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Filtration and backwashing behaviors of the deep bed filtration using

long length poly-propylene fiber filter media
Kazuho Nakamura∗, Jiro Nakamura, Kanji Matsumoto
Yokohama National University, 79-5 Tokiwadai Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama 240-8501, Japan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The filtration and backwashing performances of the deep bed filtration system using unique filter media
Received 18 August 2017 made of long length poly-propylene fibers weaved into ring shape were investigated. The dynamic behav-
Revised 11 January 2018
ior of concentration of particles in filter bed during filtration, i.e. breakthrough curve, was observed. The
Accepted 11 January 2018
filtration behavior was evaluated with the deep bed filtration model as filtration coefficient λ0 , which is
Available online xxx
an index of particle capture efficiency, and filtration capacity σ s . The effects of feed concentration and
Keywords: flow rate on the filtration performance were analyzed with the deep bed filtration model. The results
Deep bed filtration showed that the filtration performances depended on the amount of filtered particles regardless of feed
Fibrous filter media concentration and flow rate. The backwashing of filtration column was conducted with upward two-phase
Filtration model flow, which consisted of water and air. The change in turbidity of effluent showed two stage exponential
Backwashing changes, suggesting that, the particles can be classified into two groups which are particles easy to re-
move and particles difficult to remove. A mathematical model evaluating the backwashing behavior was
developed for optimizing of backwashing condition. The effects of water flow rate and air flow rates were
analyzed with this model and the optimal backwashing condition was determined.
© 2018 Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction conducted mutually. For improving the filtration performances the

Deep bed filtration has been widely used in water treatment
processes as a solid-liquid separation method and it is the most
effective and economical in treating large quantities of dilute
suspension containing fine particles [1,2]. Because of demands of
higher quality water in drinking water production or wastewater
treatment processes, the enhancement of performances in the
deep bed filtration, such as higher quality of treated water, higher
filtration rate, robustness of filtration performance against variety
of filtration conditions, or higher operability, are required.
In the deep bed filtration, suspension containing particles is
flowed into a filter bed packed with filter media. During the op-
eration, the suspended particles will deposit on the surface of the
filter media and be separated from liquid. The phenomena in the
filter bed would be unsteady state because the deposited particles
will change the surface properties of filter media and the structure
of void space in the filter bed. These changes are reflected in the
decrease in particle capture efficiency and the increase in pressure
drop during the filtration. In order to continue the operation the
accumulated particles should be removed from filter media by
backwashing. In general the filtration and backwashing steps are
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: naka1@ynu.ac.jp (K. Nakamura).
developments of filter media and the optimization methods for
filtration and backwashing have been studied [1,2].
Sand and Anthracite are conventionally used as filter media for
deep bed filtration [3]. The fibrous filter media have been focused
on as a high performance filter media because of their higher par-
ticle capture efficiency and lower pressure drop [4–9]. Fiber-ball
filter media [4] and permeable collectors [5–7] showed higher
particle capture efficiency. Higher rate filtration was demonstrated
in drinking water production process [8] and in pre-treatment
process for seawater reverse osmosis [9]. These performances of
fibrous filter media would be attributed to complex structure of
pore space and large surface area formed by fibers.
The mechanism and behaviors of deep bed filtration has
been studied by mathematical models using theoretical or phe-
nomenological approaches [2,10]. In the theoretical approach
the particle capture efficiency is described by trajectory analysis
[2,5,6], stochastic model [11–13], or network model [14–18] for
understanding the particle capture mechanism. In the phenomeno-
logical approach the dynamic behavior of the deep bed filtration
is described as two linked partial differential equation, which are
the mass balance equation and kinetic equation, for the optimizing
the operating condition or scale up.
In this study the filtration and back-wash behaviors of the
deep bed filtration using unique filter media made of long length

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2018.01.011
1876-1070/© 2018 Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: K. Nakamura et al., Filtration and backwashing behaviors of the deep bed filtration using long length poly-
propylene fiber filter media, Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2018.01.011
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Nomenclature

C particle concentration, kg/m3 ;

C0 particle concentration in feed suspension, kg/m3 ;
Cbw particle concentration based on the volume of filter
bed in back washing, kg/m3 ;
Cbw0 initial particle concentration based on the volume
of filter bed in back washing, kg/m3 ;
L apparent length of filter bed, m;
L0 actual length of filter bed, m;
t filtration time, s;
u superficial velocity, m/s;
ub flow velocity of water for back-washing, m/s; Fig. 1. The particle size distribution of Kaolin Clay and KANTO lam.
z distance from the inlet of filtration column, m;
ZL length of filter media in the filtration column, m.

Greek letters
α an empirical constant in Eq. (3);
λ filtration coefficient, m−1 ;
λ0 filtration coefficient of clean filtration media, m−1 ;
σ amount of captured particles per unit volume of
filter bed, kg/m3 ;
σs maximum value of amount of captured particles
per unit volume of filter bed, kg/m3 ;
τ time constant, s.

Subscripts
1 particles group 1;
2 particles group 2.

poly-propylene (PP) fiber weaved into ring shape were studied.

In the filtration experiments, the dynamic behaviors of particle
concentration in filter bed were observed and the behaviors were
analyzed with the phenomenological deep bed filtration model.
The effects of operating condition on the filtration performance
were discussed with the model analysis. In the backwashing ex-
periments, the effects of operating condition on the backwashing
properties were observed and the behavior was analyzed with a
phenomenological model developed for determining the optimal
backwashing condition.
2. Experimental
2.1. Test suspension
The Kaolin Clay (Kanayakousan, Clay No.15) and KANTO
(Japanese) loam (JIS Test Powders Class 11) were used as the test
particle. The density of Kaolin and KANTO lam were 2.6 g/cm3 and
3.0 g. cm3 , respectively. Fig. 1 shows the particle size distribution
of these particles. The small amount of KANTO loam was used as
the maker of deposits in filtration bed because the color of KANTO
loam is red.
The test suspension was prepared by suspending mixture of
Kaolin and KANTO loam at the weight ratio of 97:3 to the tap
water treated with a membrane filter of pore size 0.45 μm. PAC
(polyaluminum chloride) was used as flocculation agent. In the
normal filtration condition the concentrations of test particles and
PAC in the test suspension were adjusted to 200 mg/L and 5.0 mg/L,
respectively. The turbidity was measured with tubidimeter (HACH,
2100 N).
2.2. Filter media
The filter media made of long length PP fibers with fiber
diameter of 30–40 μm (Tohkemy Corp.) was used. Fig. 2 shows
Fig. 2. Structural image of the filter media made of long length PP fibers and fil-
tration column.
structural images of the filter media. The PP fibers were weaved
into ring shape and hung to center string. The length and diameter
of filter media were 20 0 0 mm and 120–130 mmϕ , respectively.
Three filter media were packed into a filtration column(length
2100 mm, diameter ϕ 100 mm).
The filter medium had two ropes at upper and lower sides in
order to fix the filter medium to the filtration column for avoiding
the compression of the media by flow. Fig. 3 shows the packing
condition of the filter media in the filtration column in filtration
mode and backwashing mode. In the filtration mode the filter
media were compacted by the downward flow while the upside of
filter media were fixed by the tension for upward with the upper
ropes. The length of the filter media in filtration column was
adjusted by controlling the length of the upper ropes. The packing
condition of filter media were not affected by the flow rate and
did not change during filtration by the tension of the upper ropes.
In the backwashing mode the filter media were expanded to their
original length, 20 0 0 mm, by upward two-phase flow of water
and air with the tension of the lower ropes for easy releasing the
particles accumulated in the filter media.
Fig. 4 shows the packing density and porosity of the filter
media in the filtration column in the filtration mode. The length of
filter media in the filtration column, ZL , was adjusted to 1750 mm.
The packing density was about 60 g/L at near the inlet and about
85 g/L at near the outlet side. The porosity was over 0.9 through
the packed filter media. These higher porosity, uneven distribution

Please cite this article as: K. Nakamura et al., Filtration and backwashing behaviors of the deep bed filtration using long length poly-
propylene fiber filter media, Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2018.01.011
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Fig. 3. Packing condition of filtration media in filtration column in filtration mode
and backwash mode.
Fig. 4. Packing density and porosity of the filter media in the filtration column.
of fiber density, and incompressibility of filter media due to the
tension of upper ropes will contribute to the higher performance
of this filtration system.
2.3. Filtration system and filtration and backwashing procedures
Fig. 5 shows the filtration system. The filtration system
consisted of feed tank(200 L), pump, filtration column, and mea-
surement apparatus. The filtration column had some sampling
ports for turbidity measurement.
Filtration was conducted downward with a constant flow rate
and suspended particles and PAC were directly added into the
feed line to the column. The mixing of the PAC and particles was
achieved by turbulent flow in the feed line. During the filtration
the suspension was sampled from sampling port at a constant
interval and the turbidity of samples were measured. Flow rate
of feed suspension, u, was varied from 60–100 m/h and the
concentration of particles of feed suspension, C0 , was varied from
40–200 g/m3 . PAC concentration was adjusted at 5.0 mg/L. In order
to reuse of the filter media for the next experiment the filter
media were washed with upward two-phase flow, which consisted
of water and air, at an extreme condition, which was water flow
rate = 75 m/h and air flow rate = 500 m/h, with enough amount
of water. By this backwashing procedure the filter media were
Please cite this article as: K. Nakamura et al., Filtration and backwashing behaviors of the deep bed filtration using long length poly-
propylene fiber filter media, Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2018.01.011
[m5G;February 8, 2018;7:15]
3
completely recovered and the reproducibility in filtration behavior
were obtained in recycle use of the filtration media.
In the backwashing experiment the change in turbidity of the
effluent from the column was measured during the backwashing
step. The effect of backwash conditions, i.e. water flow rate and air
flow rate, on backwash properties was studied. The backwashing
experiments were conducted with the filtration column prepared
with the same filtration condition of u = 80 m/h, C0 = 600 g/m3 ,
and PAC concentration 15 mg/L.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Typical filtration properties
Fig. 6 shows a typical change in filtration column during a
filtration experiment. The distribution of particles captured in the
column were observed by the change in color showing KANTO
loam deposition. In this filtration, at the beginning of filtration
the particles were captured at near the inlet of the filter bed and
then the zone where particles are captured moved to the outlet
direction because of saturation of the capturing. The increase in
pressure drop across the filtration column was not observed in the
filtration conditions studied.
For the analysis of this deep bed filtration behavior the change
in the distribution of turbidity in filter bed during the filtration
was observed and analyzed with a deep bed filtration model.
Fig. 7 shows a typical result of the change in turbidity in filter
bed during filtration. Turbidity was normalized by that in feed
suspension, C0 , and the position in the filtration bed was nor-
malized by the length of filter bed, ZL . At all sampling points the
normalized turbidity showed almost zero at the beginning of the
filtration and quickly increased and then gradually approached to
1, which is usually called as breakthrough curve. The breakthrough
curve moved toward right-hand with the increase in z/ZL reflecting
movement of particle capturing zone in filter bed from inlet to
outlet.
3.2. Analysis with deep bed filtration model
Shape of breakthrough curve and moving speed of particle cap-
turing zone will reflect the particle capture efficiency and capacity
of filter bed. For the quantitative analysis of these particle cap-
ture performances, the breakthrough curves were analyzed with
the deep bed filtration model. The particle removing process can
be expressed by Iwasaki equation and material balance equation.
∂C
= −λC (Iwasaki Eq. ) (1)
∂z
∂C ∂σ
u =− (Material balance Eq. ) (2)
∂z ∂t
where C is concentration of particles [kg/m3 ], u is superficial ve-
locity [m/s], z is length from inlet of filter bed [m], σ is amount
of captured particles per unit volume of filter bed [kg/m3 ], and λ
is filtration coefficient [/m]. λ will be higher value when particle
capture efficiency is high. λ is usually expressed as a function of σ
and the functional form of λ has been studied by many investiga-
tors [2,10,14,17,19,20]. As the particle capture efficiency decreased
with the increase in filtration time as shown in Fig. 7, the follow-
ing simple expression was employed in this study for λ function:
 σ α
λ = λ0 1 − (3)
σs
where σ s is the maximum value of amount of captured particles
per unit volume of filter bed [kg/m3 ], λ0 is filtration coefficient of
clean filter media [/m], and α is an empirical constant [-].
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4 K. Nakamura et al. / Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers 000 (2018) 1–6

Fig. 5. The deep bed filtration system. The filtration was conducted downward and the backwashing was conducted upward with two-phase flow consisted of water and air.

Table 1
Effects of feed concentration on filtration performances.

Feed concentration [g/m3 ] 40 100 200

PAC concentration[g/m3 ] 5.0
Flow rate [m/h] 80
λ0 [/m] 9.0 ± 0.5 9.0 ± 0.5 9.0 ± 0.5
σ s [kg/m3 ] 140 ± 10 140 ± 10 140 ± 10
α [-] 4.0 ± 0.2 4.0 ± 0.2 2.4 ± 0.1

Table 2
Effects of flow rate on filtration performances.

Feed concentration [g/m3 ] 200

PAC concentration[g/m3 ] 5.0
Flow rate [m/h−1] 60 80 100
λ0 [m−1 ] 9.0 ± 0.5 9.0 ± 0.5 9.0 ± 0.5
σ s [kg/m3 ] 180 ± 10 140 ± 10 160 ± 10
α [-] 2.4 ± 0.1 2.4 ± 0.1 2.4 ± 0.1

The solid lines in Fig. 7 show the calculation results of

Eqs. (1)–(3). The experimental results were well simulated by this
model, which shows the validity of this model. From this analysis,
λ0 = 9.0/m, σ s . = 140 kg/m3 , and α = 2.4 were determined as
fitting parameters in this case. The model with these parameters
can be useful for scale up of filtration column and optimization of
operating conditions.
Fig. 6. Change in filter bed during the filtration (u = 60m/h, C0 = 200 g/m3 , PAC
From value of σ s and density of particles, the porosity of the
concentration 15 mg/L).
filtration bed after the filtration was estimated from 0.87 to 0.9.
Because of this higher value of porosity the pressure drop would
not be observed in this filtration condition.

3.3. Effects of operating conditions on filtration performances

Filtration performances will depend on the particle concentra-

tion and flow rate because amounts of particles flowed into the
filter bed directly relates these operating parameters. The effects
of particle concentration and flow rate on filtration performance
were conducted with the conditions of C0 = 40–200 g/m3 and
u = 60–100 m/h. In the all filtration conditions the breakthrough
curves were observed and the results were well simulated by
the deep bed filtration model. Tables 1 and 2 show the fitting
parameters obtained by the analysis.
From Table 1 λ0 and σ s showed almost same value regardless
of particle concentration. This result shows that the particles
were captured with same efficiency and same capacity regardless
of feed concentration. α depended on the feed concentration
Fig. 7. A typical result of the change in turbidity in filter bed during filtration.
although the reason is not clear. From Table 2 λ0 was not affected

Please cite this article as: K. Nakamura et al., Filtration and backwashing behaviors of the deep bed filtration using long length poly-
propylene fiber filter media, Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2018.01.011
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Table 3
Effect of PAC addition on filtration performances.
Feed concentration [g/m3 ] 600 600
PAC concentration [g/m3 ] 15 0 usually discussed from the view point of fluidization of filter bed
Flow rate [m/h1 ] 80 80
λ0 [/m] 8.9 ± 1.0 0.7 ± 0.2
σ s [kg/m3 ] 196 ± 4 18.2 ± 2.5
α [-] 2.3 ± 0.4 2.2 ± 0.1
Fig. 8. A typical change in turbidity of waste water from the filtration column dur-
ing backwashing step.
by flow rate and σ s slightly depended on flow rate without any
trends against flow rates, showing that particles were captured
with same efficiency regardless of filtration rate and the particle
capture capacity was roughly constant regardless of flow rate.
From these results the particle capture efficiency and capacity
were little affected by the feed concentration and flow rate,
which means that, the filtration performances depend on the
amount of filtered particles regardless of feed concentration and
flow rate. This filtration properties would be attributed to the
incompressibility of filter media due to the tension of upper ropes.
It is expected that the addition of flocculation agent, PAC, will
enhance particle capture performances. Table 3 shows the effect
of the addition of PAC on the particle capture performances. Both
λ0 and σ s in absence of PAC were about 1/10 smaller than those
in presence of PAC. This result implies that PAC played important
role in the particle capture performances via the binding between
particle and fiber surface in addition to the binding between
particles, which will cause aggregation.
3.4. Properties of backwashing
In the backwashing step the particles accumulated in filter
media should be effectively removed with a small amount of
water. In this filtration system the filter media were fixed at the
bottom of the filtration column by the tension of ropes and were
expanded to its original length and vibrated by upward two-phase
flow of water and air.
Fig. 8 shows a typical change in turbidity of effluent from the
filtration column during backwashing step. The turbidity decreased
quickly at first and then showed gradual decrease. These changes
were exponentially. The effects of water flow rate and air flow
rate on the backwashing properties were studied. In all conditions
the same trend of the two-stage change was observed. From these
observations the particles captured in filter media can be classified
Please cite this article as: K. Nakamura et al., Filtration and backwashing behaviors of the deep bed filtration using long length poly-
propylene fiber filter media, Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2018.01.011
[m5G;February 8, 2018;7:15]
5
into two groups which are particles easy to remove, i.e. group 1,
and particles difficult to remove, i.e. group 2.
In conventional sand filter the optimization of backwashing was
[21–23].The relationship between expansion of filter bed and flow
velocity was discussed with filter stratification [21], predicting
model for minimum fluidizing velocity and effluent turbidity [22],
and effect of viscosity [23]. In the filtration system of this study it
is possible to backwash at very high flow rate condition because
the filter media were fixed to the bottom of filter column by the
tension of ropes. For optimizing the operating condition for this
backwashing properties, a mathematical modeling for the change
in turbidity of effluent from the fixed fiber media was developed
via phenomenological approach.
By assuming that filtration column is considered as a stirred
tank and particle removing rate is proportional to the concentra-
tion of particles based on the volume of filter bed, the change in
the particle concentration can be expressed as following equation:
dCbw
L· = −ub · Cbw (4)
dt
where Cbw is particle concentration based on the volume of filter
bed [kg/m3 ], L is apparent length of filter bed [m], ub is flow
velocity of water for backwashing [m/s]. The turbidity of the waste
water from the filtration column can be expressed by integrating
Eq. (4) combining the particle group 1 and the particle group 2.
ub ub
− • t − • t t t
− −
Cbw = C • e L˙
1 +C • e L˙
2 =C • e τ1
+C • e τ2
(5)
bw0,1 bw0,2 bw0,1 bw0,2
where Cbw0 is initial concentration of particle [kg/m3 ], τ is time
constant [s] and subscripts 1 and 2 indicate the particle group1
and 2, respectively. The solid line in Fig. 8 shows calculate re-
sult of Eq. (5). The experimental result was well simulated by
this model, which shows the validity of this model. From this
analysis, Cbw0,1 = 1.4 kg/m3 , C bw0,2 = 8.8 × 10−2 kg/m3 , L1 = 0.53 m,
L2 = 15.3 m, τ 1 = 0.64 min, and τ 2 = 18.4 min were determined as
fitting parameters.
For evaluation of particle removing efficiency ub ·τ /L0 [-] was
employed for removing efficiency, here, L0 is the actual length of
filter bed. When the value of ub ·τ /L0 is equal to 1, the particle
will be removed as same efficiency as that of perfectly mixed
flow. When ub ·τ /L0 is lower than 1, the efficiency is evaluated
as higher efficiency like piston flow. And when ub ·τ /L0 is higher
than 1, the efficiency is evaluated as lower efficiency. For evalu-
ation of amount of removed particles ub ·τ ·Cbw0 was employed.
Table 4 shows the effects of backwashing condition on the particle
removing performances.
In all backwashing conditions ub ·τ 1 /L0 showed lower than 1
while ub ·τ 2 /L0 showed higher than 1, showing that, the particles
in group 1 were easily removed with higher efficiency while the
particles in group 2 were removed with lower efficiency. On the
other hand ub ·τ 1 ·C bw0,1 was much higher than ub ·τ 2 ·Cbw0,2. From
these observations, it is shown that the particles in group1 were
the main component in the particles accumulated in the filter
bed during filtration and the amount of the particles in group 2
had little impact on the backwashing properties. In the following
section the behaviors of particles in group 1 were discussed:
From the effect of air flow rate on the particle removing
performances shown in Table 4 the performances in air flow rate
of 100 m/h showed lower values than those in air flow rate of
250 or 500 m/h, while there were no remarkable differences in
the performances between the conditions of air flow rate of 250
and 500 m/h. This effect of air flow rate on particle removing
performances would be attributed to vibration of filter media by
air flow. The vibration effect would be insufficient at the air flow
rate of 100 m/h and be saturated in air flow rate over 250 m/h. In
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Table 4
Effects of backwashing condition on the particle removing performances.

Air flow rate [m/h] 100 250 500

Water flow rate [m/h] 25 50 75 25 50 75 25 50 75

ub ·τ 1 /L0 [-] 0.36 0.43 0.58 0.19 0.27 0.28 0.21 0.24 0.30
ub ·τ 2 /L0 [-] 3.76 6.75 5.46 14.3 2.9 8.55 1.83 6.78 8.64
ub ·τ 1 ·Cbw0,1 [kg/m2 ] 1.36E2 1.60E2 8.58E1 3.21E2 3.22E2 3.28E2 1.72E3 4.19E2 2.90E2
ub ·τ 2 ·Cbw0,2 [kg/m2 ] 4.96 3.34 3.33 4.07 1.24 0.51 0.98 0.77 6.0

performances depended on the amount of filtered particles re-

gardless of feed concentration and flow rate. The particle removing
performance from filter media by backwashing was evaluated by
a mathematical modeling and the optimal operating condition for
the backwashing can be determined as air flow rate of 250 m/h
and water flow rate of 50 m/h.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by Nippon Rensui Co. and Tohkemy

Co.

References

Fig. 9. Effect of air flow rate on the particle size distribution of backwashing efflu-
ent at backwashing time 2.5 min at the water flow rate of 75 m/h.
order to confirm this vibration effect the particle size distribution
of the effluent was observed. Fig. 9 shows the effect of air flow
rate on the particle size distribution of backwashing effluent at
backwashing time 2.5 min. The particle size distribution in air flow
rate of 100 m/h showed two peeks around 10 μm and 250 μm,
while those in 250 and 500 m/h showed almost same shape
having a peek around 10 μm. This result suggests that particle
aggregates trapped in the filter media were broken by vibration
of the filter media due to air flow and the effect would be satu-
rated in air flow rate over 250 m/h. In the following section the
conditions of air flow rate of 250 and 500 m/h were discussed.
From the effect of water flow rate on the particle removing
performances shown in Table 4 the particle removing efficiency
showed a little increase with the increase in water flow rate while
the amount of removed particles did not show clear trends against
the increase in water flow rate. In these conditions of air flow
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removed by the vibration effect caused by air flow regardless of
water flow rate.
From these evaluations the optimal operating condition for the
backwashing performance can be determined as air flow rate of
250 m/h and water flow rate of 50 m/h.
4. Conclusions
The filtration and backwashing performances of the deep bed
filtration system using unique filter media made of PP fiber were
investigated. The filtration behavior was analyzed with the deep
bed filtration model and the results showed that the filtration
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Please cite this article as: K. Nakamura et al., Filtration and backwashing behaviors of the deep bed filtration using long length poly-
propylene fiber filter media, Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2018.01.011