j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 6 5 0 e6 7 0

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmrt

Review Article

Biodegradable magnesium metal matrix

composites for biomedical implants: synthesis,
mechanical performance, and corrosion behavior e
a review

Ramachandran Krishnan a,*, Selvakumar Pandiaraj a,

Suresh Muthusamy b, Hitesh Panchal c, Mohammad S. Alsoufi d,
Ahmed Mohamed Mahmoud Ibrahim e, Ammar Elsheikh f,**
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kongu Engineering College (Autonomous), Perundurai, Erode, TN, India
b
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Kongu Engineering College (Autonomous), Perundurai,
Erode, TN, India
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Government Engineering College, Patan, Gujarat, India
d
Mechanical Engineering Department, College of Engineering and Islamic Architecture, Umm Al-Qura University,
Makkah, Saudi Arabia
e
Production Engineering and Mechanical Design Department, Faculty of Engineering, Minia University, Minya,
61519, Egypt
f
Department of Production Engineering and Mechanical Design, Faculty of Engineering, Tanta University, Tanta,
31527, Egypt

article info abstract

Article history: The current medical implants are being developed using materials like Co-Cr, stainless
Received 20 April 2022 steel, and titanium alloys. These conventional implant materials induce a stress shield
Accepted 30 June 2022 effect and toxic ions for many medical implant conditions. This leads to secondary oper-
Available online 13 July 2022 ations, which are done to remove the implant. Many researchers have proposed a biode-
gradable magnesium metal matrix composite (Mg-MMC) as an implant material to prevent
Keywords: secondary operations. Magnesium composites are subjected to different engineering ap-
Biodegradable material proaches such as reinforcing elements, surface treatment, and changing synthesis pro-
Magnesium metal matrix composite cesses to increase their biocompatibility and mechanical properties. In this context, this
Synthesis techniques review article summaries the influence of various reinforcing materials' reactions with
Microstructure matrix and synthesis processes on the microstructure, mechanical characteristics, and
Mechanical characteristics corrosion behavior of biodegradable magnesium matrix composites. This paper aims to
Corrosion provide academicians, industry personnel, and researchers with a comprehensive under-
standing of biodegradable Mg-MMC used in biomedical implants.
© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC
BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ramvisan@gmail.com (R. Krishnan), ammar_elsheikh@f-eng.tanta.edu.eg (A. Elsheikh).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.06.178
2238-7854/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 6 5 0 e6 7 0
1. Introduction
The number of surgical operations, such as dental implants
and bone grafting (transplanted bone to repair), keeps climb-
ing as the human population grows and medical technology
advances [1]. The demand for medical implants is now
increasing owing to the world's aging population and the
overall increase in bone fracture [2,3]. A biomaterial is a term
used to describe implants composed of synthetic materials to
replace parts of living tissues and their functions [4,5]. The
selection of bone biomaterials is influenced by biocompati-
bility, mechanical properties, biodegradability, molecular
weight, and physicochemical properties [6]. Based on their
interactions with biological and cellular processes, bio-
materials are classified as inert, active, receptive, or autono-
mous [7]. In load-bearing implants, such as hip and knee
prostheses and fracture fixation wires, pins, screws, and
plates, all are made with metallic biomaterials [8]. The mate-
rials used in the orthopedic application must have the
necessary mechanical characteristics to sustain the stress and
establish bonding to the bone [9]. Three metallic materials are
often utilized in bio-implants. Titanium alloys, Co-Cr alloys,
and stainless steel are common permanent implant materials.
These materials are not biodegradable [10e12]. Only metallic
materials are now used to manufacture 70e80% of bio-
implants [13]. The Young's modulii of these permanent
implant materials differ from that of the human body [14]. The
stress shielding effect is caused by the above-mentioned
metallic implant materials' leading to a mismatch in Young's
modulus between human bone and implant materials [10,15].
The stress-shielding effect, which causes acute pain in the
patient, obstructs bone tissue stability and, subsequently
reduce the bone formation [14,16,17]. Metallic implants, on the
other hand, have long been beset by a variety of issues,
including poor Osseointegration and toxic metal-ion leaching,
all of which have hindered their long-term clinical perfor-
mance [18]. Because of its mechanical properties, biocom-
patibility, and corrosion resistance, titanium is the most
commonly used implant material. After a long period, the
implant exhibits poor Osseointegration and toxic metal ion
leaching [19]. These typical implant materials and the acces-
sories are to be removed by secondary surgery after healing
[17,20,21]. After 1-2 years, the standard permanent metal im-
plants for internal fixation must be removed by additional
surgery [3]. It has a lot of drawbacks, including patient
discomfort, patient morbidity, and the financial burden
[10,11]. These issues can be solved by employing biodegrad-
able implant materials, which are also known as smart
implant materials. There is no need for post-healing surgery
using biodegradable implants [22,23]. The main advantage of a
biodegradable implant is that after completing the function, it
degrades [24,25]. This biodegradable materials are becoming
third-generation biomedical materials with multifunctional
aspects [26]. Magnesium (Mg) has a lot of potential for usage in
implants and devices as a biodegradable material [27,28].
Biodegradable magnesium used in surgical clips, fixation
components, and bone and plate interface implants is
attractive as it gets degraded in the physiological environment
completely and does not require secondary operations [29,30].
651
Mg is also one of the non-toxic, biocompatible materials and
bioresorbable in the human body [31,32]. Self-degradability
and mechanical characteristics of magnesium decrease the
need for subsequent surgery [33].
Magnesium is the fourth most abundant element in the
human body, with approximately 300 enzymatic processes in
which it plays a part. In addition, one of the essential elements
found in bone tissue is Mg, which accounts for almost half of
the total physiological Mg [40,41]. Bone stores 50e60% of the
total magnesium in the human body, compared to 40e50% in
soft tissue [42]. Due to its outstanding physicochemical
properties and biocompatibility, biodegradable magnesium is
predicted to be one of the most promising options for
degradable biliary stents and sports medicine biodegradable
implants [43,44]. The biodegradability and antibacterial ac-
tivity are the reasons for the ureteral stent being fabricated by
magnesium alloys [45]. Magnesium is a nutrient that is
required for good health. To maintain consistent plasma
magnesium levels, the US Food and Nutrition Board advises a
daily magnesium consumption of 420 mg for males and
320 mg for women [46]. Magnesium and magnesium alloys
have a density of 1.74e2.0 g/cm3, and an elastic modulus of
40e45 GPa, that is comparable to that of human bone. It also
has a lower yield strength than titanium alloy implant mate-
rials [47,48].
The magnesium in human body provided a higher
strength-to-weight ratio than polymeric and metallic bio-
materials [49]. A transdiaphyseal humerus fracture in an 8-
year-old child was treated with a Mg plate revealed from a
clinical study conducted by Lambotte. The Mg metal plate had
almost dissolved entirely after three weeks, and the bone
fracture line was no longer visible [50]. Moreover, because of
its low density and high strength-to-weight ratio, magnesium
is used in aerospace, automotive, biotech, nuclear, automo-
tive, aircraft, shipbuilding, pipeline, and electronic industries
[49,51]. Magnesium is easy to cast, recyclable, and has a good
damping ratio. Alternatively, it has a high corrosion rate and is
easily ignited, limiting its structural uses [52]. Magnesium and
magnesium alloys have the disadvantage of corroding fast in
physiological conditions with high chloride concentrations
and pH values of 7.4e7.6. This reduces the mechanical integ-
rity of the tissues before they have fully healed
[14,33,49,53e55]. The chloride ions promote corrosion and
produce H2 gas, which slows down the healing in the surgical
area causing necrosis of tissues. The medical applications
have been limited as a result [33,56]. The rate of harmless
breakdown is 0.5 mm/year, although magnesium-based
biodegradable materials have a rate higher than that [57]. Mg
alloys' corrosive intention is governed by their composition,
synthesis processes, and environmental conditions [58]. Our
requirement is to improve the corrosion resistance and me-
chanical properties of Mg-alloy/composites for medical ap-
plications [59]. By selecting appropriate matrix and
reinforcements and metal synthesis processes, magnesium
matrix composites can serve as biomaterials with improved
mechanical characteristics and corrosion properties [59]. The
application, manufacturing process, and fabrication cost all
seem to impact the choice of matrix and reinforcement. In
clinical applications, biocompatible reinforcement will pro-
vide composite biocompatibility [49]. Another vital factor to be
 652
Table 1 e Tensile, Compressive, and Corrosion characteristics of Biodegradable Mg-MMC by stir casting.
S. Fabrication Matrix & Grain size Mechanical characteristics Hardness Elogati-on Corrosion rate (CR) References
No Route Reinforcement
Tensile Compressive
Before After YTS UTS YCS UCS Ecorr (V) Icorr
Extrusion Extrusion MPa MPa MPa MPa
mm
~ ~
1 Stir Casting- Mg-0HAP 27 15 mm@10HAP 121.4 187.9 65.8 277.8 [11]
Extrusion
Mg-15HAP 129.6 136.7 147.1 298.2 [11]

j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 6 5 0 e6 7 0
ZM61-0HAP 195.7 301 141.2 355.6 [11]
ZM61-15HAP 225.5 225.5 245.3 388.3 [11]
2 High shear- MZZT 16.5 3.7 mm 82 HV 11%
1.607 ± 2.009 ± 0.9  [34]
Stir casting 0.03 V 10
4 Acm
2
MZZMT 9.2 1.9 mm 295.58 346.1 89 HV 10%
1.693 ± 3.084 ± 0.6  [34]
0.04 V 10
4 Acm
2
3 Stir castinge Zn-1Mg alloy 226.2 300.5 5.8% [35]
ultrasonic treatment Zn-1Mg alloy-b-TCP 249.3 330.1 11.7% CR-0.046 mm/30 days [35]
CR-0.315/day
4 Disintegrated melt Mg-2.5Zn 17.5 mm 109 465 61 ± 7 HV [36]
deposition technique
Mg-2.5Zn-0.5Si 13 mm 117 432 99 ± 6 HV [36]
Mg-2.5Zn-0.5Si-1HA 7.9 mm 135 436 114 ± 7 HV ~1 mm/year [36]
5 Stir centrifugal Pure Mg 38880 1.316 GPa 15 [37]
casting
Mg-0.75 HA 31820 0.809 GPa [37]
Mg-1.8 HA 30810 187 0.937 GPa [37]
Mg-3HA 31000 0.933 GPa [37]
6 HSS Stir casting þ Mg-2Zn-0.5Ca as cast 97.7 ± 7.1 456 ± 33.1 MPa
1.85 ± V 0.272 ± 0.09 [38]
ECAE mg cm
2 h
1
Mg-2Zn-0.5Ca eb Tcp 23.6 ± 2.4 539.8 ± 36.5 MPa
1.78 ± V 0.194 ± 0.027 [38]
Composite mg cm
2 h
1
, Composite ECAE 1P 9.4 ± 3.8 709.8 ± 66.8 MPa
1.72 ± V 0.166 ± 0.029 [38]
mg cm
2 h
1
Composite ECAE 2P 4.8 ± 2.2 762.8 ± 23.3 MPa
1.65± V 0.156 ± 0.029 [38]
mg cm
2 h
1
Composite ECAE 4P 2.3 ± 0.7 789.9 ± 8.8 MPa
1.59 ± V 0.136 ± 0.017 [38]
mg cm
2 h
1
7 Stir casting þ Mg-0.3Sr-0.3Ca 22 171 ± 8.5 228 ± 11 65 ± 3 339 ± 3
1.878 mv 7.486 mA/cm2 [39]
Extrusion
Mg-0.3Sr-0.3Ca/ 19.0.9 184 ± 9 232 ± 11 67 ± 3 335 ± 16 [39]
GNP0.1 wt.%
Mg-0.3Sr-0.3Ca/ 14 210 ± 10 231 ± 11 93 ± 4 339 ± 18
1.823 mv 6.730 mA/cm2 [39]
GNP0.2 wt.%
Mg-0.3Sr-0.3Ca/ 12.1 223 ± 13 245 ± 15 82 ± 5 309 ± 17 [39]
GNP0.4 wt.%

YTSeYield tensile strength, UTS-Ultimate tensile strength, YCS-Yield compressive strength, UCS-Ultimate compressive strength, Ecorr-Electrochemical corrosion potential, Icorr- current density
Table 2 e Tensile, Compressive, and Corrosion characteristics of Biodegradable Mg-MMC by PM Method.
S. Mixing ratio PSM PSR BT Hr CP ST SK Compressive Tensile Experimental Corrosion Ref.
No. MPa strength strength density g/cm3
YS UCS YS UTS Icorr Potential CR
MPa MPa MPa MPa Ecorr mm/
year

j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 6 5 0 e6 7 0
1 Mg-3Zn 130 ± 15 HA-L-166 365 450 @15  8h 80 ± 1 130 ± 4 1.68 ± 0.05 962.41 mA/cm2
1.78 2.0579 [10]
mm ± 20 nm C/min 4h ± 0.025 V
550 @15 
C/min
Mg-3Zn-2HA HA-D-94 92 ± 3 131 ± 6 1.64 ± 0.07 777.02 mA/cm2
1.76 1.6366 [10]
± 20 nm ± 0.060 V
Mg-3Zn-5HA Zn
30 98 ± 4 134 ± 3 1.62 ± 0.04 571.97 mA/cm2
1.65 1.1746 [10]
± 5 mm, ± 0.020 V
Mg-3Zn-10 HA 90 ± 2 116 ± 5 1.60 ± 0.06 682.16 mA/cm2
1.69 1.3577 [10]
± 0.022 V
2 Pure Mg <45 mm <150 mm 6 250 Exe - 673 K - 224 340 1.630 [18]
Mg-5 wt.%HAP 222 452 1.714 [18]
Mg-10 wt.%HAP 219 415 1.746 [18]
Mg-15 wt.%HAP 216 371 1.749 [18]
3 Mg 40 mm 20 mm 4 50 500 10 min 132.7 - - 2.51 (A cm
2)
1.78 V [92]
± 14.0  10
4
Mg-HAP5 wt.% 164.7 1.58(A cm
2)
1.64 V [92]
± 8.5  10
4
Mg-HAP-10 wt.% 191.4 1.00(A cm
2)
1.54 V [92]
± 10.3  10
4
Mg-HAP-15 wt.% 169.6 1.77(A cm
2)
1.53 V [92]
± 8.19  10
4
4 Pure Mg <150 mm 2-3 mm 1 400 330  C 20 min 107.2 197.1 51.34 mA/cm2
1.8 V [93]
@350 MPa ± 16.5 ± 19.4
Mg-10wt.%HA 117.3 171.6 60.02 mA/cm2
1.604 V [93]
± 12.1 ± 16.6
Mg-20 wt.%HA 105.8 146.9 ± 60.97 mA/cm2
1.573 V [93]
± 9.6 11.3
Mg-30 wt.%HA 71.7 2.1 63.23 mA/cm2
1.611 V [93]
± 7.8 ± 10.8
5 Zk60A <50 mm <10 mm 1 400 HC -150 212.77 0.116 mA/cm2
1.60 V [14]
@380  c
Zk60A/10wt.%CPP 0.092 mA/cm2
1.58 V [14]
Zk60A/20wt.%CPP 495 0.088 mA/cm2
1.56 V [14]
Zk60A/30wt.%CPP 0.077 mA/cm2
1.52 V [14]

(continued on next page)

653
 654
Table 2 e (continued )
S. Mixing ratio PSM PSR BT Hr CP ST SK Compressive Tensile Experimental Corrosion Ref.
No. MPa strength strength density g/cm3
YS UCS YS UTS Icorr Potential CR
MPa MPa MPa MPa Ecorr mm/
year

6 Mg-Zn-Ca-Nb 325 Zn
325 1@9Nb 100 540@300 6h 68.92 1.762 [23]
Mesh Mesh wt.% C/Hrs
Nb-325 1@12Nb 200 590@400 4h 131.18 1.856 [23]


j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 6 5 0 e6 7 0
Mesh wt.% C/Hrs

Ca-6 Mesh 1@9Nb 300 640@300 6h 133.36 1.854 [23]
wt% C/Hrs

1@12Nb 400 590@400 8h 171.23 1.898 [23]
wt.% C/Hrs

1@9Nb 500 540@300 6h 162.12 1.869 [23]
wt% C/Hrs

Mg-3Zn-1Ca-15Nb 1@15Nb 500 640@500 10 h 227.8 1.89 ± 1.029 [23]
wt.% C/hrs ± 11.3 0.05 ± 0.14
7 Mg-Mn-Zn-Zr 45 mm HA53 mm 20 600 550 2h E
47.77 GPa 1.62 
1.777 V [2]
10
4A/cm2
Mg-Mn-Zn-Zr-5HA Zn 600 mm; E
49.13 Gpa 3.39 
1.541 V [2]
10
4 A/cm2
Mg-Mn-Zn-Zr-5BG Mn 45 mm E
46.84 Gpa 1.49 
1.822 V [2]
10
4 A/cm2
Mg-Mn-Zn-Zr-5HA Zr- 350 mm 3.34 
1.442 V [2]
with HF treatment BG -53 mm 10
4 A/cm2
8 ZK60 <42 mm 7 Exe
270 277 ± 22 485 ± 35 0.0035 mA/cm2
1405.50 0.50 [32]
mV ± 0.16
ZK60-7.5 351 ± 19 520 ± 26 0.0062 mA/cm2
1455.90 0.54 [32]
mV ± 0.09
ZK60-10HA 341 ± 20 529 ± 13 0.0036 mA/cm2
1437.40 0.47 [32]
mV ± 0.14
ZK60-20HA 356 ± 54 554 ± 20 0.0017 mA/cm2
1399.10 0.41 [32]
mV ± 0.10
9 PLLA <250 mm 1500 N 145 58.6 ± 1.3 90 E ¼ 2.86 GPa [101]
PLLA- 30 wt %Mg 101 ± 6 280 E ¼ 8.01 GPa [101]
10 10 wt.% MO-HA 3 200 1000@10  C/ 2h E ¼ 29 Gpa [94]

min to 130010 2h
C/min
20 wt.% MO-HA E ¼ 35 Gpa [94]
30 wt.% MO-HA E ¼ 64 Gpa [94]
40 wt.% MO-HA E ¼ 82 Gpa [94]
50 wt.% MO-HA E ¼ 111 Gpa [94]
11 Mg powder 100 mm Zr- 40 mm 9 760 400  C for 1 h 85 ± 3 142 ± 4 E
¼ 25 729.1 ± 29.6 mA
1624.5 [99]
± 2 GPa ± 21.0 mV
Zr GNPs 610  C for 2 h 145 ± 2 181 ± 4 E ¼ 31 683.1 ± 24.6 mA
1602.4 ± [99]
-15 mm ± 3 GPa 26.0 mV
Mg-0.5Zr-0.1 162 ± 2 219 ± 3 E ¼ 35 414.1 ± 27.2 mA
1595.9 [99]
GNPs ± 2 GPa ± 11.5 mV

L-length, D-diameter, PSM-Particle size matrix, PSR- Particle size reinforcement, BT-Blending Time, CP- Compaction Pressure, CC eCold Compact, HC eHot Compact, ST- Sintering tem, SK-Soaking Time,
YS-Yield Strength, UTS- Ultimate Tensile Strength, UCS-Ultimate Compressive Strength, IM Immersion Test, SP-Short Polarization, CD-Current Density, CR ecorrosion rate, Ecorr- Electrochemical
corrosion potential, Icorr-current density.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 6 5 0 e6 7 0
considered while selecting alloying elements is their toxicity.
The corroded products must be either absorbed by sur-
rounding tissues or excreted through the kidneys without
leading to toxicity [38]. This difficulty is solved by utilizing a
magnesium metal matrix composite (Mg-MMC) that is both
biodegradable and biocompatible [60].
This review paper will discuss how the biodegradable Mg-
MMC is fabricated with high-quality raw materials. The me-
chanical characteristics like compressive and tensile strength
are reviewed with the corresponding manufacturing technique
(see Tables 1 and 2). Also, one of the essential properties,
biocompatibility, is discussed through the degradation study of
composites during corrosion tests. The end of this review will
give a clear idea of the role of synthesis processes in improving
mechanical and biocompatibility characteristics biodegradable
Mg-MMC.
2. Requirements for implants, raw materials,
and biodegradable implants synthesis
2.1. Requirements of implant materials
Fig. 1 illustrates the essential properties required for implant
in clinical application. Implant materials used in clinical ap-
plications must meet manufacturability, mechanical proper-
ties, and compatibility requirements.
2.2. Raw materials used in the production of
biodegradable Mg-MMC
Pure Mg and Mg-alloys like ZK60A [14] are mainly used as
a matrix material to produce biodegradable Mg-MMC. It is
Fig. 1 e Requirements of implants [61].
655
biocompatible, biodegradable, and contributes to bone
formation when used as a matrix [18]. Hydrox-
yapatite(HAP) [32], Calcium Polyphosphate(CPP) [14], b-tri-
calcium phosphate(b-TCP) [27] Zinc(Zn) [10], Calcium (Ca)
[38], Zirconia (Zr) [54], Strontium(Sr) and Graphe-
nelplatelets (GNP) [39], Niobium (Nb) [33], Manganese (Mn)
[2] are used as reinforcement material. These are rein-
forced into the matrix in weight % or volume % and
manufactured using liquid state processing (LSP) or solid-
state processing (SSP) methods.
2.3. Synthesis of biodegradable Mg-MMC
The term “composite” refers to a unique feature of materials
produced by combining different types of elements [62].
Recently, various techniques have been used to create ho-
mogeneous structures and refined grains to enhance the
performance of composites [63]. Both liquid and solid-state
techniques are used to make MMC. It exists as a metal or
alloy matrix with reinforcement in the form of a fiber,
whisker, or particle [64]. To produce high-performance com-
posites, various hybrid composites are developed by
combining the composite elements [65]. Based on reinforce-
ment, the MMC is divided into three types: particle, whisker,
and continuous. In biodegradable Mg-MMC, the reinforced
materials are in the form of particulate. They can be produced
by liquid and solid-state processes such as Stir casting [63],
vacuum stir casting [66], stir centrifugal casting [37], high
shear solidification (HSS) [54], suction casting [56], dis-
integrated melt deposition (DMD) [36,67] and powder metal-
lurgy (PM).
656 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 6 5 0 e6 7 0
3. Biodegradable Mg-MMC produced by
liquid state processing (LSP) method
Stir casting is an LSP method used to produce the composites
as per the requirements. The basic principle behind LSP
techniques is to disperse reinforcement particles in the
molten matrix metal before solidification, and it can be done
with the aid of stirring action [62]. Synthesis, microstructure,
and mechanical and corrosion characteristics of Mg-MMC by
stir casting method will be discussed.
3.1. Synthesis of biodegradable Mg-MMC by stir casting
Stir casting is used to make the bio-degradable Mg-HAP
composites, with a pure Mg ingot melted at 700  C and rein-
forced the HAP in various amounts. Similarly, for ZM61-HAP
composites, the same Mg melt is mixed with Zn and Mn. A
better distribution can be obtained by employing a specific stir
method. In order to accomplish better mechanical properties,
a unique cooling system is also employed for solidification
[11]. The Mg-2Zn-0.5Ca/1ebTCP composite is produced using
the high shear solidification (HSS) technology and equal
angular channel extraction (EACE) methods. After melting the
Mg-2Zn-0.5Ca alloy at 680  C, the preheated 1 wt.% of TCP
particles is discharged into a molten melt. This melt was
sucked into the stator and pushed out via a small hole in the
bottom portion, where it was mixed with the impeller at a
rotational speed of 10,000e15,000 rpm, then solidified.
Because of the high spinning speed, constant turbulent action
is produced, improving dispersion, reducing agglomeration,
and enhancing wettability between the particles and matrix
[38]. Mg-2.5Zn-0.5Si-1HA [Zn (149 mm), Si (40 mm), HA (20 nm)]
nano-composites were synthesized by uniform dispersion of
silicon and hydroxyapatite particles in Mg melt at 450 rpm.
Ingots of 40 mm diameter were conceived using two jets of
argon gas. The ingots were then soaked at 400  C and reduced
to 8 mm in diameter at an extrusion ratio of 20:25:1 [36]. The
Mg-30% Zr master alloy was added to pure Mg melt at 720  C in
SF6 and N2 atmospheres. To ensure adequate dispersion, the
melt was kept idle for 15 min. The HA/Mg-3Zn-0.8Zr com-
posite was agitated for 5 min at 660  C and 8000 rpm using the
HSS method [54]. To reduce the temperature mismatch be-
tween the Mg melt and the n-HA [n-HA <200 nm, HA-Si:
<200 nm] particle during wetting and casting conditions, the
n-HA particle was pre-heated 400  C for 2 h before introduced
to the Mg melt under argon pressure. The response surface
methodology was used to establish the ideal rotor speed of
800 rpm for 6.3 min, as well as the reaction of n-HA in Mg
(wt.% of 1.8 gm) was determined. A three-blade propeller
system also obtained the distribution of n-HA particles. The
centrifugal casting process was used to produce Mg-nHA
Nano-composites [37]. At 690  C in an argon environment,
Mg-0.3Sr-0.3Ca alloy and different compositions of 0.1, 0.2,
and 0.4 wt.% GNP reinforcement were quickly added to the Mg
melt. This melt was mechanically stirred for 15 min at
450 rpm. To get samples, molten metal is poured into a steel
mould. These samples were kept at 400  C for 24 h to create
homogenizations before quenched in water. It is extruded at
370  C in a 12:1 ratio to produce Mg-0.3Sr-0.3Ca/GNP
composites [39]. In a productive environment of N2 þ SF6, the
pure Zinc, intermediate Zn-1Mg alloy melted at 500  C for
5 min. The warmed 1 vol.%TCP was added simultaneously,
and stirring was halted for 1 min. Here, mechanical stirring is
used first, followed by ultrasonically stirring at 20 kHz. The
casted composite samples are extruded at a 16:1 ratio at
250  C. After that, it is annealed at 350  C for 24 h [35]. The
vacuum suction cast Mg-4Zn alloy was melted at 750  C with
0.5 wt.% Si3N4 [Si3N4 25 ± 5 nm] in an argon atmosphere to
produce the Mg-4Zn/Si3N4 nano-composites. It was stirred for
10 min at 500 rpm to enhance dispersion. The melt was poured
into a cylindrical mould with a diameter of 30 mm and a
length of 250 mm at a vacuum pressure of 750 mm Hg. The
cast was extruded for testing mechanical characteristics [66].
To make Mg-3Zn-0.8Zr/1mbdTCP (MZZMT), MgO coated
nano b-TCP was mixed with Mg-3Zn-0.8Zr for 10 min 720  C in
an electric furnace surrounded by 99.9% N2, 0.4 percent SF6.
The same method was used to create the Mg-3Zn-0.8Zr/1
TCP
(MZZT). High shear force was generated by a shear agitation
device, which was used to stir the materials and remove im-
purities and gases. After 13 h of homogeneous annealing at
420  C, the material was extruded [34].The major problem in
stir casting is the wettability of the matrix and reinforcement.
It also settles or floats on the surface of molten metal [68]. Low
stir speed and time lead to more clusters, whereas increasing
stir speed and time lead to better dispersion and material
hardness [69].
The major difficulty in composites production is even
spreading reinforcement in a matrix material to create a
microstructure free of defects [70]. The disintegrated melt
deposition technique (DMT) is one of the eco-friendly and
reliable methods to comparatively conventional method
[36].The previous explanation demonstrates that melting and
reinforcement addition should occur in argon, nitrogen, or SF6
controlled environments. Adding reinforcement to a molten
matrix is done before it gets warmed to remove any moisture.
Temperatures should be maintained between the 50  C and
720  C while stirring and reinforcement. The stirring is done
by mechanical, HSS, and ultrasonic wave assistance ap-
proaches to improve particle reinforcement dispersion. While
stirring, the optimum spinning speed and time are preferred
to overcome the agglomeration. The annealing of composites
also takes 13e24 h at 350  Ce420  C to produce a homogenous
microstructure. These composites are extruded at a temper-
ature ratio that is lower than the melting temperature of the
composite.
3.2. Microstructural characteristics of biodegradable
Mg-MMC produced by stir casting
The microstructural characteristics of the fabricated Mg-HAP
composites show a drastic decrease in the grain size from
~27e15 mm upon the addition of HAP in Mg up to 10 wt.%. The
HAP was only responsible for the grain refinement during the
extrusion process [11].The MgO coated nano reinforcement of
b-TCP in MZZMT composites improved grain refining and
dispersion by 9.2 mm, which was smaller than the 16.5 mm
MZZT size. It reduced, even more when the heated extrusion
technique was used. Moreover, the MZZMT is 1.9 mm, while
MZZT is 3.7 mm and the MZZMT has consistent grain size and
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 6 5 0 e6 7 0
less agglomeration. MZZT composites have a more significant
agglomeration and coarse grain size according to the obtained
microstructure [34].The extruded Zn-1Mg alloy reveals that
grain refinement and dissolution of Zn þ Mg2 Zn11 are
distributed along the grain boundary. The addition of b
TCP
to this alloy decreased the size of the massive dendrites that
were present at the grain boundary. Despite the minimal
quantity of b-TCP present, it was exclusively distributed intra-
granularly. Also, b-TCP gives disorientation around the parti-
cle lattice potent nucleation for new crystallized grains in Zn-
1Mg alloy
b-TCP composites [35].The microstructure of the
coupled effect of DMT and hot extrusion has shown no visible
cracks and oxidation defects. The grain size of the Mg-2.5Zn-
0.5Si-1HA has reduced 54.8% from 17.5 ± 0.8 mm to
7.9 ± 1.5 mm of Mg-2.5Zn [36].
The SEM image (Fig. 2) at different magnifications (Fig. 2(a)
and (b)) represents the n
HA clusters, and micropores exist in
the casted samples. The Mg-nHA nanocomposites (Fig. 2(c)
and (d)) were made by hot isostatic pressing (HIP) at 450  C for
120 min at 100 MPa, indicating n-HA clusters and porosity.
Agglomeration, porosity, and defects were developed due to
the addition of 3 wt.% n
HA particle. As a result of the rise in
n-HA, a decrease in the distance between n
HA and an in-
crease in the van der Waals attraction (Wvdv) force were
observed. The Wvdv plays a crucial function in agglomeration
formation [37].When compared to non-sheared Mg-2Zn-
0.5Ca/1eTCP composites, HSS reduced aggregation size by 10
times. Due to this impact, the grain size was decreased to 23
mm from 58 mm, and HSS achieved uniform distribution of
b
TCP throughout the melt. The HSS does not eliminate the
porosity and chemical segregations. Due to greater shear
Fig. 2 e SEM images of a-b) as-cast and c-d) HIP ed specimens prepared at the optimum processing condition with 1.8 wt.%
n-HA (Nano-composite) [37].
657
bending following the second phase, the ECAE compression
and elongation process does not generate cracks or voids. The
four-pass Mg-2Zn-0.5Caeb TCP ECAE composites showed
better grain refinement, uniform distribution, and porosity
healing [38].
Because of the heated extrusion process and the presence
of HA in Mg, the grain size has decreased. The pure magne-
sium composite grain size is 241 mm, and the addition of HA
and hot extrusion reduced the grain size in the first and sec-
ond extruded composites to 4.2 mm and 2 mm, respectively.
Grain refining is accomplished mainly by hot extrusion and
dynamic recrystallization. The high extrusion ratio prevents
component agglomeration and clustering, thereby achieving
uniform distribution [71]. In Mg-4Zn/Si3N4 Nanocomposites,
the microstructure displays reduced agglomeration or clus-
tering. The aeMg dendritic formations are mostly made up of
these microstructures. It is a semi-continuous inter-dendritic
network that runs along the grain border, with a brighter step
matching grains [66]. GNP is present in the engulfed manner,
and some of them are present at grain boundaries in Mg-0.3Sr-
0.3Ca-GNP composites. Due to wettability, heterogeneous
nucleation, solidification rate, atomic diffusion, and wrinkled
surfaces, the inclusion of GNP in Mg alloy reduces grain size.
The grain size of the Mg-0.3Sr-0.3Ca alloy is 177 mm, and
the addition of GNP in 0.1% and 0.2% show the reduced grain
sizes of 172 and 150 mm, respectively. The further increase in
GNP (0.4 wt.%) increased the grain size to 240 mm. Graphene
dispersion is important in grain refinement. After extrusion,
the grain size is decreased to 19.9, 14, and 12.1 mm for 0.1, 0.2,
and 0.4 wt.% GNP, respectively [39]. The addition of HA re-
duces the grain size of the Mg-3Zn-0.8Zr alloy from 58.7 to
658 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 6 5 0 e6 7 0
43.6 mm. Even though agglomeration of 1e25 mm exists, it is
evenly dispersed throughout the alloy. The lattice parameter
of HA is 0.9412 nm, which is three times that of pure Mg
(0.3209 nm). As a result, HA particles are effective for hetero-
geneous nucleation on the a
Mg face [54]. According to the
above description, the reinforcing particle influences grain
size, agglomeration uniform distribution, and particle wetta-
bility in the microstructure of composites. The synthesis pa-
rameters like rate of heating, solidification, and atomic
diffusion contribute to grain refining. The final extrusion
process contributes to the secondary grain refinement and
reduces the agglomeration in composites. Thus, an adequate
understanding of reinforcement selection, a reaction between
matrix and reinforcement, quantity of reinforcement, and
optimal process parameters is required to accomplish uni-
form reinforcement distribution, grain refinement, and pre-
vent agglomeration in composites.
3.3. Compressive and tensile behavior of biodegradable
Mg-MMC produced by stir casting
The Mg-15 HAP and ZM61-15 HAP have tensile and compres-
sive (bracketed) yield strengths of 129.6 MPa, (147.1 MPa) and
225.5 MPa, (245.3 MPa), respectively. Furthermore, the
Fig. 3 e (a) Tensile stressestrain curves of ZM61eHAP
composites [11], (b) Compressive stressestrain curves of
ZM61eHAP composites [11].
addition of HAP to these composites improved their strength.
The stressestrain curve of (Fig. 3(a) and (b)) HAP added ZM61
demonstrates that the composites' tensile strength has risen
to 5% HAP. The HAP in Mg and ZM61 decreases the ductility
and increases the brittleness of Mg-HAP and ZM61-HAP
composites due to the hard space of HAP particle [11].
When 1 wt.% of b-TCP is added to the Mg-2Zn-0.5Ca alloy, it
increases its hardness by 18%. Each run of the ECAE process
decreased the grain size from 97.7 to 2.3 mm. The hardness of
Mg-2Zn-0.5Ca eb Tcp composites increased from 539.8 (55.03
VH) to 789.9 MPa (80.54 VH) and a high shear treatment [38].
The Mg-0.3Sr-0.3Ca alloy's TYS and UTS are 171 ± 8.5 and
228 ± 11.4 MPa, respectively. The TYS grew by 7.6%, and the
UTS increased by 1.8% when 0.1% GNP was added, while the
CYS increased by 3.1%, but the UCS fell to
1.2% of 0.4% GNP,
the tensile failure strain is reduced because of greater aggre-
gation. The particle dispersion mostly determines the failure
strain [39]. Mg-2.5Zn-0.5Si-1HA nano-composite has 0.2 CYS
of 135 ± 4, which is higher than that of 15.3% of Mg-2.5Zn has
109 ± 2. It is enhanced due to the presence of Zn, refined
secondary phase of Mg2Si, uniform distribution of
morphology and transferring of load between soft matrix and
hard secondary phases [36]. The hot deformation behavior of
Mg-3Zn-0.8Zr/HA composites at various strain rates reveals
that the contribution of work hardening is minimal in the
beginning stage of strain. The strain will grow as the tem-
perature rises owing to the DRX (dynamic recrystallization)
release of work hardening. High strain rates shorten migration
time, resulting in a high dislocation density. The result of this
flow stress increases with an increase in temperature. During
the hot extrusion process, the b-TCP reinforcement in Zn-1Mg
alloy is used to improve grain refinement during solidification
and the strength of the composites. Furthermore, as a nucle-
ation agent, b-TCP improves strength, plasticity, and grain
boundary strengthening [35]. MZZMT composites have a
higher YTS of 295.58 MPa, and UTS of 346.11 MPa after
extrusion is higher than MZZT composites of 22.3% and 9.0%.
It occurs because the grain size of MZZMT is half that of MZZT;
it resists the dislocation movement; also, m-b-TCP is uni-
formly distributed in MZZMT. According to the Hall petch ef-
fect formula s ¼ so þ Ky.d-1/2, the strength of composites is
inversely proportional to grain size [34].
From above the preceding discussion, key factors like grain
size, the reaction of reinforcement, and particle distribution
contribute to improving composites' mechanical properties
are understood.
3.4. Corrosion behavior of biodegradable Mg-MMC by
stir casting
The corrosive rate of b-TCP/Zn-1Mg composite in SBF for 0.046
mm/30 days is less than the 0.315 mm/year. The CR rate is
higher in the initial condition due to the weak formation of
agglomerated a-Zn matrix corroded quickly and accom-
plished with detachment b-TCP. Other hand, Ca2þ and P5þ
ions are induced by b-TCP to form a protective layer to in-
crease the corrosive resistance. The surface after one day has
Zn-1Mg alloy, and b-TCP/Zn-1Mg does not show any change in
surfaces. After 30 days, alloy and composite surfaces are
covered with needle-like corrosive products. The reaction
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 6 5 0 e6 7 0
Fig. 4 e SBF at 37  C, polarisation curves for the
Mg2Zne0.5Ca-1 bTCP composite [38].
Fig. 5 e Corrosion rate measured in the SBF as a function of
immersion time and the material status during immersion
tests [38].
between the b-TCP/Zn-1Mg and SBF induced the Zn (OH)2 and
Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 to form the layer on the composite to increase
corrosive resistance [35]. The biocorrosion evaluation of the
samples was conducted in Hank's balanced salt solution
(HBSS); it releases the ions like Ca2þ, PO3
2

4 , and HPO4 ions it

4.
reacts with free ions OH to form a apatite layer.
10Ca2þ þ 2OH
þ6HPO2

4 / Ca10 (PO4)6 [36]
3Ca2þ þ 2OH
þ 2PO3

4 / (Ca)3 (PO4)2 [36]
Fig. 6 e Typical Layout of Solid State- PM Processing technique.
659
The apatite layer reduces the corrosion rate the post
corrosion samples show without deep pits and cracks. The
corrosion rate of Mg-2.5Zn-0.5Si-1HA nano-composite was
nearly 1 mm/year, and it was less than the Mg-2.5Zn and Mg-
2.5Zn-0.5Si [36].
Fig. 4 shows the results of an electrochemical test on
Mg2Zn-0.5Ca-1b TCP, which was conducted using a three-
electrode setup at 37  C and a pH of 7.4 in SBF. The cast
sample was encased in epoxy resin, with a surface area of
10  10 mm2 exposed exclusively in SBF. To create a steady-
state, the sample and electrode were immersed in SBF for
20 min before commencing the experiment. The voltage po-
tential across the valve is increased from
1.72 to
1.59 V
bTCP added to magnesium alloy has improved the corrosion
resistance of cast and extruded composites. Improved grain
refinement, heal casting flaws, and improved chemical ho-
mogeneity of materials were noticed in the ECAE process.
Fig. 5 shows that the initial corrosion rate was significant due
to the formation of Mg (OH)2. Due to the conversion of mag-
nesium hydroxide to magnesium chloride, the pH value
increased more quickly. The corrosion rate is initially high;
however, after 24 h of immersion, the corrosive rate is reduced
owing to the reaction of b-TCP converting to HAP in an
aqueous environment.
4Ca3(PO4)2 þ 2H2O / Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 þ 2Ca2þþ 2HPO2

4 [38]
HA and b-TCP layer aggregate to develop the thickness,
consequently leading to a decrease in corrosion rate. The
graph found that the corrosion rate for 4-ECAE Mg-2Zn-0.5Ca/
1b-TCP composite was 0.272 ± 0.09 mg cm-2 h
1. This corro-
sion rate was comparatively less than Mg-2Zn-0.5Ca cast
alloy, Mg-2Zn-0.5Ca/1b-TCP cast composite, and 1,2eECAE
composites [38].
The corrosion test conducted in SBF that the chemical re-
action between SBF and composite leads to a protective layer
on the surface. The corrosion mainly depends on immersion
time, a chemical reaction between the composites, and the
active corrosive layer. This corrosive behavior clearly shows
helps in understanding the reinforcement, microstructure,
and grain size of Mg-MMC.
Biodegradable Mg-MMC by solid state
processing technique
Powder metallurgy (PM) is the solid-state processing tech-
nique used to produce the near net shape component. The
first stage in the PM process is blending as shown in Fig. 6.
660 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 6 5 0 e6 7 0
Segregation or unmixing happens when various characteris-
tics of materials are mixed. This is overcome by choosing the
same size, shape, and density particles. Turbula mixing de-
vices, which are most commonly employed in the pharma-
ceutical sector, produce fine powders with good mixing
outcomes [72].
Compaction of powder has two steps compaction and
ejection with the help of die [73]. The incorrect unloading and
ejection will induce complex parts' crack and residual stress.
Smooth surfaces and a slight taper in ejection help to reduce
the residual stress [74]. Powder compaction can be accom-
plished in one or two methods. The powder's preform is
loaded primarily by the mechanical method through external
pressure in cold compaction (CC) or pressing; in hot compac-
tion or pressing (HC), the powder is heated and compressed
[75]. Powder particles are loaded and linked with pores in the
CC, and then the are sealed. The density was not consistent
with respect to a position from top to bottom.
The single-action bottom part has the lowest density,
whereas the double-action middle section has the highest
density [76]. By using a dynamic compaction process, it is
possible to attain a density near the theoretical one without
sintering [77]. It is achieved by accelerated mass striking the
powder at a high velocity that transmits the shock waves to
get the dynamic compacted powder [78]. Heat treatment or
sintering is used to acquire the physical and mechanical
characteristics of CC particles. Solid-state sintering refers to
the heat treatment of a material in a pressure-free environ-
ment. The material was transported via a diffusion flow
mechanism in this procedure. The material transport occurs,
and the surface energy is provided in a pressure-free sintering
method [79]. Heat treatment an arrangement process for the
compacted particles to organize as a microstructure [80].
Sintering variables are adjusted to reproduce a microstruc-
ture, which is the aim of the sintering [81]. In ceramics, sin-
tering mainly controls the microstructure of the composites
[82]. Despite high holding time, high temperature enhances
the sintering effect and produces the coarse microstructure
[83]. Based on the temperature, the sintering mechanism has
executed grain boundary diffusion and lattice diffusion [84].
This process has three stages, neck growth as the initial stage,
pore rounding and elongation as the intermediate, and the
last densification with the closing of pores [85]. It takes place
in two methods, liquid and solid stages. In the liquid stage
sintering, factors are wettability and quantity of reinforce-
ment reacting with a matrix. In solid-state sintering, the sur-
face energy is the main driving force [78]. The sintering occurs
faster in smaller particles than the larger particle due to their
high surface energy [86]. A homogeneous structure with
isotropic properties and without the internal stress is obtained
by heating compacted powder at high temperature, holding
for a long time, and then cooling down slowly [87]. This pro-
cess is complex and has governing parameters like sintering
Fig. 7 e Typical synthesis flow of Mg-HAP Composite.
temperature, sintering time, pressure holding rate and sur-
rounding atmosphere [88]. A thin coating of oxide 3e5 nm
generated on the particle during sintering of Mg powder
strongly inhibits sintering when exposed to air [89]. It has a
critical stage in fabrication due to contamination of oxygen. It
is overcome with sintering in a vacuum of 10
2 Pa under a
high purity environment of argon gas [90]. Extrusion is one of
the forming processes used here as a supplementary activity.
The essential process parameters for hot extrusion are pres-
sure, billet temperature, ram speed, and friction [91].
4.1. Synthesis of biodegradable Mg-MMC by PM method
The pure raw Mg and HAP powder are combined to make a
biodegradable Mg-HAP composite [Mg < 45 mm, HAP < 150 mm]
by PM. In a turbula wab mixer, the particles are blended for
6 h, then CC at 250 MPa and extruded at 673 K in air [18].
The layout (Fig. 7) shows the synthesis flow of Mg-HAP
composites. Ball milled Mg and HAP powders [Mg < 45 mm,
HAP < 150 mm] are mixed for 4 h 5, 10, and 15wt.% HAP in Mg.
The combined powders are compacted at 50 MPa pressure and
sintered at 500  C for a shorter duration of 10 min in an argon
environment to produce greater densification and save energy
and resources [92]. Magnesium and hydroxyapatite (HA)
[Mg < 150 mm, HA < 1e3 mm] powders are dried in a vacuum at
200  C for 12 h, then milled for 1 h in a polyethylene container.
Compaction occurs in two ways in this process. Before
extrusion, the CC was 400 MPa, and the HC was 350 MPa at
330  C [93]. In a blending system, ZK60AAlloy comprising
5.2107 wt% Zn, 0.34 wt.% Zr, Mg, and CPP powder
[ZK60A < 50 mm, CPP < 10 mm] is mixed at 10,20, and 30 wt %
then blended for 1 h at 30 rpm. It's CC at 400 MPa for 20 min,
then HC at 50 MPa at 380  C [14]. In a probe sonicator, at
different compositions of 2,5 and 10 wt.% of HA powder,
3 wt.% Zn, and Mg [Mg 130 ± 15 mm, HAP length 166 ± 20 nm,
diameter 94 ± 8 nm, Zn 30 ± 5 mm] are mixed to create the Mg-
3Zn-HA composite. The combined powders are dried in a hot
air oven before being green compacted in the air at 365 MPa
pressure. In the first stage of sintering, Zn diffuses through the
Mg matrix at 450  C. In the second stage, the composite is
heated to 550  C and maintained for 4 h to improve densifi-
cation [10]. In an argon environment, a rotating planetary ball
mill with a ball to powder ratio of 20:1 is used to mix 3, 6, 9, and
12 wt.% Niobium (Nb) and Mg3Zn1Ca alloy [Mg 325 mesh, Zn
325 mesh, Ca 6 mesh, Nb 325 mesh,] milled at 200 rpm for 1 h.
Compacting powder at pressures ranging from 100 to 500 MPa
with a dwell period of 8e10 min increases the bond inter-
locking of irregular particles. It improves the compressive
strength and sintering efficiency of the green compact [23]. A
ZK60 alloy comprises Mg-6% Zn-0.5 wt.%Zr and HAP powder
added at 10 and 20 wt.%, respectively, before being ball milled
at 250 rpm for 7 h with a BPR of 20:1. It is extruded at 270  C
with a 1:10 ratio and a 9 m/s speed [56]. Ultrasonification and
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 6 5 0 e6 7 0
mechanical ball-milling mix magnesium orthosilicate (MO)
powder with HA. The powder is then cold isostatically com-
pressed at 200 MPa before sintering at 100  Ce130  C [94]. In a
RETSCH PM-400 machine, pure Mg and (0.5, 1, and 2 vol. %)
microparticles of silica dioxide are mixed for 1 h at 200 rpm.
After being CC by 50 tonnes of pressure and sintered in two
directions at 640  C, the material was soaked for 1 h at 400  C
to get an MgeSiO2 nanocomposite [95]. To make the HA/Mg-
Zn bio-composite [Mg ~29 mm, Zn ~60 mm], the HA particle
was heated to 800  C for 2 h. A needle-like particle gets con-
verted into a rod-like particle in this example. This HA 10 and
20 wt.% particle and 4 wt.% Zn and Magnesium powder mixer
are cold compressed in pellets at 500 MPa. The cylindrical
pellets are heated to 430  C for an additional 2 h to enhance Zn
diffusion in Mg. The temperature is raised to 500  C and
maintained for 2 h for better densification [96].
For b
Ca3(PO4)2/Mg-Zn, three composite samples are pre-
pared like Mg-6%Zn/10%b
Ca3(PO4)2 as-sintered, Mg-6%Zn/
10%b
Ca3(PO4)2 as-extruded, Mg-6%Zn/10%b
Ca3(PO4)2 as

extruded þ aging treatment and alloy of Mg-6%Zn as-sintered.
Here b
TCP powders are prepared using the liquid precipita-
tion method, and it is mixed with Mg- 6%Zn alloy. These
blended powders are compacted at a pressure of 100 MPa and
sintered at 350  C with a 15:1 extruded ratio. The compacted
composite is aged for 72 h at 150  C [97]. Magnesium powder is
ball milled for 6 h in an argon environment with BG [Mg 40 mm,
45S5 30e75 mm ] of 5, 10, and 15% by weight. It is compacted at
10e20 MPa before sintering at 500  C for 5, 15, and 25 min [98].
Pure magnesium, zinc, manganese, silicon metal powder
(99.9% purity), and HAP þ b-TCP are blended for 15 min. At a
force of 50 kN, the combined powders are cold compressed
using a uniaxial cold-press method with a diameter of 10 mm
and a length of 13 mm. The cold compressed powder is sin-
tered at 280  C for 3 h in an electrical resistance furnace [72].
The ZK60 chips and HA particles [HA < 42 mm] were mixed
in suitable amounts and processed for 7 h at 250 rpm in a ball
mill with a 20:1 ball to powder ratio (BPR). The powder was
heated and extruded at 270  C with a 1:10 extrusion ratio at a
speed of 9 m/s to solidify the material [32]. Mg powder was
mixed with 10 or 20% vol of b-TCP powder [Mg-180mm, b-TCP
1e2 mm] in a ball mill containing zirconia balls. It is compacted
at 25 MPa and then sintered at 520  C under 50 MPa in a vac-
uum atmosphere using the spark plasma technique [27]. At a
pressure of 760 MPa, the 0.5 wt.%Zr, and 0.1 GNPs are [Mg-
100mm, Zr-40 mm, GNPs- 15 mm], ball-milled and compacted.
The green compact is then heated for 1 h at 400  C, then for 2 h
at 610  C in an Argon gas environment to create Mg-0.5Zr-0.1
GNPs (MMNC) composites [99]. Mg1Zn1Mn0.3Zr-x wt.%
(bioceramic ¼ HA or BG; x ¼ 0, 5) [Mg
45mm, Zn
600mm,Mn-
45mm, Zr-350mm, HA and BG -53mm ] powder were used as
starting materials. Nano-composites were synthesized by
blending for 20 h with a BPR of 10:1 and with the help of
ammonium hydrogen carbonate (NH4HCO3) as space holder
material to produce a porous structure. In this first stage, a
green compact was carried out at 175  C for 2 h to remove the
space holder and then heated to 550  C for 2 h to get the 40% of
porous microstructure [2].
From the foregoing explanation of Mg composite synthesis
to emphasis on powder mixing in an argon environment with
a ratio of 20:1. While blending powder, rotational speed and
661
time are the main blending parameters. Based on the rein-
forcement, the compaction pressure varies from 100 MPa to
500 MPa. The sintering takes place in a controlled atmosphere,
and it is always less than the melting temperature of Mg. The
heating rate, soaking time, direction, and stages are essential
to process parameters for the sintering of composites.
4.2. Microstructure characterization of biodegradable
Mg-MMC by PM method
The microstructure of the above-synthesized composites
discussed in the coming topics. The microstructure reveals
that bigger grains extend along the extrusion direction,
whereas smaller grains appear in various shapes and sizes.
When 15 wt.% HA is added to Mg, uniform dispersion and
(white contract) agglomerates production occurs. It decreases
grain size while increasing equiaxed. MgO (Dark) is formed
over the surface of Mg powder during the extrusion process in
Mg-HA composites [18]. The SEM image of the extruded Mg/
HA composite shows a uniform distribution of HA particles
with no porosity. In Mg/20HA composites, little agglomeration
occurs at random intervals, whereas severe agglomeration
occurs in Mg/30HA composites [93].
The HAP particles (black spots) in three HAP/Mg compos-
ites are uniformly dispersed in the microstructure under low
magnification (Fig. 8(a)e(c)). The presence of HAP clusters is
confirmed by the high magnification microstructure of the
composites (Fig. 8(d)e(f)), and the number of HAP clusters
rises as the HAP concentration increases [92]. From the frac-
tured SEM image, it was clear that the sintering process has
improved the bonding between the particles and densifica-
tion. Also, it does not show any single particle is separated by
fracture. In addition, the density of the composites reduced
with the increase in HA [10]. The optical microstructure of
ZK60/HA composite shows that the addition of HA minimizes
the number of coarse areas while increasing the number of
fine grains. The inclusion of HA reduces grain sizes while also
allowing for recrystallization [32]. The homogeneous distri-
bution of CPP in the 20CPP/ZK60A composite is evident, with
no microvoids. The reinforced CPP was irregularly shaped and
had an average diameter of 10 mm. The CPP and ZK60A com-
posite have a great interfacial bond between them [14].
The microstructure of the Mg3Zn1ca15Nb composites has a
heating rate of 500  C/h. Because of the high heating rate,
there is an increase in particle adherence and welding areas; it
has minimal porosity. It also suitably distributes small
porosity Nb Particles. The heating rate of 100  C/h has a higher
porosity than 500  C/h. It is still green, and the grains haven't
formed a welding region between them. The slow heating rate
of 100  C per hour provides more sintering time, which softens
the Mg matrix and settles it down [23]. The grain size of the
extruded Mg-2 vol. % SiO2 nanocomposites are 23 mm, less
than 32% of pure Mg. The grain size is decreased due to the use
of SiO2 nanoparticles to pin the grain boundaries [95]. The SEM
picture of 10% b-Ca3(PO4)2/Mg-6%Zn composites demon-
strates the formation of the second coarse phase of b-
Ca3(PO4)2 agglomeration during the sintering process. During
the hot extrusion process, this aggregation is disrupted and
dispersed along the grain boundaries during the hot extrusion
process [97]. The grains of pure magnesium are significant and
662 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 6 5 0 e6 7 0
Fig. 8 e Optical microscopy of HAp-5/Mg (a and d), HAp-10/Mg (b and e), and HAp-15/Mg (c and f) [92].
have a clear grain boundary. Grain sizes of 16 mm occur from
the inclusion of Zn and GNPs to Mg and sintered samples,
which are smaller than the 43 mm of pure Mg. GNPs lower pore
size and enhance interfacial interaction between Mg mole-
cules. Due to the high-energy ball-milling (HEBM) process to
produce the uniform distribution of GNP in Mg matrix
comparatively Zr in Mg-0.5Zr-0.1 GNPs composites [99]. The
MO-HA composites are sintered at temperatures of 120  C and
130  C. The MO-HA composites at 120  C exhibit increased
porosity due to shrinking; however, the grain structure is still
visible. At 130  C, the MO-HA has a thick microstructure and
well-formed grains. At a sintering temperature of 130  C, HA
grain growth increased from 0.55 mm to 5.5 mm. The presence
of MO in HA inhibits the development of HA grains [94].
Mg1Zn1Mn0.3Zr-5wt%HA, and Mg1Zn1Mn0.3Zr-5wt%BG
Nano-composites prepared with a milling time of 0e20 h
shows sharp diffraction lines in XRD with c/a ratio of 1. After
20 h of milling, the action of milling has produced a laminar
structure with thin layers and a reduction in Mg size of 45 nm
[2].
The results of the foregoing study clearly show that sin-
tering temperature is one of the most critical factors in
inducing grains in the microstructure. The high sintering
temperature also softens the materials gets to settle down.
The addition of a reinforcing like HA,b-Ca3(PO4)2, BG, Zn, Ca,
and Nb has increased grain refinement. The reaction of the
reinforcement into a matrix is mainly responsible for the
uniform distribution of microstructure. Agglomerations also
occur due to greater content of reinforcement in matrix
materials.
4.3. Tensile behavior of biodegradable Mg-MMC by PM
method
HAP in Mg up to 10 wt.% multi-glide plane to form a grain
boundary ledges act as obstacles for dislocation its slightly
increase the yield strength of the Mg-HAP composites. Further
increases of HAP by more than 10 wt.% to increases create
more agglomeration to form the defects and pores and reduce
the strength of the composites. The elongation was decreased
from 10.3% to 2.6% for 30 wt.% of HAP composites [93]. A
20 wt.% of HA in Mg has uniform distribution in Mg-HAP
composites has the 0.2% offset tensile yield strength of
263.3 MPa and Young's modulus from nanoindentation of
40 GPa [100].
4.4. Compressive behavior of biodegradable Mg-MMC by
PM method
Increasing HAP content to reduce the texture intensity implies
the favorable orientation of grains for basal slip. This effect of
this reduces the yield strength of the Mg-15 HAP composite
has 610 MPa, and it is less than the pure Mg (490 MPa) [18]. The
20 wt.% of HA in ZK60 alloy has YS and UCS of 356 ± 54 and
554 ± 20 MPa likewise ZK60 alloy has 277 ± 22 MPa and
485 ± 35 MPa. Inversely the ductility of composites is
decreased from 9.5 ± 1.0 to 5.1 ± 0.4% [32]. The compressive
strength of the Mg3Zn1Ca15Nb composite also depends on the
HR and ST. The ST and HR of 620  C and 18  C/min have UCS of
162.92 MPa.
Similarly, 590  C and 22  C/min have UCS of 165.75 MPa,
respectively. It indicates that the heating rate influences the
strength of the composites. The slow rate of heating increase
the time to absorb the heat leads to softening of the matrix,
and allows the hard particle to move downwards, resulting in
the formation of vacant spaces.ST to reach 450  Ce650  C has
considerable diffusion [33]. The same author studied the effect
of heating rate in composites; 6  C shows more micro-cracks
and agglomeration than the 24  C min. The porosity of the
Mg3Zn1Ca15Nb composite also decreased the sintering tem-
perature of 440  C and 635  C. Proper holding time improves
density and UCS, whereas too much holding time decreases
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 6 5 0 e6 7 0 663

Fig 9 e Compressive strength and modulus of pure Mg and HAP/Mg composites [92].

both properties. The dense structure obtained at 40 min
holding time reduces the more vacancies to increase the CS
[59].
The compressive strength and modulus of these Mg-HAP
composites increased 67.5% and 42.8% with reference to
pure Mg up to 10 wt% of HAP. Fig. 9 indicates that the addition
of HAP increases the CS and Young's modulus up to HAP-10/
Mg. With the further rise of HAP, above the 10 wt.% in Mg,
more agglomeration occurs to reduce the strength and
modulus of the Mg-HAP composites [92]. The 23% of YS is
increased in Mg- 3Zn alloy in which HA added up to 5 wt.%.
The YS was improved because grain refinement reduced the
twinning activity. The presence of HA restricts the dislocation
movement, and uniform distribution offers the pinning action
to inhibit the twinning phenomenon. The high melting tem-
perature of HA does not interfere with metal particles while
sintering. Due to this effect agglomeration occurs brittleness
increases and YS reduces [10]. The density is high due to the
increased heating rate utilized to enhance particle diffusion,
resulting in a stronger connection between the matrix and
reinforcement. The Mg3Zn1Ca15Nb composite has 227.8 MPa
UCS at a heating rate of 500  C/h and a soaking period of 10 h
[23]. The compressive strength and modulus of Mg-BG have
grown up to 10% BG, as shown in Fig. 10. Due to the depth of
the microfracture, increasing the BG in Mg has lowered the
compressive strength and Young's modulus of composites.
The inclusion of MgO and Mg2Si2 also decreases the strength
and modulus [98]. The yield strength of pure Mg at 30 wt%

Fig. 10 e Compressive strength and modulus of Mg-BG composites [98].

664 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 6 5 0 e6 7 0

PLLA has increased from 58 to 101 MPa. It will be in the
90e120 MPa range for cortical bone strength. Also, Young's
modulus of 8.01 GPa is similar to the 10e40 GPa of the bone
Young's modulus [101].
The addition of CPP in ZK60A alloy has increased the
compressive strength. The 10, 20, and 30% of CPP added
Zk60A-CPP composites have compressive strength higher
than the ZK60A alloy. This is because CPP's uniform distribu-
tion effectively transfers load, a quantity of reinforcements,
and boundaries acting as obstacles for dislocation. The
mismatch of strains between the matrix and reinforcement
induces a higher dislocation density. The more number of CPP
also acts as an obstacle for dislocation and ends up the piles
[14]. The atomic size between the particles induces the inter-
stitial solid solution effect. Also, with grain refinements,
thermal expansion, and elastic modulus effects the yield
strength of Mg-0.5Zr-0.1 GNPs composite. The GNP acts as
resistance for dislocation motion to enhance the yield
strength of the composites. The YCS of MMNC has
162 ± 2 MPa, and pure Mg has 85 ±3 MPa [99].
The previous discussion on the mechanical properties of
magnesium composites, such as compressive and tensile
strength, focused mostly on reinforcement and microstruc-
ture. Essentially, the high elastic modulus of reinforcement
interacts with the matrix and uniform distribution to improve
the material's characteristics. The process parameters like
sintering temperature, holding time, and diffusion mainly
contribute to the mechanical characteristics of composites. To
enhance the strength of materials, uniform particle distribu-
tion is used to transmit load between the matrix and
reinforcement.
4.5. Corrosion behavior of biodegradable Mg-MMC by
PM method
The corrosive behavior of composites is discussed through the
microstructure of corroded surfaces of composites in SBF. In
2007, the SBF was registered as ISO 23317, which is the stan-
dard solution for the in vitro evaluation of the apatite-forming
ability of implant materials [102,103]. In an organic-substance-
free acellular simulated bodily fluid (SBF) with ion concen-
trations almost similar to those of human blood plasma, the
apatite layer may be replicated on the surfaces of materials
[104e108].
The addition of HA to the Mg-3Zn alloy aids in the creation
of an apatite layer, which acts as a corrosion barrier. The
formation of apatite layers increased up to 5% HA in an alloy,
resulting in better dispersion. Further addition of HA causes
more agglomeration, reducing layer forming and increasing
corrosion. According to a polarization analysis, high levels of
HA cause further pitting corrosion of magnesium. The high
melting temperature of HA reduces the improper sintering
effect, allowing the galvanic couple to increase. As a result,
this HA is not diffused well, leading to more corrosion in Mg-
3Zn-10 HA composites [10].
The degradation behaviors of CPP/ZK60A in the SBF
immersion test, bubbles begin suddenly on the surfaces,
and surfaces are changed to dark. The detached corrosion
products settle in the bottom of the beaker. The weight loss
is measured; 20CPP/ZK60A has lower weight loss. The pH
value for the immersed 20CPPP/ZK60A sample is less than
that of ZK60A. The pH is the main contribution to gener-
ating corrosion products of Mg (OH)2. The CPP has

Fig. 11 e SEM micrographs of (a) a low magnification sample; (b) a high magnification sample; (c) a C2 sample in low
magnification; and (d) a C2 sample in high magnification, with the inset being local magnification for the rectangular frame
after immersion in SBF solution for 240 h without removing the corrosion products [14].
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 6 5 0 e6 7 0 665

Fig. 12 e The polarization curves of pure Mg and Mg/HAP composites tested in 37  C [92].

stabilized the pH, and surfaces on the CPP act as resistant 100 h of immersion time. During a corrosive reaction, H2, one
to corrosion. After 240 h in SBF without removing the molecule of hydrogen is evolved for each atom of corroded Mg.
corrosion product, the microstructures can be understood. The release of H2 has increased the pH value of PBS solution,
Fig. 11(a) shows mud-cake type crack for ZK60A with low indicating the increase of Mg corrosion. The 5HAP-Mg has
magnification. Fig. 11(b and d) shows precipitated sphere- good corrosive resistance compared to Mg-15 HAP. Increase
shaped uniform distribution. Fig. 11(d) Also, the nano- HAP increases the hydrogen release rate, disturbing the
spheres to slices and piled up to flower-shaped at high resistive layer of Mg(OH2). Once this layer is broken, the
magnification [14]. corrosion will take place rapidly [18]. The polarization curve
The electrochemical polarization curves for pure Mg and for the MMNC reveals a drop in current density (2.8 mA/cm2)
HAP/Mg composites are shown in Fig. 12. Each composite when compared to Mg-0.5Zr (2.1 mA/cm2) and pure Mg
sample had a greater corrosion potential (Ecorr) and a lower (1.8 mA/cm2). This suggests increased corrosion resistance.
corrosion current density than pure Mg (Icorr). The corrosion The potentiodynamic polarization values for pure Mg, Mg-
resistance of HAP-10/Mg is the best when compared to HAP- 0.5Zr, and MMNC are 729.1 ± 29.6, 683.1 ± 24.6, and
10/Mg, HAP-15/Mg has a greater porosity, which accounts for
its lower corrosion resistance Fig. 13. After 96 h, the final pH is
constant at 9.42, 9.31, 8.89, and 8.46 for Mg, HAP-5/Mg, HAP-10/
Mg, and HAP-15/Mg, respectively. HAP is added to minimize
hydrogen evaporation and improve corrosion resistance [92].
In general, ceramic particles are more stable, but forming a
protective layer during immersion is difficult. As a result of
increasing the more corrosive area, more strong corrosion
occurs. The Mg (OH2) layer formed first, followed by the pro-
tective layers formed by the HA particles, which absorb Ca and
P ions. Cl
, CO3, PO3


4 , OH , and Ca
2þ
diffused on surfaces after
prolonged immersion. The new layers developed by the Caþ
and PO3
4 protect the surfaces from pitting corrosion.
Although 40% HA/Mg-Zn composite has a lower corrosion rate
than pure Mg, 20% HA/Mg, and 20% HA/Mg-Zn. With the
addition of Zn in Mg-HAP, the corrosive resistance of HAP was
improved [96].
In Mg-HAP, corrosion behavior was found by H2 volume Fig. 13 e Changes in pH value for Mg and HAP/Mg
release rate in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) solution at composites immersed in SBF at 37  C [92].
666 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 6 5 0 e6 7 0

Fig. 14 e mCorrosion behavior of pure Mg, Mg-0.5Zr, and MMNC via electrochemical, H2 evolution, and weight-loss tests in
HBSS at 37  C: (a) Potentiodynamic polarization curves; (b) Icorr and CRelech; (c) H2 evolution vs. immersion time; (d) CRH2
(measured from H2 evolution) and CRWL (measured from weight loss) [99].

414.1 ± 27.2 mA, respectively, as shown in Fig. 14(b). In this
regard, CR for MMNC (11 mm y
1) was lower than Mg-0.5Zr
(19 mm y
1) and pure Mg (21 mm y
1). Icorr and CR of the
MMNC were 48% lower than pure Mg. For the pure Mg, Mg-
0.5Zr, and MMNC, the weight-loss test and H2 evolution test
revealed 5.5, 4.5, and 3.0 mm y
1 and 19, 12, and 6 mm y
1,
respectively.
As shown in Fig. 14(d), the CR from both weight-loss and H2
evolution tests indicated a significant CR reduction in the
MMNC compared to pure Mg and Mg-0.5Zn [99]. The polari-
zation curve for Mg, Mg3Zn1Ca, and Mg3Zn1Ca15Nb in SBF
shows the addition of Nb in the Mg-3Zn1Ca alloy has
improved the corrosive resistance. The formation of the Nb
oxide leads to high anti-corrosive properties than the MgO.
The Nb acting acts as an effective barrier for corrosion and
reduces the hydrogen evolution rate. The corrosion rate of
Mg3Zn1Ca15Nb is 1.209 ± 0.14 mm/yr, and it is less than the
Mg3Zn1Ca alloy of 1.801 ± 0.15 mm/yr [23].
Fig. 15 shows the increased pH values of 10% b-Ca3(PO4)2/
Mg-6%Zn composite in SBF, extending up to Mg(OH)2, which is
deposited on the surfaces. The image reveals the increase of pH
up to the first 24 h, and after that, it will stabilize. The growth of
pH value is controlled due to Mg(OH)2 resolved to MgCl2 due to
chloride ions in the solution. The uneven corrosion layer pits
and cracks are visible on the Mg-Zn alloy and have more pH
value in SBF. It reduces the integrity and strength of the Mg-Zn
alloy while addition with 10%b-Ca3(PO4)2/Mg-6%Zn. Also, the
surface has only linear distributed corrosion products. The
sintering and aging treatment produced a smooth surface over
the corroded layer and imposed a lower pH value the samples.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 6 5 0 e6 7 0
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
references
Fig. 15 e pH value variation of the b-Ca3 (PO4)2/Mg-Zn
composites and Mg-Zn alloy with immersion time [97].
Due to the increase in grain refinement and distribution are
homogeneous throughout b-Ca3(PO4)2 [97].
The formation of a protective Ca-rich layer on the surface
of BG/Mg composites is attributed to the release of silicate
ions from the bioglass. The spread of silicate ions onto the
surface of the composites induces the formation of a pro-
tective Ca-rich layer on the surface of BG/Mg composites
compared to pure Mg composites [98]. The open potential
curve (OPC) of Mg/HAP composites in SBF for 3600 s reports a
potential range (EpiteEcorr) Mg/10HA composite as 405.4 mv.
The potential range of Mg/20 HA, Mg/30 HA 321.6 mv, and
218.2 mv are less than the Mg/10HA. It shows the increase of
HA in Mg increase the corrosion content [93]. According to
the previous discussion, the corrosive component generated
by SBF should provide a protective barrier against corrosion.
The microstructure and composite reinforcement primarily
determine corrosive properties. Strong reinforcement boosts
the hydrogen evolution rate, leading to more corrosive
composites.
5. Conclusion
This current review discusses many processing options for
making biodegradable magnesium matrix composites. Stir
casting and powder metallurgy processes are primarily uti-
lized to produce composites, with powder metallurgy being
the most advantageous method for processing composites.
This comprehensive review demonstrates how reinforcing
affects the mechanical properties and corrosion behavior of
Mg-MMC. Correct reinforcement selection and the optimal
process parameter are critical for getting the desired charac-
teristics of composites. There are still more challenges to
overcome to meet the implant criteria. This review paper is
particularly beneficial for new researchers in deciding mate-
rials and processing techniques for biodegradable composites.
667
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Ramachandran Krishnan, Research Scholar, Department of Me-
chanical Engineering, Kongu Engineering College (Autonomous),
Perundurai, Erode, Tamil Nadu, India. Email: ramvisan@gmail.com
Selvakumar Pandiaraj, Associate Professor, Department of Me-
chanical Engineering, Kongu Engineering College (Autonomous),
Perundurai, Erode, Tamil Nadu, India. Email: kecselvakumarp@
gmail.com
Suresh Muthusamy, Assistant Professor Senior Grade, Depart-
ment of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Kongu En-
gineering College (Autonomous), Perundurai, Erode, Tamil Nadu,
India. Email: infostosuresh@gmail.com
Hitesh Panchal, Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Government Engineering College, Patan, Gujarat,
India. Email: engineerhitesh2000@gmail.com
Mohammad S. Alsoufi, Mechanical Engineering
Department, College of Engineering and Islamic Architecture,
Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia. Email: mssoufi@
uqu.edu.sa
Ahmed Mohamed Mahmoud Ibrahim, Production
Engineering and Mechanical Design Department, Faculty of En-
gineering, Minia University, Egypt, 61519. Email: ahmedkhalifa@
mu.edu.eg
Ammar Elsheikh, Department of Production Engineering
and Mechanical Design, Faculty of Engineering, Tanta
University, Tanta 31527, Egypt. Email: ammar_elsheikh@f-eng.
tanta.edu.eg