Turbo Tips: How to Manage Bolt Connections & Bolt

Joints in Turbomachines
turbomachinerymag.com/view/how-to-manage-bolt-connections-bolt-joints-in-turbomachines

Amin Almasi

Published on: March 22, 2024

Amin Almasi
Turbomachinery Magazine, January/February 2024, Volume 65, Issue 1

Bolt connections can be the weakest link of a turbomachine, so proper care, sizing,
tension, and placement are key to avoiding leaks and other operational problems.

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Turbomachines feature several types of joint connections. Bolt connections, flange
connections, and bolt joints are the most widely used; however, flange and bolt
connections are major points for leakage and operational problems.

Many turbomachinery components, such as casings and piping, need to be dismantled or

disconnected. Bolt connections, which make disconnection possible, may seem simple,
but they can be complex in their mechanical behavior, performance, and operation.
Typically, the behavior of a bolt connection is highly nonlinear and complicated, so bolt
connections should only be used to disassemble or adjust for operation or maintenance.
In addition, bolt connections are expensive compared to welding and other types of
connections, and they are relatively heavy and need special care and provisions, such as
inspection, maintenance, etc.

CRITICALITY OF DIFFERENT BOLT CONNECTIONS

Bolt connections only account for a small amount of the overall budget of a turbomachine.
However, they are responsible for many leaks, operational problems, shutdowns, and
failures. Bolt-connection requirements often determine the size and design of attached
items, modules, and subsections. Specific nonstandard bolt connections may require
extra thought in connection sizing, configuration, and installation.

NONLINEARITIES, YEILDING & COMPLICATIONS

Many components are involved in a bolt connection. Bolt details (size, patterns, etc.), the
application/details of nuts/ washers, connecting plates/components, and the main
connected assemblies all have a significant effect on the performance and reliability of the
bolt connection. Any one of the involved parts can fail or cause failure in the bolt
connection—bolt failure, cracks, and/or damages at bolt holes, failures due to bending
stresses, buckling of parts, such as the compression flange, and others.

Despite widespread applications, bolting connections are surprisingly unfamiliar to

engineers, operators, and experts. Some sources of difficulties are:

Local yielding in different parts. This involves localized loads and highly localized
stresses.
High nonlinearities. For example, material nonlinearity due to stress-strain
relationships and the involvement of complex contact and contact stresses.

As components yield and plastic zones extend, the behavior of the bolt connection gets
more complicated and becomes highly nonlinear. After some yielding, there are bolt load
(plastic) redistributions that usually lead to an increased moment capacity of the bolt
connection and reduced stiffness of the connection and connected components.
However, the redistribution of plastic/inelastic bolt loads/forces is a complex
phenomenon. In general, many theories and methods, even modern ones, cannot predict
the behavior and performance of bolt connections accurately. Some underestimate the
forces and stresses, and others overestimate the forces/ stresses.

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BOLT TENSION

Bolts should be tensioned using proper methods before a turbomachine assumes

loading. This is a necessary step for any bolting joint to ensure that the load-bearing and
load-transmitting plies are brought into effective contact. The final tensioning of the bolt
connection should proceed from the stiffest part of the connection toward the free edges.
Previously tensioned bolts could have been loosened by adjusting adjacent bolts, so re-
tightening and -tensioning may be required.

OPTIMIZATION & KEY AREAS OF CONCERN

Bolt connections should be sufficiently strong, rigid, and stiff to prevent any leakage or
operational mishaps under adverse scenarios. On the other hand, connections in general,
and bolt connections in particular, should be lightweight, compact, and cost-effective.
Given that bolt-connection components are expensive when compared to the connecting
module or section, selecting the appropriate size and bolt optimizes installation and cost.

If bolts, relative to the members or parts they connect, are not strong enough, they will
break. If the reverse is true, the member or part might weaken due to fatigue. If
connecting plates or sections are not strong enough, they may fail in the bolt hole.
Although the entire bolt connection should be strong and ideally designed for infinite life, it
is easier to periodically replace a few bolts rather than break the entire bolted connection,
which can be troublesome and expensive.

Key areas of concern for bolt connections are:

1. losses in bolt tension after installation (changes in bolt tension over time);
2. slip resistance of the joint;
3. the ability to tighten the bolts using standard installation techniques; and
4. washer requirements for normal bolt holes and oversized (slotted) bolt holes.

RELAXATION & LOSS IN BOLT PRELOADS

For typical high-strength bolts in normal circumstances, the total loss of the preload due
to relaxation should be below 25% of the initial preload, and, in many cases, it should be
below 20%—so on average, 10-18%. Preload is usually unaffected by small temperature
changes. For bolts tightened to their yield point, bolt relaxations between 6 - 12% can
occur after 5 - 10 years of operation. A large portion of the loss in bolt load occurs within
days or weeks after tightening.

Washers and their details play a vital role in this regard. The loss of preload is about 6 -
8% for a typical bolt connection with two washers and about 10 - 14% for a bolt
connection with one washer (10 - 15 years of operation).

BOLT JOINTS UNDER VIBRATION

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In general, bolt connections on turbomachines and rotating equipment under vibration or
dynamic/shaking forces need focused care. Nuts that are subject to vibration should also
be secured.

Some experts suggest not using slotted (bolt) holes under fatigue-loading conditions.
However, others support the use of slotted holes in certain conditions. The risk of
movement under dynamic/ cyclic load should be considered and properly addressed.

BOLT CONNECTION DETAILS

Bolt connections and their counterparts are often the weakest link in a turbomachine or
connected piping. As such, the load capacities of each component and connection should
be evaluated, including connectors such as bolts, nuts, and washers, and connection
components such as plates or flanges.

There should be sufficient distance between bolt holes and between each bolt hole and
the edge of the connecting plate/ part to avoid failure. Similarly, to tighten bolts, ensure
there is access to each one and sufficient distances between bolts and the surrounding
obstacles.

To prevent bolts from tearing, center-to-center spacing should be at least 2.5 times the
bolt-hole diameter and edge distance, ranging from 1.5 to 1.75 times the diameter,
depending on how the edge is cut. To be safe, it should be 1.75 times, or even two times,
the diameter.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Amin Almasi is a Chartered Professional Engineer in Australia and the U.K. (M.Sc. and
B.Sc. in mechanical engineering). He is a senior consultant specializing in rotating
equipment, condition monitoring and reliability.

Download Issue: January/February 2024

Turbomachinery International: July/August 2024

Published on: July 1, 2024

TMI Staff & Contributors

Turbomachinery Magazine,

The July/August 2024 issue offers comprehensive coverage on industrial and

aeroderivative gas turbines, steam, and hydro turbines.

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Turbomachinery International’s July/August 2024 tackles turbines from sea and sky to
offshore, land, and hydropower-based applications, including industrial and aeroderivative
gas turbines, steam, and hydro turbines.

Along with our bi-monthly industry news, which includes a tribute to a gas turbine legend
Ivan Rice, this issue kicks off with From Sea to Sky: Turbomachinery in Military and
Commercial Applications, a look at gas turbines and compressors in the military, including
aero and naval, and commercial and offshore applications as well as upkeep and repair
considerations.

Our annual gas turbine sales report segments industrial and aeroderivative turbine sales
and looks at the impact of disruptive factors, such as international conflicts, and AI data
centers.

The summer issue also dives into hydro and steam turbines. In A History of
Turbomachinery and Hydropower, readers get a fact-filled introduction to hydropower
generation in the Ontario area and insights GE Vernova’s Head of Hydro Power
Engineering on how hydropower plants use complex hydro turbines and other rotating
machines to electrify regions worldwide. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries lays out several
case studies on how implementing phased array ultrasonic testing in steam turbine
inspection and maintenance is an evolution from traditional maintenance that can ensure
efficiency and reliability.

In May, Joseph Bonafin, Sales and Business Development Manager at Turboden, came
on the TurboTime Podcast to talk about turbomachinery at geothermal power plants. Our
Q&A features part of our conversation with Turboden, a part of Mitsubishi Heavy
Industries Group, and its insights into geothermal power generation, how these plants are
designed, recent advancements, and how geothermal can help decarbonize the energy
landscape.

Shell provides a step-by-step guide to prevent varnish formations in turbine lubrication

systems, primarily focused on reducing the chance of varnish before it takes hold. And
Regal Rexnord, our Vendor Spotlight, shares its portfolio of diaphragms, disc couplings,
and more.

This issue’s Turbo Tips offers a series of guidelines and technical notes on steam turbine
control systems throughout each phase: start-up, shutdown, and parallel operation while
the Myth Busters dispel the mystery surrounding supercritical CO2.

Click here to view the July/August 2024 issue.

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 Download Issue: July/August 2024

Turbo Tips: Why is Root-Cause Analysis Important for

Turbomachines?
Published on: June 18, 2024

Amin Almasi
Turbomachinery Magazine,

After a failure or unscheduled shutdown, if the root cause is not found and eliminated, it
can happen again.

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Root cause analysis (RCA) plays a major role in the reliability, maintenance, operation,
and performance of a turbomachine. It is a problem-solving method used to identify the
root causes of faults and identify corrective actions to prevent the problem/failures/faults
from reoccurring—simply repairing or replacing a part is not enough.

For example, if a bolt is broken, there may be an incorrect bolt torque at installation,
wrong bolt selection, inappropriate bolt material, etc. Any failed or damaged part should
not necessarily be replaced with the same bolt. Based on RCA, a different part with
superior material or a stronger structure might be used. Fixing the root cause usually
prevents the whole sequence of events that led to a failure (or trip). In many cases, the
failure is because of two or multiple deviations. All should be addressed.

CONSIDERATIONS FOR MAJOR OVERHAUL & REPAIRS

An important milestone for turbomachinery is a major overhaul (major shutdown), which is

ideally planned every 5 or 6 years. Major overhauls are planned due to fouling, excessive
vibration, misalignment issues, chronic problems, or malfunctions. During repair and
maintenance, it is necessary to keep track of the tasks hour-by-hour. Before shutting
down, take note of the final set of operational key parameters, such as hot alignment
data. For failures or damaged parts, proper RCA should be completed, and root causes
should be properly dealt with.

Special care is needed for the disassembly, inspection, and repair of key parts, such as
lubrication systems and seal systems. Delicate or tiny parts including small valves,
instruments, sensors, small orifices, etc. in turbomachinery systems or associated
subsystems can be easily missed or damaged. Dirt or foreign materials can be introduced
in lubrication oil or seal systems at major maintenance works that later cause serious
problems at start-up.

It is useful to get a sample of fouling and deposits on internal parts to determine how they
formed and necessary to conduct a proper analysis to eliminate them. Rubs can be
identified at major overhauls when turbomachinery is disassembled and could indicate a
problem or malfunction. For example, operation at critical speeds at high vibration
amplitudes can result in some rubs. Too often some details or data, such as clearances,
matches, etc., at disassembly are lost, and it is sometimes difficult to re-construct events
and properly re-assemble the turbomachinery package. Hour-to-hour notes, proper match
marks, and neat/orderly writing can help to avoid such difficulties. Component clearances,
such as bearing clearances, are important to check and report during re-assembly. Bow
check of the rotor is also important.

KEY CHALLENGES IN RCA

Several conditions can make RCA more time-consuming. Important information is often
missing because it is generally not possible, in practice, to monitor everything and store
all data for a long time. Secondly, gathering data and evidence and classifying them along
a timeline of events can be difficult and time-consuming. Thirdly, there may be more than
one root cause for a given problem/failure, and this multiplicity can make the conclusion

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difficult to establish. Fourth, the root causes often have several levels. Looking at many
examples of turbomachinery RCAs, a deeper investigation could reveal that specification
at the design stage, the operational procedure, or the maintenance procedure might be
the root cause.

Amin Almasi is a Chartered Professional Engineer in Australia and the U.K. (M.Sc. and
B.Sc. in mechanical engineering). He is a senior consultant specializing in rotating
equipment, condition monitoring and reliability.

Download Issue: May/June 2024

Turbomachinery International: May/June 2024

Published on: May 2, 2024

TMI Staff & Contributors

Turbomachinery Magazine,

The May/June 2024 issue features coverage of the growing carbon-capture industry, a
tour of GE Vernova’s Facility in South Carolina, a Q&A on digital ecosystems with
Emerson, and more.

Turbomachinery International’s May/June 2024 includes a collection of the industry’s

latest news and products, show coverage from CERAWeek and WTUI, and several
feature articles focusing on carbon emissions.

The cover story, Carbon Capture and Storage is on the Rise, tracks the growth of carbon
capture and storage facilities (CCS)—both in development and in the pipeline—on a
global scale. The authors highlight countries leading the way for carbon-capture
development, a rise in networks and hubs, and a spotlight on project financing and
investment in developing economies that are needed to advance CCS deployment
through 2030 and beyond.

The tour of GE Vernova’s Gas Turbine Manufacturing Facility in Greenville, SC led the
team through numerous innovative spaces, including the manufacturing shop floor, Test
Stand 7, a gas turbine outage simulator, and the combustion testing lab and control
center. Gas turbine development, testing, and assembly are united by a single “lean”
methodology to eliminate waste across the board—now a primary focus of GE Vernova
as a standalone company.

A companion piece to our cover story, Curbing CO2: Technological Efforts to Reduce
Carbon Emissions, outlines a series of modified processes and technologies to reduce
carbon emissions. Dry gas seal upgrades from John Crane, a heat pump installation from

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MTU Maintenance Hannover, and Siemens Energy’s Predictive Emissions Monitoring
System are examples of various ways to approach CO2 reduction and overall
decarbonization.

For this issue’s Q&A, James Nyenhuis, Performance Consultant at Emerson’s Power and
Water Solutions Business, speaks about how artificial intelligence (AI) and machine
learning (ML) will become an inherent part of the current digital ecosystem. Further, digital
tools can extend a turbomachine’s life, increase plant safety, and optimize operational
efficiency. The aggregation and interpretation of larger power plant data sets is the next
step for Emerson’s AI and ML.

Drew Robb traveled to Palm Springs, CA for the annual Western Turbine Users Inc.
(WTUI) conference, which offered breakout sessions on maintenance and repair for GE
Vernova’s LM-series gas turbines. The technical tracks covered the basics of heat
recovery steam generator maintenance, dry low emissions controls, excitation controls,
and more for each model in the LM portfolio.

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S&P Global’s CERAWeek conference in Houston addressed multiple factors impacting
the energy transition: markets, climate, technology, and geopolitics. In addition to the
DOE’s LNG permitting pause, the effect of AI data centers on the power grid became an
unexpected discussion. These centers demanded significant (and unplanned) electricity
from the network, putting utilities in a scramble for additional generation.

Our Turbo Tips column details how root-cause analysis (RCA) plays an important role in
the reliability, maintenance, operation, and performance of a turbomachine. RCA can
identify the core reasons behind faults and failures, allowing operators to establish
corrective actions to prevent issues from reoccurring.

And Myth Busters Klaus Brun and Rainer Kurz explain the purpose of turbomachinery
coatings and outline forces that may cause them to fail. The duo clarifies that despite a
coating’s protective qualities, it will deteriorate over time with exposure to mechanical
surface wear, pitting, thermal and chemical blistering, and more.

Click here to view the May/June 2024 issue.

Download Issue: May/June 2024

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