation of multinational companies.
- Industrial Capitalism in India (After the year 1947)
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- Controlled by a mixed economy.

- Emergence of industrial houses through personal efforts.
- Grew rapidly after the year 1980.
- Rapid expansion after liberalization in the year 1991.

Industrial Revolution
Why in England first?
- Accumulation of wealth received from colonial trade
(exploitation).
- Emergence of a national market by the end of the 18th century.
- Technological improvements/advancements in the fields of
transportation and communication.
- Prices of consumer goods decreased due to development of sea-
transport.
- Development of technology due to social mobility.
- Active role of government.
- Adequate availability of skilled workers and active people.
- Expansion of foreign market in the 18th century.
- Supply of raw materials from the colonies (especially for cotton
textile industry).
- Being an Island, Britain enjoyed a peaceful existence.
- Development of banks in a planned manner.

American Independence
Why the independence movement (American Revolution)?
Economic Reasons –
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- Major reasons were those that were behind the

independence movement of India also; for example:
- Economic exploitation by England.
- Tobacco exporters of Virginia were not allowed to use
non-British ships to export tobacco.
- At least 75 percent of the total employees (including
crew members) on these ships were required to be
British.
- Prohibition of copper smelting and manufacture of fur
caps in America.
- The Iron Act of 1750 prohibited the iron casting in
American homes.

Constitutional reasons –

- England's strong hold over American Colonies.

- Governors’ dominance over the executive.
- European ideology reaching America (ideology of
Hobbes and Locke).
Social Reasons –
- The nobles dominated the legislatures.
- Rise of bourgeoisie.
- A class with democratic sentiments (youth,
entrepreneurs and workers etc.).
The Boston Tea Party (1773 CE) –
- Protestors took out 343 chests of tea from the British
ships harbored at Boston and threw them into the Sea.
- This was done to protest against England’s 'tea policy'.
The Continental Congress at Philadelphia (1774 CE) –
- A meet of American colonies was held at Philadelphia.
- Declaration of Human Rights at the meet.
- Decision to boycott British goods.
- Confrontation with British army in the year 1775.
The Declaration of Independence –
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- Declaration of Independence by 13 American colonies

on July 4, 1776.

Impact of American Independence –

- Public sovereignty was accepted for the first time.
- Establishment of the first federal government in the world.
- Written constitution to be the basis of new federal government.
- Montesquieu’s theory of Separation of Powers was applied.
- Religion was made a personal affair.
- The rise of liberal thought in Europe (Enlightenment period).
- Provided an ideological support to the French Revolution (Louis
XVI felt a need to call an urgent meeting of the States-General).
- Britain's attitude towards India changed a bit – Introduction of the
Board of Control.
- British commercial policies started receiving widespread criticism.

The French Revolution (1789 CE)

Causes –
- About 100 peasant revolts between the year 1715 and 1765.
- Autocratic and luxurious rule of Louis XVI.
- Social division –
- The Priest and the Noble class (the privileged class) -
only three lakhs.
- Traders, farmers, laborers (the underprivileged class) -
about 5.5 crores.

- Economic condition –

- Pressure on economic sources due to rapid increase in

population.
- Economic recession.
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- Massive fiscal deficit.

- Continuous tax hikes.
Note: A meeting of the Estate-General (similar to Parliament) was
convened to consider the situation in the year 1789 (after about 175
years). A political deadlock occurred during the meeting; and the
same meeting was converted into a national assembly on May 2,
1789 and with it began the French Revolution.
- Role of the philosophers –
- Influence of the ideas concerning the American
Revolution.
- Popularity of Rousseau's ideas - sovereignty vested in
the public; go back to nature.
- Voltaire - influenced by the English system.
- Montesquieu – ‘separation of powers’; a staunch critic
of the Church.
- Stressed upon the natural laws and rationalism.

Consequences of the Revolution –

- Sentiments of equality, freedom and fraternity
developed.
- End of feudalism.
- Talent became the criteria for being privileged.
- The custom of slavery was discouraged.
- The authority of the Church reduced drastically.
- Introduction of a fair tax system.

Napoleon Bonaparte

The Rise of Napoleon –

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- The democratic form of French Revolution came to an end with

the rule of the Directory, as the Directory was not devoted to
republicanism.
- Disregard of the general public, the re-establishment of
traditional and autocratic power, and the rise of nationalism; all
these things prepared the ground for the rise of Bonapartism.
- Main problems under the governance of the Directory were -
internal turmoil, corruption, financial crisis, and lower rate of
success in wars against external forces.
- The king's supporters revolted against the Directory in 1795 CE.
These circumstances were favorable to Napoleon and he took full
advantage of it.
- Napoleon put an end to the Directory’s rule in 1799 CE.
- Napoleon began his political career after the French invasion of
Italy in 1796 CE and ended in the Battle of Waterloo. He defeated
Italy and Austria in 1796–97 CE.

Napoleon's Journey -
- Born on August 15, 1769. Died in May 1820. Ruled - from
December 1804 to 1814 CE, and for 100 days in 1815 CE.
- Was appointed as a General at the age of 24 years.
- Napoleon fought a famous war with the English commander
Nelson in 1805 CE. Napoleon was defeated in this Battle of
Trafalgar. But this did not end his career.
- He defeated Russia in the Battle of Friedland in 1807 CE and
entered into the Treaties of Tilsit with Russia. Napoleon seemed
almost invincible at this point of time. This was the peak of his
political career.
- He adopted the ‘Continental System’ against the Great Britain.
- Napoleon's decline began with the Moscow campaign of 1812 CE.
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- Napoleon was defeated in the Battle of Leipzig (also known as the

Battle of the Nations) in 1813 CE, and was exiled to the island of
Elba. But soon he regained the power of France.
- But his fate was finally decided at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815
CE. He was exiled to the island of St. Helena, where he died.

Major Reforms Introduced by Napoleon –

- Political Reforms –
- Napoleon continued the trend of centralization introduced
originally by the National Convention. He established the system of
‘Legislature with three Houses’.
- The scope of franchise was expanded.
- Stressed upon Indirect elections.
- Economic Reforms –
- His economic reforms suited the interests of the bourgeoisie.
- Napoleon followed the policies of the Directory and strengthened
the central government's hold on departments.
- Restored the usage of metal coins, which was started by the
Directory in 1797 CE.
- He established the Bank of France in 1800 CE and expanded its
credit system.
- He implemented the decimal system, which was started by the
National Convention itself.
- Napoleon established the Excise Bureau in 1804 CE.

- Social Reforms –
- Napoleon reorganized education.
- Established Imperial University in 1800 CE.
- Enforced the Civil Code in 1804 CE. The influence of the ancient
system can also be seen on this civil code. This Code declared
equality before the law (only for male citizens). It made the authority
of men over their families stronger. This civil code was influenced by
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Roman law, according to which women were subjected to men. They

were deprived of any individual rights. This was against the spirit of
the French Revolution.
- Napoleon was impartial in terms of religion. He used to say - "As far
as I am concerned I do not see in it (religion) the mystery of
incarnation (the God), but the mystery of social order." Nevertheless,
Napoleon entered into an agreement (the Concordat) with Rome in
1801 CE. According to that agreement Rome's interference in the
appointment of the clergy ended and French government’s control in
this matter was established.

Features of Napoleon’s Civil Code –

- Merit based system.
- Equality before the law.
- Right to property.
- Religious tolerance.
- Modern secular education.
- Strong economic condition.
- A competent local administration based on reason and common
sense.
- Promotion of science and art.
- Abolition of Feudal system.
- Codification of Law.
- End of rural exploitation.

Napoleon's Continental System –

- Napoleon introduced this so-called Continental System with the
issuance of Berlin Decree in 1806 CE.
- This Continental System clearly stated that no vessel/ship coming
directly from Britain or its colonies would be allowed into any port
under France and its allied countries.
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- Napoleon expanded the scope of this policy even further in the

Milan Decree issued in 1807 CE. Now even vessels/ships from
neutral countries that stopped in Britain before landing in Europe
were also banned.
- Another Decree issued in 1808 CE even announced the burning of
ships built in England.
- In retaliation to this Continental System, Britain passed an 'Order
in Council' and banned all kinds of trade with France and its allies.
This order made it mandatory for the vessels/ships from neutral
countries to dock at the English ports before going to the ports of
Europe.
- The Continental System was not merely an economic war; it was
one of the greatest strategies of promoting economic
protectionism by keeping the economic priorities in favor of
France. This made Italy and Holland economic colonies of France.

Failure of the Continental System –

- Despite many efforts by Napoleon, this System proved to be a
failure.
- This was a fallacious ideology, ignoring the fact that England was
not only a big exporter but also a big importer.
- Continuous support of the allied nations was necessary to make
this system successful, but as we know that with time the allied
nations gradually withdrew their support to this system.
- A competent navy was needed to facilitate this system, which
would curb black marketing and smuggling. But France and its
allies lacked such navy.
- Clever British traders also contributed to the failure of this
System. They contacted South America and kept supplying their
goods to regions such as Prussia, Holland, Spain and Naples
through their distribution centers in Heligoland and Malta.
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- There was also some discrepancy in Napoleon's own strategy. He

showed some generosity and imported some items from England
in 1808 CE. In return food grain was exported to England.
- This System proved to be suicidal. It embroiled Napoleon in a long
struggle, which began with an invasion of Spain and then resulted
in Moscow campaign, Leipzig campaign and finally, the battle of
Waterloo.

Factors responsible for the fall of Napoleon –

- The Continental System resulted in increased inflation and non-
availability of goods, which aroused public discontent and
angered the proletariat.
- Napoleon did not belong to any royal family, so he used to feel a
kind of inferiority complex in the company of European kings. His
unparalleled ability to achieve military conquests was the only
eligibility that entitled him to attend the meetings of European
kings. Therefore, he tried to stress upon this aspect as much as
possible.
- He had so much faith in his military abilities that he never tried to
learn how to establish peace through diplomacy. Therefore, he
used to resort to wars to make others comply the terms of
treaties.
- Three lakh soldiers were recruited by Prussia in 1813 CE. Austria
and Russia recruited even more than that. In this way Napoleon's
‘exclusivity’ came to an end.
- Napoleon was shocked to see Czar Alexander-I adopting a new
military technique called the ‘Scorched-Earth Retreat’ policy
during the Moscow campaign of 1812 CE. It was too late for him
to realize that he had committed a grave mistake of not
comprehending this policy beforehand.
- Napoleon's decision-related mistakes made his downfall even
more imperative. England and Russia were two great powers
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situated at the two ends of Europe. The cooperation of one of

these powers was necessary for any European power to carry out
its plans. Napoleon's Moscow campaign of 1812 CE proved that
he was blinded by the power.

Capitalism
- Capitalism is a social system based on the principle of individual
rights.
- Capitalism is an economic system, which is
- based on private ownership (a person as well as a group of
individuals) of the means of production.
- Work for profit.
- Where investments, prices and distribution of goods are
mainly determined by competition in free markets.
- Institutional form of capitalism started in Europe in 16th century.
- Adam Smith’s book ‘The Wealth of Nations’ (1776) talks of
economic independence on natural grounds, but the term
‘capitalism’ has not been used in it. With economic independence
(laissez-faire) –
- Production will grow to its peak, and
- Establishment of ‘a welfare state’ will be supported.
This idea of ‘economic independence’ is the backbone of
modern capitalism.
– After 1750, with the industrial revolution of Europe, capitalism gained new
force.
– Revolutionary changes in economic and trading areas between 1750 and
1850.
– Discussion of the capitalism in the context of the interpretation of Industrial
Revolution by Karl Marx – the principle of surplus value.
– Market being the center stage of social life is its main feature.
– The rise of the new class-system.
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Arguments in favor -
– Motivation through competition – in the sphere of prices, technological
advancements etc.
– The desire to obtain more private property.
– Economic development.

Arguments against it -
– Profit based system.
– Exploitation.
– Uneven distribution of wealth.
– Corruption
– Crime
– Economic factors taking control of political power.

Communism

- This is the ultimate culmination of the socialism described in the

Communist Manifesto (1948) rendered by Karl Marx and Friedrich
Engels.
- Establishment of a classless and egalitarian society.
- The demolition of all paradigms of economic domination, and the
ownership of the whole society on the means of production.
- Absolute prohibition of private property.
- Communal harmony.
- Establishment of a just society.
- Humanity is the only race/caste.
- Establishment of labor culture.
- No hesitation in adopting violent means.
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Communism – “From each according to her/his ability, to each according to

her/his need.”

Socialism – “From each according to her/his ability, to each according to her/his

work.”

– After the Great ‘October Socialist Revolution’ in Russia, the Bolsheviks took
the name Russian Communist Party. It issued another ‘Communist
Manifesto’ on the basis of which a new international movement called
‘International Communist Movement’ started. With the help of this
movement, communism began to spread in different countries.

Interpretation of communism by various leaders

– Stalin
 The colonies/dominions should be given the right of self-
determination.
 Planned economy (Five Year Plans etc.).
 Collectivization in agriculture.
 A totalitarian state.
– Lenin
 Hardcore revolutionary.
 Euphoric supporter of the end of imperialism.
 The Centralized Politburo.
 ‘Democratic Centralism’ or ‘Discussion in provinces but
implementation from centre’.
– Mao
 He believed that peasants should be the bulwark of the
revolutionary energy.
 Reconciliation of local traditions and problems with Marxism.

- Joseph Brozovich Tito (ruler of the communist Yugoslavia, 1892)

 Decentralization of national communist power.

 Private ownership of land by peasants.
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 Workers instead of the state and the bureaucrats having control

over the industries.
 Emphasized on relatively more freedom within the country.
 Tito’s ideas had more impact on Eastern Europe.

Socialism
– Socio-economic philosophy.
– Elements -
– Production, distribution, and exchange of wealth is owned or
regulated by the community as a whole.
– Against the rights based on private property.
– The middle path (mixed economy).
– Early Socialist thinkers conceived a society based on collaboration rather
than on individualism and competition.
– Was popular in European countries like England, France and Germany
during 1820-1840.
– Emerged in response to industrialization and urbanization.
– Lenin called socialism the first phase of communism.

USA – Roosevelt – economist Keynes called it the welfare-oriented version of

capitalism.
– Managing demand
– Economic nationalism
– Employment guarantee
– overcoming profiteering in the field of social service.
– Welfare schemes for the elderly, women, children, disabled and the
poor.
– Consequently, the gap between capitalism and socialism became
narrower.
– welcomed by both right-wing and left-wing.
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– This model had been quite popular for two decades after the World
War II.
– Communists believe that the welfare measures adopted by the
socialism did not end inequality and exploitation; they actually
strengthened the capitalism.

Rise of Nationalism in Europe in 19th Century

Introduction –
- Europe in the middle of the eighteenth century was existed as
autocratic monarchies and small nations.
- They all considered themselves of different cultures. They
belonged to different ethnic groups and spoke different
languages.
- Landlord class was clearly the elite and the most influential
section of the society at that point of time.
- But the industrial revolution brought two major changes –
(1) Urbanization; and
(2) The rise of the business class.
A spirit of national unity began to be nurtured among the
educated and liberal middle class under these circumstances. This
spirit later got transformed into nationalism.
- Meanwhile, the merchant/business class insisted on the free
movement of goods and people across different countries and
abolition of tariffs for the sake of preparing new consumer base
for their industrial production. Development of Railways
improved mobility of goods and people.
- After defeating Napoleon (the ruler of France) in 1815 CE,
European governments decided to adopt conservative approach
as it served their interests.
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- For this purpose, European nations like Britain, Prussia, Austria

and Russia (who had joined hands to defeat Napoleon) met in
Vienna in 1815 CE. They signed a treaty there - the Vienna Treaty.
- This treaty served two main purposes –
- Re-established the monarchy in Europe, and
- ensured continuance of conservative system.
- This resulted in –
- Autocratic monarchies.
- Oppression of liberals.
- Censorship of Press.
- Formation of various anti-government organizations (some
open, others secret).
- These conservative rulers had to face number of revolts and
movements between 1830 CE to 1848 CE. Most of these movements
were led by middle class people such as professors, teachers,
intellectuals, clerks and small businessman.
- The independence of Greece inspired nationalist revolutionaries.

Elements of Nationalism–
- Promotion and propagation of nationalist culture through poetry,
art, dance & music and stories.
- Praising the ‘glorious’ past of the nation.
- Criticism of science and reason.
- Emphasizing on emotions, insights and cabalistic facts.
- Stressing upon the need for restoration of folk culture, folk arts and
folk traditions.
- Economic crisis in Europe as a result of industrialization since 1830s,
etc.

Consequences –
- Finally, in 1848 CE, people suffering from widespread
unemployment and hunger took to the streets of Paris.
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- The ruler Louis Philippe ran away.

- National Assembly declared the country to be a Republic.
- Men above 21 years of age were given the right to vote.
- Right to Work granted.
- Government (national) factories were established.
- The unification of Germany and the unification of Italy were the
results of this nationalist spirit.
- It marked the beginning of the abolition of autocratic monarchy,
and the demand for a political system based on constitution,
freedom of press and parliamentary principles started gaining
momentum.

Unification of Italy (1815 CE – 1871 CE)

- The biggest deterrent - Austria.
- Unification under the leadership of Piedmont-Sardinia state.
- Count Cavour made it an international issue.
- Credit goes to (jointly) - Count Cavour + Mazzini + Garibaldi.
- Young Italy - founded by Joseph Mazzini in 1931 CE.
- Rome was declared the capital of United Italy in 1871 CE.
- Cavour completed the unification in 1871 CE.
- Victor Emmanuel, ruler of Piedmont-Sardinia, was declared the
Emperor of the Kingdom of Italy after the completion of the
process of the unification of Italy.
- Initiator of Italian Unification - Mazzini.
- Total 13 states were unified under the Kingdom of Italy.
- The process of unification began in the year 1815 CE with the
Congress of Vienna and was completed in the year 1871 CE when
Victor Emmanuel conquered Rome and declared it the capital of
the Kingdom of Italy.
- The remaining few states joined it after the World War-I.
- Italy regained the ancient glory of Rome.
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Mazzini –
- Influenced by the French Revolution.
- Formed an organization called 'Young Italy' (in 1830 CE). The
membership of 'Young Italy' crossed 60,000 by the year 1833 CE.
- Held Austria guilty of Italy's plight.
- Supporter of Republic form of a nation.
- Great propagator of patriotism.

Victor Emanuel-II
- Ruler of Piedmont.
- Different from other European rulers.
- Supporter of nationalism + democracy. Liberal, patriotic, brave
and patient.
- General public considered him an 'honest king'.
- Cavour was his Prime Minister- A loyal and talented Prime
Minister.

Count Camillo di Cavour –

- The person who contributed the most in the Unification.
- An efficient diplomat.
- Born in a landlord family.
- Supporter of constitutional monarchy and parliamentary system
of England.
- Became the Member of Parliament in 1848 CE.
- Became the Prime Minister of Piedmont in 1852 CE.
- Adopted the policy of appeasing France to get foreign aid.
- Efficiently presented the Italian claim to independence during the
Treaty of Paris in 1856 CE. Proved Austria guilty and demanded to
end its influence. Consequently, Emperor of France Napoleon-III
agreed to provide military aid.
- A secret verbal agreement (‘the Plombieres agreement’) took
place between Count Cavour and the French Emperor, Napoleon
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III, in 1858 CE. This agreement ensured French

military intervention in the event of Austrian aggression
against Piedmont. In return for this help, Piedmont had to cede
Savoy and the county of Nice to France.
- Lombardy and Venetia revolted against Austria at the hint of
Cavour. The war broke in 1859 CE. But France did not intervene
because it feared confrontation with Russia. Also, it was a costly
affair.
- Referendums were held in Modena, Parma and Tuscany (mid-
Italy) in 1860 CE. All of them decided to merge with Piedmont.
- Now it was South Italy’s turn. Sicily and Naples were the states.
Garibaldi was the leader here. He did not expect any foreign aid.

Garibaldi –
- He had received naval training. He was also into maritime trade.
- He was influenced by Mazzini.
- He formed the ‘Thousand Red Shirts’ (an army of patriotic
volunteers). With the help of this army he merged the southern
part to the Kingdom of Italy.
- There were mass revolts against the rulers in southern states of
Sicily and Naples.
- Help was sought from Garibaldi. He, with the help of his army,
easily freed Sicily and merged it with Piedmont in 1860 CE.
- He took control of Naples also in the year 1860 itself. Francis-II,
the ruler of Sicily-Naples, fled.
- Victor Emanuel was declared the Emperor of the Kingdom of Italy
in a meeting of Parliament held in February 1861 CE.

Conquering Rome –
- Cavour wanted to make Rome the capital of newly formed
Kingdom of Italy. But Rome was under Pope’s control.
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- In the year 1870 CE, there erupted a war between France and
Prussia. As a result, France had to withdraw its army deputed in
Rome.
- Taking advantage of this situation, Italy invaded Rome.
- Italy conquered Rome in September 1870 CE.
- Victor Emanuel entered Rome on June 2, 1871. Inaugurating the
Parliament of Italy, Emanuel said - "Our national unification is
complete. Now our job is to make the nation great."
- In the unification of Italy, Mazzini acted as heart, Cavour as brain,
and Garibaldi as arms.
.

Unification of Germany

- The Unification of Germany into the German Empire was

announced on 18th January 1871 in the Hall of Mirrors at the
Palace of Versailles in France.
- The Vienna Settlement of 1815 CE created a loose German
Confederation of 39 States which was led by Austria. This
Confederation was governed by autocratic kings who held mutual
envy. Metternich neglected the liberals.
- The session of the Federal Assembly was held in Frankfurt.
- Revolutions took place in Germany in the year 1830 and 1848, but
they were suppressed.
- Propagation of ‘German-pride’ by scholars like Hegel, who called
German nationalism 'a collective soul'.
- Leader - Prussian emperor William-I (in 1858 CE).
- Prime Minister - Bismarck.
- States included - Prussia + Bavaria + Saxony etc.
- Establishment of the German customs union ‘Zollverein’ in 1834 CE.
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Otto Eduard Leopold Bismarck –

- He was chosen as a representative to the newly created Prussian
legislature in the 1847 CE.
- He was appointed as the Ambassador of Germany to Russia in
1859 CE.
- He was appointed as the Ambassador of Germany to Paris in 1862
CE.
- All these appointments made him well acquainted with the then
political situation in Europe. Then he was appointed as the
Minister President (or the Prime Minister) of Prussia in the year
1862 CE.
- Supporter of the policy of 'blood and Iron'.
- No faith in democracy and parliamentary system.
- He stressed upon increasing the military strength of Prussia.
- He played an important role in driving Austria out of the German
Union.
- Unification of Germany under the leadership of Prussia.
- Seeking foreign aid, and
- Was not hesitant in adopting illegality, disregard and neglect.

Three major steps of Unification –

(1) Occupying territories from Denmark (1864 CE) –
- The Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein had been united
under Danish rule since 1460 CE. The majority of people
lived in Holstein were of German descent, while the
population of Schleswig consisted of Germans and
Danes in equal numbers.
- Invasion of Denmark with the help of Austria. Denmark
was defeated. As a result, Holstein and Schleswig were
occupied by Germany.
(2) Convention of Gastein –
- Schleswig was handed over to Prussia.
 26

- Holstein was handed over to Austria.

- Prussia bought Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg.
- This treaty was a diplomatic victory to Bismarck. He
considered it a temporary settlement that could be
disregarded at any time.
- This attitude of Bismarck gave rise to dispute between
Prussia and Austria. Germany occupied two Duchies by
accusing Austria of violating the treaty.
- Bismarck proposed to reform the German
Confederation which will drive Austria out of it.
- This liberal measure was rejected by Austria.
- Austria requested the Parliament of the Confederation
to take action against Prussia, which resulted in Prussia
separating itself from the Confederation and declaring
war against Austria.
- This war is called the 'Seven Weeks war'.
- Prussia emerged victorious in this 'Battle of Sadowa' of
1866 CE.
- According to the Treaty of Prague in 1866 CE –
- Austria had to accept its expulsion from the
German Confederation, and
- The dissolution of the German Confederation
was approved.
- As a result –
- Bismarck formed a new organization called the
'North German Confederation'.
- Enemy states were directly merged into Prussia.
Thus North Germany had been united
under the leadership of Prussia in 1866 CE.
(3) Unification of South Germany -
- Bismarck and Prussia had proved their military
supremacy.
 27

- Now there was only France, which was hindering the

unification of Germany. France wanted to keep Germany
divided.
- Austria's defeat in the Battle of Sadowa reduced
France's influence in Europe.
- France was seeking to maintain the balance of power in
Germany, hence it demanded some territories from
Germany. Bismarck kept rejecting these demands. But
the Germans got agitated when France demanded
Luxembourg. Britain also got annoyed with France. As a
result –
- France was isolated.
- Bismarck in turn gained sympathy from Russia
and Austria.
- Bismarck also befriended Italy by promising it
the necessary aid in conquering Rome.
- France anticipation that driven by fear and
jealousy towards Prussia, the Southern German
states would support the France proved wrong.
- Bismarck cleverly told the southern states that
France (Napoleon III) had demanded territories of
Germany from him. This provoked the southern
states and they decided to support Prussia.
- Prussia severely defeated the French army in the
Battle of Sedan in 1870 CE, forcing Napoleon-III to
surrender. This led to the collapse of the Second
Empire of France and the establishment of a
republic there.
- The war ended with the Treaty of Frankfurt in
1871 CE. Thus the unification of Germany was
completed.
 28

- William-I was declared the ruler of this Unified

Germany in the 'Hall of Mirrors' at the Palace of
Versailles on 18th January 1871. The constitution
of Northern Germany was accepted as the new
constitution. Main provisions of this constitution
were –
- Federal structure
-Upper House - Bundesrat (representatives
of all states)
- Lower House - Reichstag - (representatives
elected by direct and universal suffrage)
- Supreme executive power - vested in the
State.
- Capital – Berlin
- The population of today’s Germany is 82.5
million, which is the highest among European
Union countries.

United States of America

Understanding about developments in USA, Britain and Japan improves

understanding about world history.

USA purchased Louisiana from France and Alaska from Russia. It won Texas and
California from Mexico.

Abraham Lincoln ended slavery. After this, America focused on its internal
development. Its population increased rapidly after 1910 as it opened its door for
all people of world. After internal development it adopted imperialistic policy.

It acquired Cuba, Philippines, and Guam Island. It strengthened its hold over Latin
American countries. Then drawbacks of industrialization started to emerge in
 29

America as well. American Federation of labor was formed which started

demonstration at many places which turned violent. Labor day is celebrated on 1
May because some labor and police were killed during demonstration by this
union in America.

It grew rapidly by supplying arms etc. during First World War.

Britain
Key Points –
- Britain was not a nation until the 18th century. It was merely an
island. There were three main ethnic groups on this island -
English, Welsh and Irish. All these groups had their own
languages, cultures and political systems.
- In the year 1688 CE, the British Parliament took over all the
powers from the monarchy.
- Then this very Parliament constituted a nation called Britain.
England was at the center of this newly constituted nation.
- The United Kingdom of Great Britain was formed in 1707 CE as a
result of an agreement between Scotland and England. This led to
England's domination on Scotland, as England had more number
of members in the Parliament than Scotland did have.
- Ireland was forcefully included in the United Kingdom of Great
Britain in 1801 CE.

Japan
Ancient Japan –
- In the 12th century Japan, the real power was in the hands of the
Shoguns.
 30

- From 1603 CE to 1867 CE, the people of the Tokugawa clan held
the post of Shogun.
- Samurai (warrior class) were the nobles who ruled.
- The following three important changes in the last decades of the
16th century laid the foundation of the development of Japan–
(i) Farmers forbidden from keeping arms. This
established peace in the society.
(ii) It was made mandatory for Military lords/governors
(Daimyo) to stay at the capital, and they were given
autonomy.
(iii) Classification of land based on productivity for
taxation purpose.
- As a result –
- Three big cities -Edo (Tokyo), Osaka and Kyoto- were
developed.
- A vivacious culture developed in cities, and
- People developed a liking for reading and writing. They
became studious.

Meiji Clan –
- The Tokugawa clan was destroyed under the leadership of the
Meiji clan in 1867–68 CE.
- The Emperor signed a treaty with the American Commodore
Matthew. This had a significant impact on Japan's politics.
- The government introduced a new policy with the slogan "Enrich
the Country, Strengthen the Armed Forces".
- The ‘Emperor System’ was re-established. Under this system, the
trio of the emperor, bureaucrats and army together governed the
country. The army and the bureaucracy were accountable to the
emperor.
- Some officers were sent to Europe to study the political system.
 31

- Westernization of the emperor by considering him a descendant

of the Sun.
- Modern institutions were established.
- Orders were issued for making education compulsory for boys and
girls.
- Education system emphasized on knowledge of Japanese history
as well as modern ideas.
- A new administrative structure was created.
- Military education was made compulsory for the boys as soon as
they achieved the age of 20.
- A state-of-the-art military was developed.
- As a result, Japan won the wars against China and Russia.
- Japan underwent economic development.
- It established its colonial empire.

Modernization –
- Economic reforms were one of the most important areas of Meiji
reforms.
- To arrange the funds for undertaking these economic reforms,
agriculture sector was taxed.
- Foreign trainers were called for training of workers.
- Japanese students were sent abroad to study.
- A modern banking system was introduced in 1872 CE.
- Private companies were given tax exemptions, and were also
sanctioned grants.
- The Meiji Constitution was based on limited suffrage.
- They also formed the Parliament (Diet).
- The Emperor himself was the commander of the military forces.

Consequences –
- People of the villages started migrating to the cities.
- The number of industrial workers increased significantly.
 32

- The number of modern factories increased, with women workers

outnumbering men workers.
- The first modern strike in 1886 CE was also organized by women
workers.
- Even there were movements against pollution (generated as a
result of industrialization) in the year 1897 CE.

Post-World War-II –
- Japan too developed imperialistic aspirations after strengthening
military.
Driven by this tendency, it joined the axis of Germany-Italy in
the World War-II.
- But the unfortunate event of the USA dropping the atomic bomb
on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 CE leaved Japan devastated.
- From the year 1945 to the year 1947, Japan was completely
dominated by the America. During this period-
- Japan was demilitarized.
- A new constitution was formed, according to which using war
as a national policy was forbidden.
- Elections were held in Japan in 1946 CE. Women were given the
voting rights for the first time.
- After that Japan focused all its energy on its economic
reconstruction. As a result, its rapid economic prosperity astonished
the entire world.
The spirit of 'patriotism' was one of the main driving forces,
which made this miracle happen.
 33

Colonialism

- When people of one geographic area establish a colony in another

geographic area with the assumption that there is nothing wrong
in it, it is called colonialism.
“Local people, who are governed by foreign powers, are devoid of political
rights.”

Why Colonialism?
- To earn profit.
- To become more powerful and resourceful economically and
strategically.
- To Propagate Christianity.
- To civilize the colonized people.
- To be a part of imperialism.

When did it begin?

- It started with Constantinople being conquered by the Turks in
1453 CE.
- With geographic discoveries.
- With the emergence of commercialism/industrial revolution.
- It was an outcome of the desire to discover the new world

 Bartolomeu Dias – Cape of Good Hope

 Vasco da Gama (Portugal) – India
 Columbus (Spain) – America
 Magellan (Portugal) – Philippines + South-East Asia
 William Drake (UK) – Circumnavigated the globe
 John Cabot (UK) – Canada
 Cartier (France) – St. Lawrence River
 34

John Locke’s philosophy –

In the ‘Second Treatise of Civil Government’ (1690 CE), Locke justifies the
establishment of a civil government at such places and the development of
wealth acquired by individual efforts for personal benefit. Later on, this
very idea became the basis for the justification of unequal ownership of
land.

Two types of Colonialism

1. Settler Colonialism: The climate of places like America, Australia and New
Zealand was favorable to the European people, so large numbers of
European people chose to settle there. Land's original inhabitants were
killed off or driven away to less desirable areas to make room for European
people. Land was grabbed and turned into a ‘home like’ place (swadesh).
2. Exploitation Colonialism: The climate of places like India and Nigeria was
not favorable to the European people, so they settled in a small number.
Mainly economic exploitation.

Reasons behind the establishment of a Colony

– Three ‘Gs’
– Gold
– Glory
– God
– Raw material
– Market for their manufactured goods
– Population explosion
– Suitable climate for the cultivation of potato, tobacco, corn etc.

Periods -
1. Around 1500 CE – Spain, Portugal, Great Britain, France, Holland etc.
established their colonies.
 35

2. Around 1870 CE – USA, Germany and Japan established colonies. Mainly

Africa was the target.
– Belgium – Congo River valley
– France – Algeria (construction of the Suez Canal)
– Great Britain – Egypt, Barbados, Jamaica
– France – Tunisia, Morocco
– Italy – Libya
– Spain – mainly Latin America
– Portugal – Angola

Imperialism v/s Colonialism

- Colonialism is more complex than imperialism, as it affects
indigenous people more deeply and comprehensively. Under
Colonialism, the colonized people are controlled socially,
economically, politically and culturally. While under imperialism,
primarily political control is there.
- Military power is used for the spread of imperialism and a war is
always on the cards. For the spread of colonialism, war is not
mandatory.

Neo Colonialism
- USA
- World Bank
- Through Arms supply
- Indirect war policy
- Diplomacy in international conferences
- Through foreign aid
- Human Rights
- Nuclear disarmament
- Liberalization/Globalization – WTO

Three types of Imperialism

 36

– Military – Hitler, Mussolini

– Economic – Britain, Dollar, Oil diplomacy
– Cultural – USA, Literature, Communism

Expansion of Colonialism
Colonization in Asia
 First a Portuguese company came to India. It was followed by
companies from Britain (1600 CE), Netherlands (1620 CE) and France
(1663 CE).
 Dominance of Portugal, France and Holland over South-East Asia.
Colonization in Africa -

 Slave trade (sold and bought as the peasants for sugarcane

cultivation).
 Slave trade was started by Portuguese.
 No effect of European Culture.
Colonization in Latin America -

 Primarily the dominance of Spain.

 Portugal, Britain, France and Holland also made their presence felt,
especially in Caribbean regions.
 Promotion of horticulture.
 37

The World War-I

(20th July 1914 – 11th November 1918)

Reason –
- The obscure network of treaties and counter-treaties between the
nations of Europe –
- Frankfurt Treaty of 1871 resulted in Germany snatching away
the Territory of Alsace-Lorraine from France. This was a
national humiliation to France.
- Germany (Bismarck) was constantly trying to isolate France.
This resulted in a treaty between Germany and Austria.
- Italy was angry with France, hence joined hands with
Germany. Therefore, a threesome treaty was signed between
Germany, Austria and Italy.
- A treaty was signed between France and Russia in 1894 CE.
- England and France entered into a treaty in 1904 CE.
- Having been defeated by Japan in 1905 CE, Russia, along with
France and England, formed the Triple Entente.
- Thus, by the first decade of the 20th century, Europe has
been divided into two groups - (1) Germany (2) England.
- In order to gain the upper hand, European nations began to
indiscriminately place a greater emphasis on militarization.
This created an atmosphere of fear and doubt throughout
Europe.
- The colonies in the continents of Asia and Africa had already been
distributed among industrialized nations by the first decade of the
20th century. Consequently, all European powers were focused in
Europe itself. This too contributed in creating an atmosphere
conducive of war.
- The nationalist sentiment that was born in Europe around 1850 CE
attained its peak.
 38

- Austria annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina into its empire in 1908 CE.

Because of this Serbia was full of indignation towards Austria.
This very region became the immediate cause of the World
War-I.
- Franz Ferdinand, the successor of the Austrian throne, and his
wife got assassinated on 28th June 1914 while on a visit to
Sarajevo.
- On July 23, Austria demanded Serbia to accept some conditions
within 48-hours. But it was not possible for Serbia to fulfill all
those conditions.
- Consequently, on July 28, 1914, Austria declared war on Serbia
and bombed its capital Belgrade.
Thus began the World War-I, which ultimately ended with the
Treaty of Paris on November 11, 1918.

Consequences of World War-I –

- Propagation of Nationalist Ideology:
- The World War-I provided a chance to the nationalist
ideology to witness an upsurge again.
- The spirit of nationalism was promoted at the Paris Peace
Conference.
- The uprising of the spirit of nationalism resulted in the
formation of new countries like Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and
Finland.
- The propagation of the spirit of nationalism led to fierce
movements in China and Turkey. The development of this
nationalist sentiment made political leaders in Egypt
successful, which resulted in England withdrawing its control in
1922 CE.
- A movement against England began in Ireland too, and
eventually Northern Ireland became independent.
 39

- Development of Democracy:

- The end of the World War-I also brought with it the end of
three great dynasties of Europe – Romanov Dynasty (Russia),
the Habsburg Dynasty (Austria) and the Hohenzollern Dynasty
(Prussia).

- Turkey became a republic. Greece also declared itself a

republic.

- The Rise of Right-wing Trend and Totalitarianism in Europe –

- Finally the World War-I ended and the process of economic

reconstruction began in European countries. Responsibilities of
governments increased. As a result, governments’ rights and
powers also increased unexpectedly. Therefore, the ‘right-
wing’ trend emerged in European countries at that time.

- Bolshevik government was established in Russia while Nazi

and Fascist governments took charge in Germany and Italy
respectively.

- In the new global scenario, Asia and America also gained

importance.

- Colonialism suffered a major setback in the post-World War

world. People in Colonies became more demanding as the
Allies stressed upon the principles of democracy and self-
determination.

- A decrease in the number of men was another consequence

of the World War-I, which resulted in to more importance to
the women in European politics and social life. It was starting
of the ‘Feminist Movement’.

- Labourers' vote share also increased giving more importance

to labor class in the political life of Europe.
 40

- Emphasis was laid on the establishment of international

organizations. This resulted in the establishment of the League
of Nations.

Paris Peace Conference

Introduction –
- The World War-I ended on November 11, 1918. Then on January
18, 1919, a peace conference was held in Paris, the capital of
France. This conference was dominated by four important leaders
- Woodrow Wilson (USA), Lloyd George (UK), Clemenceau
(France) and Orlando (Italy).
- Later Orlando (the President of Italy) withdrew from the
conference, but remaining three leaders continued to dominate.
- The real power of this peace conference was vested in the
Supreme Peace Council. There were a total of 58 commissions,
from small to big, to implement important decisions. These
commissions held 1600 meetings. Important objectives of the
Paris Peace Conference were –
- Creation of the League of Nations.
- Imposition of war reparations.
- Solving the problem of minorities.

- The Paris Peace Conference emphasized the principle of nationalism

and self-determination in determining the new national boundaries
of European countries.
 41

Treaty of Versailles
Introduction –
- The German representatives signed the treaty on June 28. The
very next day, an essay titled 'Don’t forget it’ was published in a
German newspaper. This essay said that “The disgraceful Treaty is
being signed today. Don’t forget it! We will never stop until we
win back what we deserve.” It is believed that these words sowed
the seeds of World War-II.
- Territorial Provisions of the Treaty of Versailles:
• The Rhine region was divided into three parts and the Allies
continued to occupy these areas.
• Saar land was given to France for 15 years. France could
explore mineral deposits (coalmines) of this region. At the end
of the period of 15 years, the fate of the region was to be
decided by plebiscite .
• Northern Schleswig was snatched away from Germany and
returned to Denmark.
• Danzig was declared an independent city. Poland was given
a ‘corridor’ to the Baltic Sea, which passed through Germany.
As a result, East Prussia was separated from the rest of
Germany.
• The territories of Eupen and Malmedi were ceded to
Belgium.
• Poland was given most of West Prussia and Poznań (Posen).
- Military Provisions of the Treaty of Versailles:
• The German army was restricted to 100,000 soldiers for the
next 12 years.
• The maximum number of German warships was reduced to 6
and Germany was denied the right to keep a submarine.
 42

• The Rhineland was to be demilitarized. The German army

was prohibited to enter an area of 31 miles around the
Rhineland.
- Economic Provisions of the Treaty of Versailles:
• Germany was held responsible for the losses and damages
(economic) caused by the war. It was arranged that Germany
would give 15 billion dollars to the Allies by the year 1921 and
after that 1.5 billion dollars every year.
• Important mineral fields were snatched away from Germany.
Nevertheless, it was arranged that it would continue to give 80
lakh tons of coal annually to England and Belgium and 7 million
tons to France.
• Moreover, the burden of repaying the debts that Belgium
had borrowed from the Allies in the midst of the war was also
imposed on Germany. It was like rubbing the salt to its
wounds.
• This treaty cost Germany 28 million square miles of land area
and 60 lakh people.
• 65 percent of Germany's total iron production, 45 percent of
coal production, 72 percent of raw zinc production, 12–17
percent of grain production and 10 percent of finished goods
were being spent in paying for war reparations every year.

Criticism faced by Paris Peace Conference –

- At the Paris Peace Conference it was conveyed that the new
national boundaries were to be determined on the basis of the
principle of nationalism and self-determination. But this stand
was completely disregarded. On the one hand, Arab nationalism
was promoted to weaken Turkey's power and on the other hand,
Jews were also promised a separate state. This problem later
emerged as the Arab-Israel dispute.
 43

- Fear of Bolshevism was terrorizing the organizers of Paris Peace

Conference. Therefore, some nations were promoted to check the
spread of Bolshevism. In doing so the principle of nationalism and
self-determination was again disregarded.
- At the Paris Peace Conference, the defeated nations were not
given a chance to present their case. A unilateral treaty was
‘dictated’ to them. Later this became a major cause of
dissatisfaction.
- Germany was gravely injured by this treaty. But further it was
allowed to work independently.
- The post-World War situation became complex as America wasn’t
willing to get involved in European politics. England, on the other
hand, shifted its focus on the protection of its markets. Now
France alone was incapable of controlling Germany. This made
the upcoming German retaliation inevitable.
- Italy was also deeply discontented with the Paris Peace
Conference and believed that it had been deceived. This paved
way for rise of fascism in Italy.
- For all these reasons, the Paris Peace Conference became a major
cause of World War-II. However it would be unfair to think that
only this Conference gave rise to the circumstances of the Second
World War, because surely many more factors were responsible
for this.

The Global Depression

Introduction –
- This Great Depression began in the year 1929 and continued till
the mid of the next decade.
 44

- During this time a drastic fall was registered in the production,

employment, income, trade, and value of currency of most of the
countries in the world.

Reasons/Causes –
- Although the World War-I had come to an end, the negative
impact of the war had started to affect the economy of the world,
especially Europe.
- But on the contrary the economy of America flourished greatly, as
America remained neutral throughout the war and earned
handsomely by supplying war materials to all.
- As a result, the USA gave loans to most of the European countries.
- Due to overproduction in the agricultural sector, the prices of
agricultural produces fell drastically. Consequently, income of
farmers started decreasing.
- Considering the deteriorating condition of European economy,
American banks stopped lending to Europe. This caused collapse
of European banks.
- American banks also collapsed due to the non-repayment of
existing loans.
- In order to save its economy, the United States doubled the
customs duty on imported goods. This severely affected world
trade.
- The boom in economic growth witnessed by the world during the
World War-I suddenly ended once the war was over. Millions of
people became unemployed due to layoffs in industries.
- Purchasing power of people decreased significantly, resulting in
the start of a vicious cycle of weakness in the world economy.
This resulted in depreciation of values of world economy
almost to the extent of having no value at all.
- Stock markets crashed.
- Poverty and hunger spread like wildfire.
 45

Impact on India –
- Farmers and weavers suffered greatly as the prices of
commodities were reduced almost to half.
- Amount of India's foreign trade (import and export) also reduced
to half.
- Farmers became hugely indebted.
- But in cities it did not have that much impact; especially the
landlords and the salaried middle class weren’t affected at all.
- Succumbing to the pressure of the Indian leaders, British
government increased import duty on foreign goods to protect
Indian industries. This encouraged investment in indigenous
industries.

‘The New Deal’ by President Roosevelt (1933–1945 CE)

- In the first hundred days after taking the oath of office in 1933,
Roosevelt, the President of USA, made a series of decisions with a
swift pace.
- The ‘Emergency Banking Act’ allowed the twelve Federal Reserve
Banks to issue additional currency to the banks (on good assets)
so that banks would be able to meet every legitimate demand
from their customers.
- Gold no longer remained the standard of financial exchange. Gold
requirement for issuing dollar was reduced. Export of gold and
silver was regulated.
- The speculative market was regulated.
 46

- A systematic law related to production, fair wages and prices,

working hours, labor regulations, and unfair trade was enacted
through the 'National Industrial Recovery Act' (Blue Eagle Act) in
1933 CE. Employment opportunities for about 40 lakh people
through various construction projects were created.
- Through the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), the Federal
Government launched a comprehensive scheme of providing
electricity and irrigation facilities spread across several states.
(The Damodar Valley scheme launched in independent India was
based on this model).
- Long standing demands such as old age pension, unemployment
allowance, assistance to pregnant women and their children, and
public health benefits were fulfilled by enacting the Social Security
Law. This proved to be a historic initiative.
- Government also dared to raise taxes on the profit of
industrialists.
- A 'National Labor Board' was constituted, which assumed
responsibility for arbitration and agreements between the
workers and the owners.
- Thus, in the first four years of his presidency Roosevelt passed a
total of twenty-one major and hundreds of minor laws.

- Meaning and Evaluation of the 'New Deal' –

- The New Deal is often summed up by the ‘Three Rs’:
- Relief (for the unemployed)
- Recovery (of the economy through federal spending and job
creation), and
- Reform (of capitalism, by means of regulatory legislation and
the creation of new social welfare programs).
To achieve these objectives, Roosevelt adopted a policy
of ‘government intervention as needed’ instead of ‘laissez-
faire’.
 47

- Adopting ‘New Deal’ delivered the following results in the eight

years:
1. The financial sector gained confidence and became well-
organized/regulated.
2. Regulation of the farms made it more organized and also
increased income.
3. The youth got employment.
4. There were huge changes in the industrial sector. Large scale
manufacturing and construction projects increased
employment and purchasing power. Child labor was abolished,
and working hours (8) were fixed.
5. America, which was lagging behind the countries of Europe
in the field of social security, began to implement the concept
of a true welfare state by implementing new set of rules and
regulations under the ‘New Deal’.
An example of this was - the artists working in drama
etc. were also offered jobs.

6. Better rules were made to manage workers' organization

and movement within capitalist framework.

7. Schemes like TVA transformed rural America.

8. The 'forgotten common man' was brought up as main

agenda of the State.

The 'New Deal' was not really that 'new'. It simply applied the
idealistic-behaviorist side of the United States firmly at the
time of crisis. The New Deal was neither socialist, nor
capitalist. But it proved capable of controlling the monopoly.

The contribution of Roosevelt is that he clarified the

social and economic responsibility of the state, expanded it,
and also redefined ‘national interest’.
 48

Nazism

Reasons behind the Rise of Nazism –

- The danger of Spread of ideology of Bolsheviks (Russia) prevailed
in Germany. The capitalist and the wealthy peasants of Germany
were afraid of its propagation. Therefore, they encouraged
Nazism.
- During the Great Depression, all the sections of the German
society were suffering from economic crisis. The Nazi party was
making alluring promises and was offering various appealing
assurances to all these sections.
- German political parties failed to solve the problems of the
masses and unite against Nazism.
- Hitler's practical intelligence made the Nazi party successful.
- The middle class of Germany had become distrustful of
democratic institutions. This class was more than willing to
cooperate with any powerful or promising party that would
protect its interests.
- The then Weimar Republic of Germany had failed to solve the
problems of the masses. This republic was also associated with
the humiliating Treaty of Versailles.
- This was an ideal time for the emergence of an opportunist leader
like Hitler.

Hitler –
- Hitler joined The National Socialist German Workers’ Party as a
member and became its leader in 1921 CE. Later he changed its
name to the Nazi Party.
 49

- Hitler was imprisoned after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow

the German government in 1923 CE. While in prison, he wrote
'Mein Kampf'.
- Hitler was a man of sharp intellect. He took full advantage of the
anxiety and fear of the German public.
- He was a great orator.
- He presented a 25 point program to appease the German public.
National prosperity and unity were emphasized in this program.
- It emphasized on employment to all. In addition, Hitler also
assured the German public of getting rid of Communists, Jesuits
and Jews.
- Landlords and industrialists started encouraging the Nazi Party to
avoid the worker’s revolution.
- Hitler's socialist tendency attracted the labor class. Hitler assured
them that he would implement land-reform programs, and
nationalize large industries.
- Public dissatisfaction in Germany was further intensified by the
French occupation of the coal mines at Rhine in the 1920s, as it
caused economic losses as well as national humiliation.
- All these situations resulted in the Nazi Party securing 6.5 percent
votes in the elections of 1924 CE. All in all, the Nazi party was
gradually becoming popular. It secured 1.37 crore votes in the
Federal elections of the Reichstag in 1932 CE.
- On the other hand, the labor parties did not make any attempt to
form a united front against Nazism from 1930-32 CE.
- Hitler became the Chancellor of Germany on January 30, 1933.
Formation of a powerful government was the prime requirement
at that time.
- The German public was full of fear and apprehension. The labor
class was afraid of unemployment and the middle class feared
economic crisis and law and order problems. Hitler and the Nazi
Party comprehended it very well and took full political advantage
out of this situation.
 50

- After coming to power in 1933 CE, Hitler revoked the general civil
liberties provided under Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution.
This was justified by saying that Germany was in danger of
conspiracy of the Communists.
- German President Hindenburg passed away in 1934 AD. Now
Hitler merged the posts of the President and the Chancellor into
one and himself ascended to that post. Thus he became the
absolute dictator of Germany. He assumed the title of ‘Fuhrer’
(the Leader).
- He became the new Commander-in-Chief of the German
Army.
- He threw out Jews and his political enemies from the civil service.
- Hitler formed a secret police organization called 'Gestapo' to
control his political opponents.
- In order to solve the problem of unemployment, Hitler laid great
emphasis on public works, re-armament and military recruitment.
As a result, unemployment decreased significantly. Hitler
introduced the first Four-Year Plan Memorandum in 1934 CE.
- Workers' right to strike was abolished and all trade unions were
brought under the control of the State.
- Various types of subsidies were provided to the farmers.
- Hitler aimed at creating a large and healthy rural population.
- According to the Nazi concept, 'blood and soil' can be considered
as strength of any nation.
- Control over artists and writers established. They were expected
to sing praises of the Nazi ideology and importance of labor. They
had to emphasize that the interest of the State is paramount
compared to the interest of the individual.
- Hitler also made a pact with the Roman Catholic Church in 1933
CE. He wanted to reconcile with religion.
- Propagating non-Judaism was included in Hitler's priorities. He
passed a law in 1933 CE, which prohibited entry of Jews into civil
service.
 51

- Also, a policy of national boycott was adopted against the Jewish

business class. Jewish students, doctors and lawyers were
removed from universities, hospitals and courts respectively.
- The Nuremberg Laws of 1935 deprived the Jews of citizenship,
and restrictions were imposed on them marrying non-Jews.
- Riots broke out against Jews in 1938 CE and many Jews were
killed.
- Thus, Hitler's way of ruling was against the constitutional and
liberal tradition of the West. This is why some critics believe that
the Nazi party strangled the spirit of the French Revolution.

Objectives of the Foreign Policy adopted by Hitler -

- The first and the foremost objective of Hitler's foreign policy were
to make Germany a strong military power by disregarding the
terms of the Treaty of Versailles.
- The second objective was to create such a great German empire,
which would also include the German people of neighboring
countries. This policy was propounded by some radical leaders of
the National Socialist (Nazi) Party. But it did not get wide
acceptance in the party.
- The third objective was to acquire land up to the Ural Mountains
in the eastern region, so that additional German population could
be settled there in future.

How this foreign policy evolved –

- Emphasized the militarization of Germany.
- Germany stepped out of the Disarmament Commission of the
League of Nations in October 1933.
- Hitler played an important role in the formation of the Nazi Party
in Austria in 1934 CE.
- He set the prime objective of freeing himself from the military
restrictions of the Treaty of Versailles.
 52

- With the help of Nazi Party already active in Austria, Hitler

annexed Austria to Germany in March 1938.
- This was an outcome of the policy of appeasement. Hitler's
confidence grew manifold after this treaty.
- He annexed Czechoslovakian territory of Bohemia and Moravia to
Germany in March 1939.
- Gradually, Hitler started developing a soft corner for Stalin. On
the other hand, Stalin was also dissatisfied with the policies of
Western countries. It seemed to him that Western countries
wanted to use Nazism and Fascism against Soviet Russia. As a
result, a non-aggression pact was signed between Soviet Russia
and Germany in August 1939.
- It was predictable that Hitler's next step might be invasion of
Poland. Therefore, England assured Poland of military aid in case
of German invasion.
The German army finally invaded Poland on September 1,
1939. England and France declared war against Germany on
September 3, and with this the World War-II began.

Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis –
- The formation of this axis was a natural outcome of Germany’s
aggressive foreign policy. Germany and Italy had many things in
common-
 Both countries were deeply upset with the Paris Peace
Conference.
 Both were the last to join the race of colonialism.
 Totalitarianism in both the countries.
 Both were in opposition to the League of Nations.
- Hitler signed an Anti-Comintern agreement with Japan in 1936 CE.
Mussolini too started changing his mind by 1936 CE.
 53

- Italy was thrown out of the League of Nations and an economic

blockade was done against it.
- Japan too was declared illegal by the League of Nations.
- Now all three powers (Germany, Italy and Japan) were in the
same boat. So all three joined hands against the League of
Nations, Communism and Soviet Russia. Mussolini visited Berlin in
1937 CE. Eventually, the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo axis was formed.

Mussolini and Fascism

Benito Mussolini –
- Born in 1883 CE.
- He was influenced by Garibaldi's anarchism and Mazzini's
nationalism.
- Initially he was a staunch opponent of imperialism, but after the
year 1922 he became an opponent of socialism.
- An opportunistic politician.
- Extremely influential speaker.
- Founded the National Fascist Party in March 1919.
- The membership of the National Fascist Party was only 17
thousand in the year 1919, which went up to 50 lakhs in the next
two years.
- Mussolini took advantage of the economic crisis and the
weakness of the cabinet during the period of 1919-1922.
- He formed his government in 1921 CE by threatening to march
on Rome.
- He formed a paramilitary wing of the Italian National Fascist Party,
called 'Black Shirts'.
- He had also become the Commander-in-Chief of the Italian Army
by the year 1925.
 54

- Thus, Mussolini vested all the powers in him.

- He abolished all other political parties except the National Fascist
Party by the year 1926.
- He formed a secret police called 'OVRA' to suppress the
opponents.
- He started the process of reconstruction of Italy with a swift pace,
which made Italy a powerful and prosperous nation within a few
years.
- He swung the proletariat in his favor by establishing control over
industries.
- He recognized the Vatican as an independent country by signing
an agreement (known as Lateran Treaty) with the Pope in 1929
CE.
- Took advantage of the psychology of the crowd by praising Italy's
past.
- Entered into a treaty with Germany in 1936 CE.
- And eventually joined the World War-II after becoming fully
confident of his success.
- The King and the Parliament removed Mussolini from power in
1943 CE.
- Mussolini was sentenced to death on April 28, 1945.

Totalitarianism

- Third decade of the 20th century witnessed the rise of

Totalitarianism in Europe.
Fascism and Nazism were its two most distorted forms.
- This totalitarianism bagged ideological support of nationalism and
socialism, because both these ideologies emphasize on the
supremacy of the State.
 55

- Due to industrial revolution, technological advancement and

development of means of transport and communication, it
became easy to control various aspects of people’s life.
- There are two forms of totalitarianism we come across-
- Left wing - led by Stalin
- Right-wing - Fascism (Mussolini-Italy) and Nazism
(Hitler-Germany).

Fascism –
- It is a staunch opponent of individual capitalism, international
socialism, liberalism and democracy.
- It believes that "everything is within the State and nothing is
above the State or outside the State or against the State."
- Some other characteristics –
- It took refuge to radical nationalism.
- Believed in the concept of an ‘almighty’ State.
- Concept of one party, one leader.
- Opposed democracy and communism.
- Stressed upon economic self-reliance.
- focused on developing military power.
- Glorified violence, etc.

Fascism vs. Nazism

Similarities –
- Both were fiercely anti-communist.
- Both were totalitarian and both subjugated civil Rights under the
supremacy of the nation.
- Both believed in economic self-reliance.
 56

- In order to fulfill their so-called noble objectives, both of them

advocated ‘harmony among different sections/classes of the
society’.
- Both believed in radical nationalism, glorified war and had faith in
the supremacy of the leader.

Dissimilarities –
- Mussolini could not find such a comprehensive solution to the
problem of unemployment in Italy as Hitler did in Germany.
- The fascist government in Italy did not prove as efficient as the
Nazi government in Germany.
- Nazism was based on racism, whereas fascism was not.
- Hitler was anti-Jewish, while Mussolini was not. It was only after
the year 1938 that his stand became somewhat anti-Jewish under
Hitler's influence.

World War-II
Global Scenario –
- England had become very powerful by this time.
- America and Japan had started registering their presence as
influential nations.
- The right to self-determination to the nations was being
advocated.
- There was tremendous dissatisfaction with the Treaty of
Versailles.
- Germany and Italy had authoritarian governments.
- The League of Nations had weakened significantly.
- Economic condition of Europe had deteriorated due to division of
large nations into several smaller states.
- Economic health of the post-World War-I world was poor –
 57

- The Great Depression of 1929, which lasted until 1933

CE.

Political Scenario –
- Germany annexed Austria in 1938 CE.
- Germany also signed the Munich Agreement with Czechoslovakia
in 1938 CE.
- Japan annexed Manchuria in 1931 CE.
- Legal government of Spain was overthrown by fascist forces.
- Mussolini annexed Abyssinia (Ethiopia).
- The world was plagued by communism.

Important Treaties and Invasions –

- England assured military aid to Poland.
- Hitler signed an Anti-Comintern agreement with Japan on
November 25, 1936, which was essentially an anti-communist
agreement.
- A Non-aggression Pact was signed between Russia and Germany
on August 23, 1939. Germany invaded Poland on September 1.
- Poland got defeated within three weeks.
- For the next seven months there were only minor skirmishes. War
was limited to Eastern Europe. This phase is called ‘Phoney war’.
- A few days after German invasion of Poland, Russia invaded
Poland to grab Ukraine and the Belorussia.
- Russia captured the Baltic states like Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia.
These states used to be a part of Russia before the World War-I.
During the course of the war they gained independence from
Russia.
- Rome-Berlin-Tokyo axis came into existence in May 1939 –
- Italy + Germany + Japan (the Pact of Steel).
Through this treaty, the three nations pledged mutual aid to
each other.
 58

- Hungary, Romania, Slovakia and Bulgaria also joined this treaty in

March 1941.
- People living in Austria were of German origin and spoke German
language. So, at the provocation of Hitler, the Nazi party of
Austria created such a situation that in the year 1938 Hitler
invaded Austria and annexed it to Germany.
- Same thing happened with Czechoslovakia in the same year. It
was invaded and annexed to Axis Alliance. Sudetenland of
Czechoslovakia was home to 30 lakh Germans. Therefore, it was
handed over to Germany. This decision was made at the Munich
conference (Britain + France + Italy + Germany) in 1938 CE.
- Invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939 – to reclaim the
territories (the province of Posen + the ‘corridor’ passing through
Germany) lost in the Treaty of Versailles.
- After annexing Poland, the Axis alliance captured Denmark,
Norway, Holland and Belgium also in the year 1940 without giving
any justification.
- The invasion of France (Paris) in 1940 CE- Half of the France fell
under the direct governance of Axis Alliance while the rest was
ruled by a ‘representative’ government, which was mere puppet
in the hands of the Axis Alliance.
- Italy joined on June 10 after the defeat of France.
- After conquering France they marched towards Balkan countries-
- Invasion of Greece.

- Declared war against Russia in 1941 CE. Italy invaded Egypt while
Japan attacked Indochina.

The Atlantic Charter –

- Released by the United States and Great Britain on August 14,
1941. A total of 25 Allied nations signed this agreement by
January 1942.
 59

American President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Churchill

were the main architects behind this Charter.

Announcements –
- The countries signing it would not expand their geographical
boundaries. In other words, they would not seek territorial gains
from the war.
- They agreed that the people of every country have the right to
choose the kind of government they want.
- They were in favor of free trade.
- They were willing to help all those who want to remain
independent and do not interfere in the freedom of others.
- They will protect the freedom of the seas.
- They will abandon the use of the military force and will move
towards disarmament.

Policy of War –
- Germany and Italy had conquered the whole of Europe except
Russia and Britain by June 1941.
- Britain had conquered all its African colonies by December 1940.
Italy was driven out of the whole continent except Libya.
- Germany launched the most deadly invasion of the Soviet Union
on June 22, 1941.
- America's entry into the war –
- America was sympathetic towards Britain.
- Supply of weapons and other ammunitions.
- Later, America took the responsibility of protecting the
cargo ships going to Britain.

- Japan attacked the American naval bases at Pearl Harbor on the

Hawaiian Islands on 7th December 1941. 188 aircrafts and warships
were destroyed and 2000 soldiers died in this attack.
 60

The very next day, i.e. on 8th December 1941, America

declared war against Japan.

- Three days later, i.e. on December 11, Germany and Italy also
declared war against America.
- Japan annexed several islands in the Pacific region (Philippines,
Indonesia, Burma, Malaya, Singapore, and Thailand) by the end of
1942.
- It was at this time that an anti-fascist coalition was formed, which
was termed by Churchill as the ‘Grand Alliance’.
- The war between Germany and Russia continued throughout the
year of 1942. The German army experiences major defeat by the
January 1943.
- The Allied nations reclaimed many of their islands in the Pacific
(that had been annexed by Japan) in 1943 CE.
- Meanwhile, Italy witnessed widespread discontent among the
Italian masses. Mussolini was dismissed on 25th July 1943, and a
new government came into power. Italy surrendered
unconditionally on September 3, 1943. Mussolini was sentenced
to death on April 28, 1945.
- Germany was devastated by Russian attacks by January 1945. The
Russian Army imposed a blockade on Berlin on 25th April. Allied
nations had captured a large part of West Germany by April 15.
Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945. The same day Russia
hoisted its red flag at the Parliament House in Germany.
- Germany surrendered unconditionally on May 8, 1945.
- Although the war in Europe ended with the liberation of
Czechoslovakia on 11th May 1945, it continued in other regions.
- America dropped nuclear bombs on Hiroshima of Japan on August
6 and on Nagasaki on August 9. About 3.25 lakh people died.
Japan called for ceasefire on August 15.
- Clashes between Japan and Russia continued till the end of
August.
 61

- Finally, World War II ended with the surrender of Japan on

September 2, 1945.

The Aftermath of World War-II

– Nazi war criminals tried for one year in Nuremberg, Germany. Only 12
people were convicted.
– Instead of punishing Germany, Italy and Japan, the policy of cooperating
with their governments was adopted.
– About 50-60 million people were killed many of them were civilians. Atom
bomb was used for the first time.
– Under the ‘Marshall Plan’ (June 1948, by the President of the USA,
Truman), a comprehensive program for reconstruction of the Europe was
enacted without considering the winning-losing sides. This is how Germany
could bounce back quickly.

The most significant immediate effects

– UNO: An international convention was held in San Francisco from April 25
to June 26, 1945. On June 26, the United Nations Charter was signed by 50
nations. This Charter became effective from October 24, 1945.
– The process of decolonization sped up: Asian, African and Latin American
countries started getting independence.
– The world got divided into two groups :
1. Capitalist group – USA + Western Europe (NATO, 4th April 1949)
2. Socialist group – USSR + Eastern Europe (Warsaw Pact, 14th May 1955)
– Non-aligned countries: In 1964, the G-77 group of developing countries
came into existence. Non-Aligned Movement 1961.
– A change in global perspective on economic policies :
 62

1. The economy based on large-scale production cannot be sustained

without extensive consumption.
2. Government/state intervention is necessary for economic stability.
Note: The main objective of the post-war economic system was to
maintain economic stability and full employment in the industrial world.
Consequently, in the Bretton Woods (America) Conference –

Bretton Woods Twins

1. The International Monetary Fund (IMF)
2. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World
Bank in colloquial language) was set up for the arrangement of funds.
These organizations started working in 1947 CE.

De-colonization
Introduction –
- Although anti-colonial sentiments had started brewing up since
the last decade of the 19th century itself, it got intensified after
the World War-I and the process of de-colonization gained
momentum.
Reasons/Causes –
- New global scenario –
- Atlantic Charter of 1941.
- United Nations came into existence.
- Rise of two colonial superpowers- America (USA) and Russia
(USSR).
- Deteriorating economic and political situation of colonial nations.
- Intensification of anti-imperialist sentiments in the colonies.
- Influence of Marxist Ideology.
- Emergence of the following three types of ideologies in Asia and
Africa –
 63

(i) Islamic ideology in Asian-African countries challenged

European dominance.
(ii) The ideology of Asians aroused the sense of self-respect
among Asians.
(iii) The ideology of pan-Africanism inspired Africans to
challenge European supremacy.
Consequences –
- De-colonization of colonies:
- Korea claimed independence in 1945 CE - from Japan.
- Philippines claimed independence in 1946 CE - from America.
- India claimed independence in 1947 CE - from Britain.
- Burma and Sri Lanka claimed independence in 1948 CE - from
Britain.
- Tanganyika in 1961 CE, Uganda in 1962 CE, Kenya in 1963 CE,
and Suriname etc. in 1975 CE.

Russian Revolution of 1917 CE

Introduction –
- This revolution is considered a highly significant event in the
world history.
- This revolution was different from other earlier revolutions in the
sense that it was based upon and driven by a certain ideology.
- There were two revolutions in Russia:
(i) In March 1917 - Bourgeois Revolution (end of
bureaucracy), and
(ii) In October 1917 - Proletarian Revolution (control
in hands of the proletariat).
Reasons/Causes –
- Extremely incompetent and autocratic ruler (Czar).
 64

- Russia's heavy defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1905, which

resulted in a great discontent and resentment in the hearts and
minds of Russian people.
- Societal division into elite and worker classes.
- Indigent section of the society was deprived of the benefits of
industrialization.
- Presence of a group of 32.5 lakh workers in the mining sector.
- These workers formed the Social Democratic Party in 1898 CE.
- Propagation of Marxist ideas by intellectuals.
- Social conditions were exposed by Itellectuals (Tolstoy, Turgenev,
and Dostoevsky).
- Introduction of western liberal thought to the people of Russia.
- Non-Russians’ opposition to the Czar's policy of Russianization.
- World War-I paved way for this revolution.
- Russia's economic condition had deteriorated a lot by this time.
- At the same time, the workers' organization 'Soviet' came into
existence.
- Finally, millions of workers/laborers got mobilized in the city of
Petrograd resulting into riots.
Phases –
- Czar was forced to step down on March 15, 1917.
- Later, Menshevik party came into power under the leadership of
Kerensky. But there remained discontent and resentment in the
society.
- This was the time when Lenin launched the revolution with the
help of Germany and the proletariat (workers/laborers) of Russia.
- Lenin's views & ideas resembled those of the socialist-minded
party, Bolshevik. Hence Lenin bagged their support.
- Finally, the proletarian revolution under Lenin's leadership in
October, 1917 was successful.
- The Constituent Assembly was formed at the end of 1917 CE.
 65

- Later, the Bolshevik Party established its complete authority over

Russia under the leadership of Lenin.

Importance of Russian Revolution –

- It introduced a new ideology to the world as an alternative to the
capitalist system.
- The idea of five-year plans is an important contribution of Russia
to the world.
- The success of the Russian Revolution inspired the socialist and
communist movements in other countries.
- Western nations adopted a policy of appeasement of the fascist
powers to combat the communists. This posed a threat to world
peace.
- The whole world got divided into two camps - Communist and
Capitalist.
- Consequently, after the World War-II, the entire world got
adversely affected by the Cold War.
- This ideology served to control the shortcomings of capitalism.
Consequently, a liberal form of capitalism emerged.

Lenin's Policies
Key Points –
- Lenin was forced to compensate Germany heavily as war
reparations (according to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk).
- Successfully withstood the invasions of England, France and
America by forming a 'Red Army' under the leadership of Trotsky.
- Founded a secret police organization called 'Cheka' to suppress
internal rebellion.
- Minorities were given many relaxations.
 66

- New Economic Policy –

- Lenin realized that to improve the deteriorating economy, some
amendments in policies were necessary. This required some practical
modifications in Marxist values. Following were the main points of
the new economic policy –
1. Forced recovery of grain from farmers was abandoned.
Instead, a certain type of tax was imposed on them. Earlier this
tax used to be collected in the form of agricultural produce,
but after the year 1924 it was collected in the form of
currency.
2. Farmers were also allowed to sell their produce in the open
market, which they were allowed to retain after payment of
taxes.
3. Small-scale individual enterprises were also encouraged.
4. Only large-scale industries and public utility related services
were nationalized.
5. In order to meet the capital shortage, foreign capitalists
were given permission to invest capital and gain dividends.
Foreign investment was encouraged especially in projects
related to agriculture and engineering. But the State retained
the right to purchase the produce.
6. Private retailing was permitted subject to certain
regulations. But the State established its own retail stores to
maintain the competition. At the same time, the State also
encouraged the establishment of consumer related
cooperative organizations.
Lenin controlled the shortage of production with the
help of this new economic policy. This resulted in an
unprecedented increase in agricultural and industrial
production. Some critics criticized these new economic policies
and accused them of implementing bourgeois policy. Lenin
 67

responded by saying that "Taking one step backwards after

taking three steps forward is yet equal to being two steps
forward."

Stalin's Policies
Key Points –
- Joseph Stalin took over the power of Russia after the death of
Lenin (in 1924 CE).
- Stalin ruled for 30 years.
- In order to secure himself, he entered into non-aggression
treaties with many neighboring countries including Turkey and
Germany.
- Stalin overruled the views of Trotsky and focused on making the
policy of socialism successful in Russia.

Economic Policies –
- Introduced five-year plans in 1928 CE.
- Adopted collectivization in the field of agriculture in 1929 CE.
- Special attention was paid to restructuring of manpower.
- The 'carrot and stick’ policy was adopted.
- Strikes were banned.
- Production targets were set.

Other Policies –
- Properties belonging to the Church were confiscated, and libraries
and other institutions were established by demolishing the
churches.
- Education was freed from the influence and control of the Church.
- Education fee was waved off.
- Scholarship system was introduced.
 68

- Equal participation of women in various walks of life was ensured.

Conclusion –
- Because of these policies:
- Russia went through rapid industrial development.
- Russia became a developed nation.
- Socio-political structure went through many changes.
- A new Soviet Russia came into existence.

First and Second Opium Wars

Introduction –
- Until the eighteenth century, the people of China considered their
empire as a divine empire.
- They considered their country as the center of the universe and
other countries as barbarians.
- Earlier it was customary for the foreigners to kneel three times
and bow nine times before the Chinese emperor. But when Lord
McCartney came as British envoy in 1793 AD, he was allowed to
show respect in the usual European way.
- But the Chinese reply to the respectful letter of the British ruler
George-III was very arrogant. The business proposal was also
turned down.
- Neither missionaries nor businessmen, politics or diplomacy were
successful in doing what opium did.
The Opium Wars –
- Illegal opium trade was the major cause of these wars; hence they
are called ‘opium wars’.
- These wars exposed the vulnerability of the Chinese Empire and
opened China up completely to be plundered by the Europe.
First Opium War (from 1839 CE to 1842 CE) –
 69

- The East India Company started growing opium in India and sold
it illegally in China in 1773 CE.
- The people of feudal China gradually became addicted to using
opium instead of tobacco in hookah. This brought huge profits to
the British traders.
- This illegal opium trade of the British in China increased 10 times
during the first four decades of the nineteenth century.
Restrictions imposed by the Chinese government proved
unsuccessful as smuggling became rampant.
- Chinese people were being made addicted to opium and Chinese
government was unable to do anything.
- In 1839 CE, China sent Lynn-tse-shu, a highly skilled and
determined officer, to Canton. He strictly ordered the British
traders to surrender the boxes of smuggled opium to the
government. He threatened those traders to punish severely if
found to be trafficking again. Traders had no other option but to
surrender 20 thousand boxes to the government, which were
then dumped in the river.
- But the British officer Elliot threatened to avenge it in the name of
his Queen Victoria.
- Amidst these stressful situations, some British (who were drunk)
killed a Chinese man.
- When Lynn asked Elliot to hand over the killers to him, Elliot
refused. Thus the tension kept mounting.
- British Prime Minister Palmerston sent ships and troops deployed
in India to China. The canton was besieged and the war began.
British forces were being backed up by other western countries.
- Chinese government could not stand for long and agreed for
reconciliation. Hence a treaty was signed in August 1842. The
army of the Chinese Empire had been defeated by a few thousand
British soldiers.
 70

- The key terms of the Treaty of Nanjing/Nanking (1842 CE) –

1. Four more ports along with Canton were opened to British
merchants.
2. The island of Hong Kong was ceded to Britain.
3. An equal tax of 5 percent was levied on import-export to establish
a ‘fair and reasonable’ tariff.
4. ‘Cohong’, a monopolistic guild of Chinese merchants running for
centuries was dissolved.
5. Diplomatic equality was established.
6. The British citizens could be tried in British courts only.
7. China had to pay total 2.1 billion dollars as war reparations.
7. Whatever rights or privileges China will grant to any other country,
will also be granted to Britain automatically.
The most ironic thing in this treaty was that there was no
mention of the opium trade; the thing that actually had led to the
war. Hence the smuggling of opium continued to grow. This treaty
posed a question mark on the sovereignty of China. The plunder and
exploitation of China had begun. Not only England but all imperialist
nations became greedy, especially America.

The Second Opium War (1856 CE to 1860 CE) –

- This humiliation of China and the inefficacy of the Manchu regime
led to frequent revolts in multiple provinces of China, known as
the Taiping Rebellion (1850–64).
- The Manchu government had to seek foreign aid to suppress
these revolts. Now that the Chinese government had become
dependent on foreign aid for solving its internal problems, it was
natural for the supporters to become greedy.
- The British now started demanding for more concessions. They
started transporting the indigent Chinese as workers to America;
Just as Indian workers were being taken to Mauritius and Guyana.
 71

- The British now began pushing for amendments to the Treaty of

Nanking.
- Meanwhile, a French priest was sentenced to death in China on
charges of inciting rebellion. The French Emperor, Napoleon-III,
saw this as a golden opportunity and became eager to exploit
China by supporting Britain. Consequently Britain, along with
France, raised another war against China.
- Britain alone had defeated China in the First Opium War, so no
one could expect China to win this time as now Britain was not
alone; it was aided by France.
- Ultimately, China was forced to enter into the Treaty of Tientsin
(also known as the Treaty of Tianjin) in 1860 CE. According to the
treaty –
1. Foreign diplomatic ambassador would be entitled to be
established respectfully in Peking.
2. All the foreigners would be entitled to travel in the internal
regions of China, which had formerly been banned.
3. Ten more Chinese ports would be opened for foreign trade.
All foreign vessels including commercial ships will enjoy the
right to navigate freely on the Yangtze River.
4. Christian missionaries would be allowed to run their
activities in all of China.
5. China agreed to pay for war reparations.
6. Coastal tax would be made more favorable to foreigners.
7. The import of opium would be made legal.
This provision put China in a position of ‘between the devil
and the deep blue sea’.
When Chinese government showed evasiveness in
legalizing opium trade, foreign forces entered Peking and
started destroying the city. The Emperor's beautiful
summer palace was also destroyed. In the end, the
government had to agree to the demand of legalizing
 72

opium trade. Foreign nations took advantage of this

situation and demanded for some more concessions.
The Second Opium War openly declared China's
helplessness. No matter if China had yet to be formally
declared a colony, it was already left open to the plundering
by the Western imperialists. The Manchu regime became a
puppet in the hands of foreign imperialist nations. China
was never so humiliated.

Taiping Rebellion (1856–1864 CE)

Introduction –
- In an immediate sense the Taiping Rebellion was retaliation for
China's humiliation in the Opium Wars. Also, discontent against
the Manchu regime was brewing up since long. Manchu regime
was becoming increasingly corrupt and crippled since the
beginning of the century and hence the influence of foreigners
was increasing continuously. Day by day foreigners were
becoming more overpowering and the Manchu government was
seeing all this as a helpless spectator. On the one hand the
growing trade of opium was making Chinese people drug-addict,
while on the other hand smuggling was weakening all the fibers of
the Chinese society.

- After China’s defeat in the First Opium War, national humiliation

also added to this general discontent. When there was a severe
famine in some regions in the year 1849 and the Manchu regime
failed to provide sufficient aid to people, then this discontent
turned into outrage. Hong Xiuquan provided leadership to this
outrage or uprising. He proclaimed that he was the younger
brother of Jesus Christ and had come to earth only for the
 73

destruction of Manchus. He promised that he would establish

‘Taiping’ (complete peace) in China. Gradually his followers grew
in numbers and were called ‘the Taipings’. Taipings defeated the
imperial forces and ruled over a wide area for years. They called
their kingdom the ‘Taiping Heavenly Kingdom’.

- The most important reform of this 'divine kingdom' was the

distribution of land according to the number of family members.
The emphasis on equality also improved the condition of women.
Women were permitted to even join the army. Prostitution was
banned. The most revolutionary reform was the attempt to end
personal/individual property.

- Since Taiping rebellion was not very organized, the medieval

Manchu rulers of the country and the Western imperialist
coalition succeeded in crushing it.

- There was heavy repression and many Taiping supporters were

forced to flee abroad.

- If we analyze the Taiping Rebellion, we will find in it the seeds of

the demand for land reform, opposition to autocratic feudalism,
anti-imperialist national consciousness and an egalitarian utopia.
It appears to be an attempt to break the centuries old stereotypes
of Chinese society. Though not properly organized in ideas and
implementation, it had endless possibilities.

On the other hand, for this very reason it also had many
limitations. Therefore, when Mao Zedong pioneered the Chinese
Revolution in the twentieth century and campaigned to create a
socialist society, the Taiping Rebellion served as a source of
inspiration.
 74

Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901 CE)

- The Boxer Rebellion was essentially the sequel to the Taiping
Rebellion. But its nature was different. However, the root causes
behind both these Rebellion were the same: public discontent;
corruption and inaction of the Manchu administration; China’s
humiliating defeat in Opium Wars; and the plunder of foreigners.
- Resentment against Christian missionaries was being added to the
already existing causes. As foreign influence was increasing,
Christian missionaries were also getting encouraged. They were
now also reaching to far-flung areas and propagating their religion
by arbitrarily disrespecting China's traditional values. Due to all
this, many kinds of prejudices started prevailing in the public
against the misdeeds of the Christian priests.
- In these challenging times Chinese secret society known as the
‘Yihequan’ came up as the most influential organization. The word
‘Yihequan’ meant: ‘Righteous and Harmonious Fists.’ The
members of this society were called ‘The Boxers’, as they
practiced some Chinese martial arts (also referred to in the
Western world at the time as Chinese Boxing) and certain
callisthenic rituals in the belief that this made them invulnerable.
- Initially their slogan was 'remove the Manchus - destroy the
foreigners', but when they started getting the undercover support
of the Manchus against the foreigners, then they started talking
about the destruction of the foreigners and the protection of the
Manchus.
- This organization gradually became quite popular. At first they
targeted the Christian priests, as these priests were the main
source of public resentment.
- They even killed the Japanese ambassador.
- Those who beheaded foreigners started being rewarded. As a
result, 250 foreigners were murdered in a single day.
 75

- Encouraged by this success, the Chinese government also openly

declared war. Foreigners were ordered to leave Peking.
- England and America tried all their might to suppress this
rebellion. Japan and Russia helped also supported them. Their
combined army killed 15,000 Chinese in the terrible Battle of
Tientsin. Peking was also looted.
- The Boxer Rebellion was suppressed within a few days. Reasons
were: lack of organization, lack of cooperation of provincial
administrators, and Manchu opportunism.
- After suppression of the Boxer Rebellion an agreement was
reached, which is known as the Boxer Protocol. According to this –
(1) Thirty-three billion dollars (as war reparation) were
to be distributed among the victorious nations.
(2) The punishment to the people involved in this
rebellion ranged from 'firing from the job' to 'giving a
death sentence'.
(3) In order to protect the embassies, foreign forces
were allowed to be stationed in Peking.
(4) It was decided that Tientsin would be under foreign
occupation.
(5) The import and manufacture of all kinds of
ammunition in China was banned for two years.
(6) It was decided that the Chinese envoy would go to
Tokyo and Berlin to apologize for the killings of the
ambassadors of Japan and Germany respectively.
(7) Foreign powers will be granted various types of
economic concessions and facilities.
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The Chinese Revolution of 1911 CE

Consequences –
- Three hundred years old Manchu rule came to an end.
- Asia's first ever republican government came into existence.

Causes behind the Revolution –

- Resentment against foreign exploitation:
- Disgraceful treaties signed by the Manchu rulers after getting
defeated in Opium Wars.
- Outrage against Christian missionaries:
- Boxer Rebellion.
- Corrupt rule of Manchu dynasty.
- Emergence of new ideas:
- Abolition of the old civil service examination system in 1905
CE, followed by the introduction of a modern examination
system.
- Ideas and views of Chinese youth who completed their
education in Japan.
- Influence of Japan's success.
- Economic Downfall
- Rapid growth in population.
- Crisis due to floods and famines.
- The dreaded state of unemployment.
- Lack of industrialization.
- Sun Yat-sen: the leader of the Tongmenghui (United League).
- Sen's ever increasing popularity after 1900 CE.
- Immediate Reasons –
- Provincial rulers (warrior feudals) developed a spirit of
protest against the central power of Peking in 1911 CE.
- Disputes between the Central power and the provinces
regarding the railway construction work.
 77

- Discontent and outrage at allocating railway line work to a

foreign firm. This resulted in a large scale revolution against
the Manchu regime. The Machu government started panicking.
As a result –
A meeting of the Central Assembly was called on
October 22, 1911. The House proposed some reforms, which
were accepted. Yuan Shikai was appointed as the Prime
Minister on November 1, 1911.
- Dr. Sun Yat-sen reached Shanghai from America on December
24. He was welcomed by the revolutionaries. Representatives
of sixteen out of seventeen provinces elected him the head of
the government (established by the revolutionaries) on
January 1, 1912.
According to an agreement, the Manchu dynasty came
to an end on February 12, 1912, and the Republic of China
came into existence.

The Chinese Communist Revolution of 1949

- The state of civil war from 1946 CE to 1949 CE.
- Dr. Sun Yat-sen’s efforts resulted in the formation of the
Nationalist Party, also known as Kuomintang (KMT).
- Establishment of the Republic of China in 1911 CE.
- Sun Yat-sen’s cooperation with the Russian government in 1923
CE. He died in 1925 CE.
- Teachers and students of Peking formed an institution in 1919 CE
for the study of Communism and Marxism. Mao Zedong was
among the members of this institution.
- Soon the Communist Party established branches in the provinces
of Canton, Shanghai and Wuhan.
- The first national conference of these branches was held in 1921
CE.
 78

- After the passing away of Dr. Sun Yat-sen (in 1925 CE), General
Chiang Kai-shek became the President of the Kuomintang party.
- Mao became the chairman and the supreme leader of the Central
Committee of the Chinese Communist Party in the year 1943 CE.
- The Communist Party witnessed tremendous expansion under
Mao's leadership.
- This party formed its government in 'Jiangxi' province.
- Gradually, they formed governments in other provinces as well.
- Change in strategy by Mao. According to him – ''We should try to
get the support of the farmers rather than the industrial
workers''.
Long March –
- Chiang Kai-shek was the head of the Nanjing government.
- He launched a fiercely repressive campaign against the
communist government of Jiangxi in 1934 CE. This is known as
'Abolition Campaign'. Millions of communists were killed. To
escape this oppression and to form a new power base in northern
China, the communists embarked on the 6000-mile Long March
towards the province of Shaanxi, which began on October 16,
1934 and was completed on October 20, 1935. After covering this
long distance of 6000 miles they formed their government in
Yan'an city of Shaanxi province.

At the time of World War-II –

- There were two governments in China: (1) Kai-shek's government,
which enjoyed the support of Britain and America and (2)
Communist governments in the provinces.
- China was a part of the Allies. Thus it turned hostile to Japan.
- Japan surrendered in 1945 CE. Now it became a matter of conflict
as to whether Japan's Nanjing area should be controlled by the
Kuomintang government of China or the communist government
of Shaanxi province. This conflict led to a situation of civil war.
 79

The two entered into an agreement with the help of American

arbitration.
- The Communists also captured Tientsin and Peking by 1949 CE.
They also took over Nanjing, Shanghai, Hanko and Canton in a
short period of time.
- The Communists declared a 'People's Republic' in Peking on
October 1, 1949. It was recognized by many countries including
the Soviet Union. Thus the revolution ended.
- The Kuomintang government of Chiang Kai-shek was confined to
the island of Formosa (Taiwan).
- The USA did not recognize Mao government. It recognized Taiwan
and maintained diplomatic relations with it.

After effects of Chinese Communist Revolution of 1949

- Communist hegemony over vast region of Asia, which resulted in
establishing a balance between the Western power and the
Communist power.
- Taiwan became a source of conflict and tension between China
and USA.
- Due to the rapid expansion and strengthening of communist
power, America became highly cautious to stop this expansion.
- A new alternative was presented to the Third World in the form of
Maoism.
- Maoist ideology started becoming popular in China's neighboring
countries including India.
- Vietnam's National Movement adopted the Maoist strategy of
guerrilla warfare.
- It was established that the farmers of the villages could also be
the basis of a revolution.
- Communist ideology began to gain more strength and attention.
- Under Mao's leadership China marched ahead on the path of
development through economic transformation.
 80

Disintegration of the Soviet Union

- Based on the ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’ and under the

leadership of Lenin Soviet Union was formed in the year 1917 CE.
- By the time of Stalin, the ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’ became
the 'dictatorship of one man' and that man was Stalin, who
maintained his rigid control over Soviet Union from 1925 CE to
1953 CE.
- Individual freedom of the citizens was taken away under one-
party rule. Difference of opinion was not permitted. Opponents
were either killed or sent to mental hospitals.
- Khrushchev and Brezhnev also did not make any fundamental
changes in the system.
- Hence, the people of Soviet Union felt that they did not have the
basic freedoms under the communist system, which were
available to the people of Western countries under the capitalist
system.
- The second reason for the disintegration of Soviet Union was the
failure of the communist government on the economic front.
There wasn’t enough improvement in the standard of living of the
people. Economic activities were completely under government’s
control.
- Soviet Union also lagged behind in technical terms, because
technological development was mainly in the defense sector.
- Soviet Union focused itself entirely on building heavy and large
industries. As a result, industries related to consumer goods
lagged behind.
- Another strong reason for the disintegration of Soviet Union was
its multi-national and multi-racial character.
 81

- But Stalin created such a rigid political structure, in which there

was no place for different nationalist identities. Therefore, people
belonging to various nationalities were feeling crushed under this
policy of rigid control for years.
- But when Gorbachev implemented a new policy of political
openness ('Glasnost'), the expectations of people of different
nationalities evoked and this political reform eventually led to the
disintegration of Soviet Union.
- An important factor in the disintegration of Soviet Union was
Gorbachev's policy itself.
- Gorbachev came into power in 1985 CE. He had inherited a
stagnated economy and a political structure which would make
reforms impossible. That’s why he believed that a new set of
policies was required to democratize the Communist Party and
the USSR in a true sense.
- Therefore, he announced 'Glasnost' and 'Perestroika' as the new
political and economic policies. 'Glasnost' stands for ‘political
openness’ while Perestroika for ‘economic restructuring’. He
restored the ideological freedom of the people of Soviet Union to
some extent. He also provided freedom of expression to writers
and artists.
- For the first time in the USSR, small scale private industries were
encouraged.
- Cooperative organizations (at workers’ level) were allowed to be
formed.
- Gorbachev's aim here was to let the state-owned services
compete with the private sector-owned services, so that the
quality would improve.
- Gorbachev also made significant reforms in the political structure.
- He started promoting democratic elements within the Communist
Party in January 1987.
- Secret ballot was encouraged even at higher political positions.
 82

- Workers working in the factories were also given the right to

choose their managers.
- Meanwhile, the pressure of the people of different republics
started mounting on Soviet Union. Nationalist influence was also
being felt in the Baltic republics. These Baltic republics included
the republics of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia. These republics
were conquered and annexed by Stalin in the 1940s, so they
considered their merger with the Soviet Union unconstitutional.
Of these, Lithuania declared independence in the year 1990 CE.
Then Latvia and Estonia also went Lithuania’s way and declared
independence.
Boris Yeltsin was elected as the President of parliament of the
Russian Republic in May 1990. He believed that the Soviet
republics should be given the right of self-determination.
- Georgia declared independence in April 1991.
- Then a conference of the 15 republics was called to consider the
nature of the Russian Federation.
- August 20, 1991 was set as the new date when the next
conference of the 15 republics was to be convened and a
federation was to be formed in which the republics would have
more autonomy. But on August 18, 1991, under the leadership of
Gennadi Yanayev, some radical communist leaders (known as
‘coup’) overthrew Gorbachev's government and placed him under
house arrest. But Gorbachev and Yeltsin handled the situation
well. Yeltsin rallied the population of Moscow to defeat the
military that moved to support the coup that imprisoned
Gorbachev. As a result, the military withdrew and the coup
collapsed.
- Now Ukraine declared independence on December 1, 1991. Thus
the Russian Empire, which had established itself as a superpower
in world politics since the time of Peter the Great, eventually
disintegrated into 15 republics by the end of 1991 CE.
 83

States that became independent–

1. Armenia
2. Azerbaijan
3. Belarus
4. Estonia
5. Georgia
6. Kazakhstan
7. Kyrgyzstan
8. Latvia
9. Lithuania
10. Moldova
11. Russia
12. Tajikistan
13. Turkmenistan
14. Ukraine
15. Uzbekistan.

Re-unification of Germany, 1990

Partition –
- Potsdam Conference, 1945- Germany was into four military
occupation zones- southwest, south, east and northwest. These
zones were occupied by the Four Powers- America, Britain, Soviet
Union and France. America occupied the south zone, Britain
occupied the northwest, the Soviet Union occupied the east, and
France occupied the southwest zone.
- Three of these zones became democratic (western part), while
the zone occupied by the Soviet Union became communist
(eastern part).
- The Soviet Union closed the routes inside and outside East
Germany on April 1, 1948. This led to a shortage of fuel and food
for the people of West Berlin. Western countries ensured regular
 84

supply through air-transportation for almost a year. This barrier

was removed in 1949 CE.
- West Germany enjoyed developed rapidly in various fields, while
the East Germany fell short on every parameter. As a result,
people of East Germany started moving to West Germany. About
3 million people migrated to West Germany. To prevent this
heavy migration, barbed wire fencing was put up between the
two countries on the morning of 13th August 1961. After a few
days a wall was erected in the middle of Berlin.
- West Germany - Federal Republic of Germany, Parliamentary
democracy, capitalist economy, independent religion, and the
existence of labor organizations.
- East Germany - Communist government; everything was under
government’s control.
Re-unification –
- People of East Germany started protesting.
- Earlier Hungary had opened its border with Austria in May 1989.
The people of East Germany then started migrating to West
Germany via this route. Seeing this, the Berlin wall was broken on
November 9, 1989 and restrictions on movement were lifted.
- The reunification of East and West Germany was duly completed
on October 3, 1990.

Arab Spring or Arab Revolution

- Period - December 18, 2010 to 2014.
- Objectives - Democracy, elections, economic freedom, human
rights, employment, and change of power.
- Year 2010 marked the beginning of anti-government protests and
military rebellions in Central-Asia and North Africa.
 85

- Western media coined the term 'Spring Revolution' when Tunisian

people started demonstrations against their government in the
year 2011.
- This revolution was concerned mainly with eight countries.
- This revolution originated from Tunisia.
- A street vendor had voiced against the injustice of the local police
in December 2010. As a result, the President had to evict the
country and elections were held there.
- Egypt - Hosni Mubarak.
- Morocco - The king had to relinquish his authority and declare
elections.
- Central Asia - Yemen (Ali Abdullah Saleh) etc.
Causes behind the Revolution –
- Unemployment.
- Dictatorial rulers of Arabia - devoid of moral ideals and new ideas.
- Corruption.
- Impact of social media.
Impact –
- End of irresponsible and unaccountable governments.
- Political activities initiated.
- Societal division into Islamic and secular factions.
- Commencement of disputes and civil wars.
- Sunni-Shia tension.
- Economic uncertainty.
Spring –
- This term made its way into politics in the late 20th century.
- It originated in the student movements, revolutionary movements
and revolutionary waves in Europe since 1848 CE.
- Prague Spring – 1968 CE
- Beijing Spring – 1970 CE
- Kathmandu Spring – 1990 CE
- Venezuela Spring - 2014 CE etc.