Types of Transducers used in Biomedical Measurement Applications

8/18/2021 Types of Transducers used in Biomedical Measurement Applications
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used in Biomedical Measurement Applications
Types of Transducers used in Bio-

medical Measurement Applications
What is a transducer?
A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy or variable into another
form of energy or variable. A transducer is required to convert physiological
variables into electrical signals which are easier to be further processed.
We have a number of factors which are considered in choice of a particular

transducer to be used for the study of a specific phenomenon. These factors
include:
The order of accuracy required

The magnitude of quantity to be measured
The site of application on the patient’s body, both for short-term and long-
term monitoring
The static or dynamic character of the process to be studied
Economic considerations
Any transducer is used in association with suitable electronic circuitry to give a

final electrical output of convenient amplitude; for data storage and processing.
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The relationship between the input variable and output variable can be:
Linear
Logarithmic
Square law
Table Of Contents
What is a transducer?
Classification of Transducers
Active Transducers
Passive Transducers
Transduction Principles and Applications
Force Transduction
Pressure Transduction
Displacement Transducers
Force, Pressure, Displacement, Position, Motion and Radiation
Transducers
Linear Variable Displacement Transformer
Photoelectric Transducers
Potentiometric transducer
Passive Capacitance Transducer
Inductive Passive Transducer
Variable Reluctance Transducer
Photodiodes and Phototransistors
Piezoelectric Transducers
Resistance Strain Gauge
Linear or Angular Encoders
Body Temperature Measurement Transducers
Radiation Thermometry
Advantages of Infrared Thermometers over Glass &
Thermistor Thermometers
Disadvantages of Infrared Thermometers
The Wheatstone bridge
Resistance Thermometry
Thermistors
Advantages of Thermistors
Disadvantages of Thermistors
Potentiometer – Working Principle and Application in Biomedical
Instrumentation
Thermocouple Thermometry
Thermopile
Pulse Sensor
Photoelectric Method of Pulse Pressure Measurement
How the Strain Gauge is used to sense the Pulse Pressure
Piezoelectric arterial pulse receptor

Respiration Sensor
How a Strain gauge is used as a Respiration Sensor
The Principle behind a Thermistor based Respiration Sensor
Classification of Transducers
Numerous methods have been developed for the conversion of non-electric

phenomenon that is associated with the physiological events into electrical
quantities. Many physical, chemical & optical properties and principles can be
employed in the construction of transducers that are used in the Biomedical
Instrumentation Systems. These transducers can be classified in four ways:
1. The Process used to convert the signal energy into an electrical energy. Under
this, transducers can be categorized as:
Active Transducers
An active transducer directly converts input variable into electrical signals. For
example photovoltaic cell in which light energy is converted into electrical
energy. Active transducers do not require any external source of power for their
operation. Depending upon the principle of transduction, they are further
classified as:
Electromagnetic
Thermoelectric
Photoelectric
Piezoelectric
Electrochemical
Passive Transducers
Passive transducer modifies either the excitation voltage or modulates the carrier
signals. Passive transducers require an external source of power to make them
operative. They are further classified according to the principle of transduction
as:
Resistive
Capacitive
Inductive
Transducers based on Hall effect
Transducers based on opto-electronic principles
Ultrasonic transducers
A good example of a passive transducer application is the variable resistance

placed in a Wheatstone bridge in which the voltage at the output of the circuit
reflects the physical variable. In this application, the actual transducer is a
passive circuit element that needs to be powered by an ac or dc excitation signal.
2. The Physical or chemical principles used for example:
Hall effect devices
Variable resistances devices
Optical fibre transducers
3. By application for measuring a specific physiological variable. Examples

include:
Flow transducers
Pressure transducer
Temperature transducers
4. Digital, in digital transducers, a direct digital output of the amplitude of the

measurand is obtained. There are a number of digital transducers like: Encoders
which give digitally coded output pulses, and event counting type which provide a
frequency output.
Table: Type of active transducers, working principle and typical applications
Type of Principle of Typical

Transducer Operation Application
Motion of a coil in Used in

Moving Coil a magnetic field measurement of
1.
Generator induces an output velocity and
voltage. vibration.
A voltage is
generated in a
Physiological
semiconductor
signals modulate
junction in a solar
light intensity and
when simulated
2. Photovoltaic variation is
by a radiant light
measured as
energy.
current output of
solar cell
3. Piezoelectric An emf is This type of

effect generated when transducer is used
an external force for measurement
is applied to a of sound,
crystalline vibration,
material like acceleration, and
pressure
variation.
Quartz.
When one of the

junctions of two
dissimilar metals
is heated and the This transducer is
other is cooled used to measure

4. Thermocouple then an emf is temperature, heat
generated across flow and
the two junctions. radiation.
Transduction Principles and Applications
A biomedical transducer has two elements:
Sensing element or detector

Transduction element
A sensing element is that part of the transducer which corresponds to any

physical phenomenon or its change. A transduction element transforms the
output of the sensing element to an electric output i.e. the transduction element
works as a secondary transducer.
In medical applications, the physiological variables can be transformed into some

suitable variable which can be measured conveniently. This is known as
transduction principle.
Table: Physical Variables and Transducers used
Physical Variables Transducers

Variable resistance
Variable Inductance
1 Displacement Variable reluctance
Variable Capacitance
Strain gauge
2 Velocity Magnetic inductance
3 Surface strain Strain gauge
Strain gauge
4 Force/pressure
Piezoelectric
Thermocouple
5 Temperature
Thermistor
Photovoltaic
6 Light/infrared
Photoresistor
7 Magnetic field Hall effect
Force Transduction
A force sensing element is used for the conversion of force into physical variables.
The force can be transformed into:
Strain by using a strain gauge

Displacement by a deflection of a member
Output voltage by using Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
Photoreceptor by changing resistance
The figure below show workings of these transducers with force transduction:
Transducers with force transduction
Pressure Transduction
Pressure is a very important parameter used in many medical devices as a

principle of transduction. The basic principle behind these pressure transducers
is that pressure to be measured is applied to a flexible diaphragm which gets
deformed by the action of the pressure exerted on it. This motion of the
diaphragm is then measured in terms of an electrical signal. The deformation is
measured by a strain gauge or LVDT. In essence we have 3 main pressure
transducers which make use of the diaphragm:
Capacitance Manometer – here the diaphragm forms one plate of a capacitor

Strain gauge – where the strain gauge is attached to the diaphragm
Differential transformer commonly called linear variable differential
transformer (LVDT) where the diaphragm is attached to the core of a
differential transformer.
Pressure transduction
Displacement Transducers
Displacement transducers can be used in both direct and indirect systems of

measurement e.g. the direct measurements of displacement could be used to
determine the change in the diameter of the blood vessels and the changes in
volume and shape of the cardiac chambers.
The indirect measurements of displacement are used to quantify the movement

of liquids through the heart valves. Displacement transducers can be conveniently
converted into pressure transducers by attaching a diaphragm to the moving
member of a transducer such that the pressure is applied to the diaphragm. A
good application for this is the detection of the movement of the heart indirectly
through the movement of a microphone diaphragm.
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compatibility.
Displacement measurements form the basis of many transducers for measuring

pressure, force, acceleration, temperature, etc. for example we can show
displacement (D), velocity (V) and acceleration (a) are interlinked:
If we know one out of the above three variables, then we can find the other two
variables either by differentiation or by integration. Though velocity and
displacement transducers are readily variable, their application in medical field
are difficult, hence displacement and velocity are measured by indirect methods
like magnetic or optical methods.
Force, Pressure, Displacement, Position, Motion and

Radiation Transducers

compatibility.
We look at several types of transducers used in medical instrumentation systems.
Linear Variable Displacement Transformer
This type of transducer consists of a transformer with one primary winding and
two secondary windings. The secondary windings are connected in such a way
that their induced voltages oppose each other as shown below:
Linear variable displacement transformer (LVDT)
If the core is positioned in the central position, with respect to both the secondary
windings, the voltage induced in each of the secondary windings is equal and
opposite in direction; thereby the net output voltage from them is zero. If the core
is moved upwards the voltage induced in the secondary winding 1 is greater than
that induced in the secondary winding 2. Similarly the voltage in the secondary
winding 2 will be greater than that induced in the secondary winding 1, if the core
is moved down. Therefore, the output voltage will vary as per the movement of
the core which is moving as per the input variable. The output voltage can be
further processed to be displayed e.g. calibrated in terms of mm of displacement.
Photoelectric Transducers
For the range of displacements from about 0.1 mm to 10 mm, a simple

photoelectric transducer is often suitable. This consists of a constant light source,
a variable width slit, and a photocell. The light must be maintained at a constant
voltage from a regulated supply. The collimating lens produces a parallel beam of
light which is intercepted by a slit whose width is varied by displacement. The
light is then focused on a suitable photocell whose output is a measure of the
displacement. For large displacements, a single slit is used; for small
displacements, greater sensitivity can be obtained if a number of slits are used.
Optical transducer
Potentiometric transducer
A potentiometer can be used to convert linear or rotary displacement into a

proportional change of resistance. The resistance between two terminals on this
device is related to the linear or angular displacement of a sliding tap a long
resistance.
In the linear displacement potentiometer shown below, the reading of the

voltmeter at point C is given as:
Fig –linear displacement potentiometer
Linear displacement potentiometer
For the rotational displacement potentiometer shown below, pointer C rotates as

per the input variable, the reading of the voltmeter at point C is given as:
Rotational displacement potentiometer
Passive Capacitance Transducer
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor depends upon the area of the two
parallel plates and the distance between the parallel plates i.e. the capacitance C is
proportional to the Area A of a plate, inversely proportional to the plate spacing d
(dielectric thickness) and depends on the nature of the dielectric.
The capacitance can be changed by varying any of the 3 parameters excluding εo.
It is the parameter d which is usually changed in such type of transducers.
In linear displacement type capacitance, one plate is made to move in order to

change the capacitance as per the input variable. In the angular displacement
capacitance transducer, one plate remains fixed while the other plate rotates to
vary the capacitance as per the input variable.
Passive capacitance transducer
Inductive Passive Transducer
The induction of a coil can be changed by varying its physical dimension or by

changing the permeability of its magnetic core. Changes in the inductance can be
used to measure displacement by varying any of the 3 coil parameters given in the
following equation:
L = n2Gμ
Where,
L = Inductance of the coil
N = number of turns of a coil
μ =permeability of the medium
G = Geometric form factor
The core having permeability higher than air can be made to move through the
coil in relation to the displacement. The changes in the inductance can be
measured using an ac signal which would then correspond to the displacement.
Induction displacement transducer
Variable Reluctance Transducer
In this type of transducer, the core remains stationery inside the coil but the air
gap in the magnetic path of the core is varied in order to change the permeability
of the coil.
Variable reluctance transducer
The output signals from the coil vary as per the input variables. In this case, the
displacement is of the iron plate from the core.
Photodiodes and Phototransistors
The electric characteristics of, p-n semi conductive junctions diodes and
transistors are affected by light. The incident light generates electron-hole pairs.
Photodiodes and Phototransistors are constructed to enhance current using this
property. Photodiodes and Phototransistors are generally made from Silicon but
if response in the infrared region is required, Germanium devices are used. The
diode or transistor is fitted with lens or a window to admit light on to the
junction. The diode is reverse-biased and the reverse current increases with
increase in radiation. This current can then be amplified using OPAMPs. The
spectral response and photocell characteristics are shown below:
Photodiode spectral response and characteristics
Some circuits using a photocell for amplifying the current are shown in the figure
below; Arrays of photodiodes coupled with an amplifier in a single encapsulation.
Amplification of photodiode current
Photoconductive cells
These are devices whose resistances changes with incident light. They are thin
films of materials like Selenium, Germanium, Silicon or metallic halides and
sulphides like Cadmium Sulphate deposited on a ceramic base, encapsulated in a
plastic, glass or metal case. They are widely used in densitometers, electronic
camera shutters, automatic garage door openers etc.
Photomultiplier Tubes
It is a vacuum tube with a window for light to pass onto a photoemissive cathode
which emits electrons in accordance with the intensity of light radiation. This is
followed by an electron multiplier section which consists of a number of anodes
called dynodes which emit a large number of secondary electrons for every
electron impinging on it, thus producing a large current. The potential of each
dynode is 90 V above the previous dynode.
Photomultiplier tubes
Piezoelectric Transducers
The piezoelectric effect is a property of natural crystalline substances to develop

electric potential along a crystallographic axis in response to the movement of
charge as a result of mechanical deformation.
Piezoelectric transducers depend on the fact that many crystals show the
property of piezo-electricity. If stressed along a suitable axis, an electric charge
appears between opposite faces of the crystal. Conversely, if a voltage is applied
between the faces, the crystal deforms along the original axis. Piezoelectric
materials normally used in electronic equipment are either Quartz, or Synthetics
such as Barium Titanate.

compatibility.
If the stress along the axis is maintained, the charge produced leaks away, both
around the crystal and through the associated measuring circuit. This limits the
use of piezoelectric strain gauges to the measurement of sudden changes in
applied force or of alternating forces, rather than to the measurement of slowly
varying or steady forces.
Piezoelectric materials have a high resistance and therefore, when a static

deflection is applied, the charge leaks through the leakage resistor. It is therefore
important that the input impedance of the voltage measuring device must be
higher than that of the piezoelectric sensor.
Piezoelectric transducers are used in many medical instrumentation applications

for example; they are used in detection of korotkoff sounds in non-invasive blood
pressure measurements. They are used in ultrasonic scanners for imaging and
blood flow measurements and they are also used in external and internal
phonocardiography.
Resistance Strain Gauge
If a wire is subjected to tension, it increases in length and decreases in diameter;

provided that, tension is within the elastic limits of the wire, it will return to its
original shape when the tension is removed. Both the increase, in length and the
decrease in diameter contribute to an increase in electrical resistance; which is
quite accurately proportional to the tension applied.
The strain in the wire is defined as extension per unit length, δl/l. The increase in
the resistance per unit resistance, δR/R is related to the strain by a gauge factor,
which depends on the wire material and is usually about 2.
Whenever axial tensile force is applied to any metallic element, it increases the
length and decreases the area of the element. The resistance of the element is
proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its area R α L/A hence the
resistance of the element will increase depending upon the magnitude of the axial
force applied. The resistance will similarly decrease when a compressive axial
force is applied on the element. The gauge factor is defined as:
By connecting the wire as one arm of a Wheatstone bridge, the tension applied
can be measured. However, the temperature coefficient of resistance of the wire
will be about 1% for every 2.5 °C, so this system is unusable in practice. To
compensate for ambient temperature changes, it is usual to make all 4 arms of
the bridge; tension-detecting elements, this also gives four times the output for a
given tension.
Two types of strain gauge are in common use. The Unbonded and Bonded strain
gauges.

compatibility.
Unbonded Strain Gauge
In order to obtain sufficient resistance for each arm (four arms of Wheatstone
bridge), several turns of a thin wire are put in between two ends/posts. Four posts
are mounted on the stationery part of the transducer and other four posts are
mounted on the moving part of the transducer. The moving part can move to
right or left with respect to the stationery part. The diagrams below show more
details.
Unbonded strain gauge
In case the moving part moves towards the left, then the resistances R1 and R2
increases due stretching while it decreases in R3 and R4 due to relaxing of resistive
wires. The change in the resistance as per the linear movement of the moving part
of the transducer is indicated by the voltmeter reading.
Many commercial forms of unbonded strain gauge are available; they are often
used in parallel with a much heavier spring, to increase the force required to give
maximum output.
Connectivity of unbonded strain gauge on Wheatstone bridge
The Bonded Strain Gauge
This consists of a very fine etched metal film attached to a thin elastic backing; in
use four strain gauges are rigidly cemented by an epoxy resin to the surface
whose extension is to be measured, and connected as a Wheatstone bridge so that
two are lengthened and two either unchanged or shortened.
Linear or Angular Encoders
This type of transducer gives the output directly in the digital format. They are
encoded disks or rulers with digital patterns photographically etched on glass
plates. These patterns are decoded using a light source and an array of
photodetectors (photo-diodes or photo-transistors). A digital signal that
indicates the position of the encoding disk is obtained which represents the
displacement being measured. An example of the patterns of digital encoders is
shown below:
Spatial encoder using a binary counting system
This encoder consists of a cylindrical disk with the coding patterns arranged in
concentric rings, having a defined number of segments on each ring. The number
of segments on the concentric rings in a binary count (32-16-8-4-2) from a total
of 32 (16 conductive and 16 non-conductive) on the outside ring to two on the
inside ring, each angular position of the disk would have a different combination
of segments which will indicate the position of the shaft on which the disk is
mounted.
Body Temperature Measurement Transducers
In most cases the body temperature is measured using a mercury-in-glass

thermometer, however these type of thermometers, are slow, difficult to read and
are easily susceptible to contamination. They are also, not with a reliable
accuracy.
Continuous or frequent sampling of temperature is important in critical medical

applications. Electronic thermometers are reliable, convenient, and generally
more accurate than the mercury-in-glass thermometers. In most medical
applications, they use probes that incorporate a thermistor or thermocouple
sensor which have rapid response characteristics.
We discuss more on Resistance Thermometry, Thermistors, and Thermocouples

towards the end of this article. In the meantime, we can look at the Radiation
Thermometry.
Radiation Thermometry
Any material placed above absolute zero temperature emits electromagnetic

radiation from its surface. The amplitude and frequency of the emitted radiation
depends on the temperature of the object. The cooler the object, the lower
frequency of the emitted waves; and less the power is emitted. The temperature of
the object can be determined from the power emitted.
Infrared thermometers, measure the magnitude of infrared power (flux), in

abroad spectral range, typically from 4 to 14 micrometres. They make no contact
with the object measured.
The detectors used for measuring the emitted infrared radiation are Thermopiles,
Pyroelectric sensors, Golay cells, Photoconductive cells, and Photovoltaic cells.
Hand-held infrared scanners are now available for monitoring the pattern of skin
temperature changes. This measurement is based on a new type of sensor called,
‘’Pyroelectric sensor”.
A Pyroelectric Sensor develops an electric charge that is a function of its

temperature gradient. The sensor contains a crystalline flake which is pre-
processed to orient its polarized crystals. Temperature variation from infrared
light striking the crystal changes the crystalline orientation, resulting in
development of an electric charge. The charge creates a current which can be
accurately measured and related to the temperature of the tympanic membrane.
The infrared Thermometer incorporated into a scanner can be used to scan the
entire surface of the body or some part of the body just like a Television Camera
and thereby provide a thermograph.
ADVANTAGES OF INFRARED THERMOMETERS OVER GLASS &

THERMISTOR THERMOMETERS
They eliminate reliance on conduction and instead measure the body’s natural
radiation.
They use an ideal measurement site – the tympanic membrane of the ear
which is a function of the core body temperature. It is dry, non-mucous
membrane site that minimizes risks of cross-contamination.
DISADVANTAGES OF INFRARED THERMOMETERS
They have a high cost compared to other types of thermometers.
The Wheatstone bridge
The Wheatstone bridge is used for measurement of unknown resistances by

comparing with a standard resistance. The basic circuit is shown below:
Wheatstone bridge
Omitting the meter G for the moment, the circuit may be regarded as two voltage
dividers ABD and ACD connected in parallel across the source voltage E.
Let us find the condition for these two potentials to be equal, so that inserting the
meter G between B and C will produce no current from B to C through the meter.
This will occur when,
In this condition, where the meter reads zero, the bridge is said to be balanced.
If R3 and R4 are equal resistors, balance occurs when R1 = R2; If R1 is an unknown

variable resistor, R1 may be measured by setting R2 for balance. Whatever the ratio
of R3 to R4, the same ratio of R1 to R2 will give the balance e.g. If R3 is 10 times R4
and the bridge is balanced, then R1 is 10 times R2. In this way, resistors larger or
smaller than the standard R2 can be measured.
Although the condition of balance is independent of E, the deflection of the meter

G for a small imbalance is directly proportional to E, and is greatest when the four
arms are of equal resistance.
Wheatstone bridge is a highly accurate instrument as a laboratory instrument and

although quite suitable for biomedical electronics workshop, it is rather slow to
use.
Resistance Thermometry
The Wheatstone bridge is widely used for resistance thermometry. All metallic
conductors increase in resistance as the temperature is raised; the most suitable
for resistance thermometry are nickel and platinum. Both of these metals
increase in resistance by about 0.4% for each degree Celcius rise.
Besides metals, a large range of semiconductor materials shows considerable

variations with temperature, usually giving a fall in resistance as the temperature
rises. This property is used in the construction of Thermistors. A typical
Thermistor consists of a bead of semiconductor material between two fine
platinum wires, and mounted in a small glass envelope. The resistance of a
thermistor is usually quoted at 20°C; typically it will halve for every 25°C rise in
temperature. The resistance is exponential as a function of temperature.
The Wheatstone bridge circuit is often used as a pseudo-bridge. In this form,

three arms are fixed in resistance, and the fourth; which may be a resistor, is
allowed to vary. The meter current is used as a measure of resistance of the fourth
arm. If the fourth arm varies only over a small range near balance, the meter
current is reasonably close to being directly proportional to the resistance of the
fourth arm.
Thermistors
Thermistors are the oxides of certain metals like cobalt, manganese and nickel
which have large negative temperature coefficient that is, the resistance of the
thermistor shows a fall with increase in temperature. The resistance temperature

relation for a thermistor is given by:
Where R and Ro are resistance values at temperatures, T and To respectively. β is a

characteristic constant of the material. The reference To is generally taken as 25°C
or 298K and β = 4000
Thermistors can be formed into disks, beads, rods or any other desired shapes.
Thermistor probes are available with resistance varying from a few hundred
ohms to several mega ohms.
Thermistor shapes
Most Thermistor thermometers use the principle of Wheatstone bridge to

determine voltage output which varies as per the input temperature.
ADVANTAGES OF THERMISTORS
They have a high sensitivity.

They are available in many shapes making them suitable for almost all types of
applications.
The time constant can be made quite small by easily reducing the mass of the
thermistor; hence measurements can be taken fast.
Thermistors are available in a large range of resistance values hence making it
easier to match them in the circuits.
They are small in size making it easier for them to be mounted on a catheter or
hypodermic needles.
DISADVANTAGES OF THERMISTORS
High cost
They cannot be used for high temperatures
Linearity is over a narrow range of temperatures
You can also read: The Introduction to Biomedical Instrumentation
Potentiometer – Working Principle and Application in

Biomedical Instrumentation
A potentiometer is a device for comparing an unknown voltage with a standard

voltage. The principle of working of a potentiometer is shown below:
Potentiometer circuit
The figure above is essentially a calibrated voltage divider. A long uniform wire is
set up beside a scale calibrated in volts (In our case 0 to 1.5) and its ends
connected to a 2 V battery A in series with a variable calibrating resistor R. Any
voltage V from 0 to 1.5 V can be picked off the slide wire between the origin and
the moving point. This voltage is connected in series with a sensitive meter and
source of emf, E less than 1.5 V which is to be measured. Since E is connected in
opposition to V, the meter will read zero when they are exactly equal.
The potentiometer is first calibrated by putting accurately known standard source

of voltage at E (standard cells), setting the moving point to the value of the
standard cell voltage on the scale, and adjusting R until the meter reads zero. The
scale is now reading correctly for its whole length. An unknown emf, source may
now be substituted at E, and the moving point adjusted until the meter again
reads zero. The unknown emf is then read off the scale.
Thermocouple Thermometry
The potentiometer (in the form of a recording instrument) is widely used for the
thermocouple thermometry. If two dissimilar metals are connected as shown in
the figure below and the junctions 1 and 2 are held at different temperatures, a
small emf will be generated, which will be proportional to the difference in
temperature, and of a magnitude depending on the two metals. For temperature
difference of 100°C the emf is typically about 5 mV. For accurate measurements,
one junction is held at constant temperature (often at 0°C in melting ice) and the
other junction is used as a temperature measuring probe. If it is impossible to
maintain a melting ice reference, the reference junction can be maintained at
room temperature, and the potentiometer fitted with a special compensating
unit.
Thermocouple thermometer
The amount of voltage change per degree temperature change of the junction
varies with kinds of metals making up the junction. The voltage sensitivities of
thermocouples made of various metals is given in the table below:
Table: Thermal emf for various types of thermocouple
Sensitivity at 20
Type Thermocouple Useful range °C
°C (mV/°C)
Copper-
T -150 to +350 45
constantan
J Iron-constantan -150 to +1000 52
K Chromel-alumel -200 to +1200 40
Platinum-
rhodium
S 0 to +1500 6.4
(platinum (90%,
rhodium (10%)
For medical applications, copper-constantan combination is usually preferred.

With the reference junction at 0°C and the other at 37.5 °C the output from the
Thermocouple is 1.5 mV.
As indicated earlier, potentiometer is used with a thermocouple to measure

potential difference. In addition to this, moving coil movements are used as
millivoltmeters to measure the thermocouple emf. They are directly calibrated in
temperature units. Normally clinical thermocouple instruments reflecting
galvanometers or light spot galvanometers are preferred to measure and display
temperature. They can also be used to read on modern digital voltmeters.
THERMOPILE
This transducer consists of several thermocouples of the same material

connected in series and arranged so that the hot junctions are at one focal point
as shown in the figure below:
Thermopile characteristics
The output voltage is thus equal to nV, where n is the number of thermocouples in
the assembly and V is the output of one thermocouple. The Thermopile is used in
the optical radiation pyrometer where optical radiation from a heated source is
focused on the hot junction. This avoids physical contact with the heated surface.
Thermopile
Table: Physiological Parameters and the Transducers used
Physiological Parameter Transducer required
Dye dilution method Thermal dilution

Cardiac output (blood flow) method Electromagnetic flowmeter
and integrator
Electrocardiograph (ECG) Foetal

Heart rate phonocardiogram-ultrasonic method
Scalp electrodes for foetal ECG
Phonocardiogram (heart sounds) Crystal or moving coil microphone
CO2 detectors Strain gauge detectors

Respiration rate Thermistor Doppler shift transducer
Impedance pneumography electrodes
Pneumotachogram (respiration flow BMR spirometers Fleisch

rate) pneumotachograph
Impedance Pneumogram Surface or needle electrodes
Direct from spirometer Integrated

Tidal volume (volume/breath)
from pneumotachogram
Impedance cardiogram Surface or needle electrodes
Unbonded wire strain gauge Bonded

semiconductor strain gauge
Blood pressure (arterial, direct)
Capacitance pressure transducer
Differential transformer (LVDT)
Low frequency microphone for picking

Blood pressure (arterial, indirect)
up korotkoff sounds
Strain gauge pressure transducer with

Blood pressure (venous, direct)
higher sensitivity
Electromagnetic flowmeter Ultrasonic

Blood flow (aortic or venous)
Doppler flowmeter Tracer methods
Gas in expired air Infrared sensors Mass spectrometer
Photoelectric pulse pick-up

Oximetry
Photoelectric flow-through cuvette
You can also read: Biomedical signal acquisition instruments
Pulse Sensor
Each time when the heart contracts, blood flows with pulse pressure moving
through the cardiovascular system. Higher pressure in the circulatory system is
measurable. Even the pulse or higher pressure can be felt, if we place a finger on
the radial artery in wrist. The pulse can be measured by:
Photoelectric pulse transducer

Strain gauge pulse receptor
Photoelectric Method of Pulse Pressure Measurement
There are two photoelectric methods of measuring pulse; they are:
Transmitted method
Reflection method
In transmitted method, light is transmitted through the patient’s fingers as

shown below:
Transmitted method of pulse detection
The transmitted light, reaching the other side of the patient’s finger where
Photoresistor is placed, depends upon the blood flow through the finger. The
transmitted light reduces when the blood flow is more.
In reflection method, the Photoresistor is kept adjacent to the lamp and the
reflected light from the blood flow in the patient’s finger reaches the
Photoresistor. The change of current flow due to change in resistance of
Photoresistor is recorded.
Reflection method of pulse sensing
How the Strain Gauge is used to sense the Pulse Pressure
The blood vessel swells when blood pulse with higher pressure moves through it.
A feeler pin with a leaf spring is used to move with the enlargement of blood
vessel. The strain gauge is fixed on the leaf spring and its output depends on the
movement of feeler pin which is moving with the displacement of the vessel wall.
Strain gauge pulse transducer
In this method, a piezoelectric crystal is subjected to the displacement stresses in

the wall of the blood vessel. The soft rubber diaphragm is used for the
transmission of stresses. The pulse waveform is recorded using ECG recorder.
Respiration Sensor
During breathing, muscular action causes the lungs to increase or decrease their
volume for inspiration and expiration of air. The measurement of respiration rate
can be measured by either strain gauge based chest transducer or by thermistor
based transducer.
How a Strain gauge is used as a Respiration Sensor
The strain gauge type transducer is held around the chest with the help of an
elastic band. The respiratory movements to produce thoracic volume change
result into the resistance variance of strain gauge, forming one arm of the
Wheatstone bridge circuit. Hence, the output voltage, of the Wheatstone bridge is
found to vary with the chest movements, hence, the output signals correspond to
the respiratory activity.
The Principle behind a Thermistor based Respiration Sensor
There exist a difference in temperature of inspired and expired air during

respiration. The change of temperature of air in respiration can be sensed using a
Thermistor based transducer. The change of resistance of thermistor with

respiration rate can be used in a Wheatstone bridge to generate an output signal.
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The Introduction to Biomedical Instrumentation
April 9, 2020
In "Basics of Biomedical Instrumentation Systems"
Functions & Types of Pneumotachometers for Biomedical Measurements
Pneumotachometers are instruments that measure the instantaneous rate of volume flow of respired
gases. They can be broadly classified into two types based on the principle of operation: Hot-wire
anemometer - it employs a small heated element in the pathway of the gas flow. The current required to
maintain the…
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John Mulindi / May 2, 2020 / Basics of Biomedical Instrumentation Systems / Biomedical

sensors, Biomedical sensors and transducers, Biomedical Transducers, Displacement transducers,
photoconductive cells, photodiodes, photomultiplier, phototransistors, Pressure transducers,
Radiation transducers, thermopile
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Biomedical Instrumentation Systems

Home » Basics of Biomedical Instrumentation Systems » Types of Transducers

Types of Transducers used in Bio-

We have a number of factors which are considered in choice of a particular

The order of accuracy required

Any transducer is used in association with suitable electronic circuitry to give a

Piezoelectric arterial pulse receptor

Numerous methods have been developed for the conversion of non-electric

A good example of a passive transducer application is the variable resistance

2. The Physical or chemical principles used for example:

Hall effect devices

Variable resistances devices

Optical fibre transducers

3. By application for measuring a specific physiological variable. Examples

4. Digital, in digital transducers, a direct digital output of the amplitude of the

Table: Type of active transducers, working principle and typical applications

Type of Principle of Typical

Motion of a coil in Used in

3. Piezoelectric An emf is This type of

When one of the

other is cooled used to measure

generated across flow and

the two junctions. radiation.

Transduction Principles and Applications

A biomedical transducer has two elements:

Sensing element or detector

A sensing element is that part of the transducer which corresponds to any

In medical applications, the physiological variables can be transformed into some

Table: Physical Variables and Transducers used

Physical Variables Transducers

2 Velocity Magnetic inductance

3 Surface strain Strain gauge

7 Magnetic field Hall effect

Strain by using a strain gauge

Transducers with force transduction

Pressure is a very important parameter used in many medical devices as a

Capacitance Manometer – here the diaphragm forms one plate of a capacitor

Displacement transducers can be used in both direct and indirect systems of

The indirect measurements of displacement are used to quantify the movement

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Displacement measurements form the basis of many transducers for measuring

Force, Pressure, Displacement, Position, Motion and

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We look at several types of transducers used in medical instrumentation systems.

Linear Variable Displacement Transformer

Linear variable displacement transformer (LVDT)

For the range of displacements from about 0.1 mm to 10 mm, a simple

A potentiometer can be used to convert linear or rotary displacement into a

In the linear displacement potentiometer shown below, the reading of the

Fig –linear displacement potentiometer

Linear displacement potentiometer

For the rotational displacement potentiometer shown below, pointer C rotates as

Rotational displacement potentiometer

Passive Capacitance Transducer

In linear displacement type capacitance, one plate is made to move in order to

Passive capacitance transducer

Inductive Passive Transducer

The induction of a coil can be changed by varying its physical dimension or by