AUDIO-VIDEO

MEDIA & PRINT

MEDIA
Unit 3
Psychology and Media
 Characteristics of Mass Media
■ They do not necessarily require that the exchange be bidirectional between the sender
and the receiver, that is, that they be in the same space and time; but what is relevant is
that one of the agents sends a message to the other. In short, the media are systems that
facilitate the sending of information from a communicative sender to one or more
receivers.
■ They are routes in which transmitters and receivers, both individual and collective, are
found. The contents in the mass media are directed towards a heterogeneous public and
a diverse range of receivers.
■ The attitude of the receiving subject is usually more imprecise than in direct face-to-face
communication. Broadly speaking, he can adopt a primary, voluntary, and conscious
receptive attitude; secondary, conscious and involuntary, and tertiary, which corresponds
to a passive receiver who receives a message without clearly perceiving it and totally
involuntarily.
■ The media constitute the materialization of the need to relate to each other that human
beings have, which can be carried out in a written, sound, audiovisual, or digital way.
 Positive Impact of Media on society
■ Builds the relationship: The social media brings the people together. They can interact with each
other in real time and make the friends. Media builds the rapport between the society people so
that they can share their problems with each other. People get the chance to talk to others in this
busy World, it is only possible through the media.
■ Makes the society techno- savy: Media is a platform through which people show their creativity
and they become the techno- savy. The online platform also improves our motor skills by typing,
clicking, playing games and other finger related practices. It helps in better communication and
building a rapport to the society people. By using new features on social media like sharing live
location, chat rooms, video calling, adding different filters to your snap, makes the people more
advance.
■ Disseminate the news in real time: The news spread on the social platforms like wild fire.
Whatever the news, it is quickly available globally and we update ourselves time to time.
Through online media it is made possible to get the updates of current happenings and to be
aware about that issue or event. In real time we get the news and take necessary steps. As we
know, Chennai witnesses heavy rain which causes flood in the city on 30th December 2021, at
10:30 pm so it is the media which gives us the updates of the current situation of the affected
place.
■ Employment opportunities: Many online jobs are available for the people of the society so they get the
employment and fulfil their needs. There are several sites accessible for the users who want to apply for a
job profile and for their start- ups. The online media also gives a chance for the fresh graduates to do the
internship online and to enroll themselves in any online certificate course. Like the SWAYAM is an
online portal which provides many certificate programs it is a positive initiative by the Government of
India.

■ Educates and Motivates: Media educates the people about their rights and duties towards the society
and the Nation. The social media connects the people and it aware about the wrong practices which is
prevailing in the society. It informs the public about the current situation and the issues of the society.
Many motivators through videos share their knowledge and opinion to motivate the young people to opt
the right path and to take right decisions.

■ Medium of entertainment: Media is a medium to entertain the people through various programs like
daily soaps, comedy shows, talent shows, horror stories, award shows and many more. With the
entertaining medium the media also offers some religious channels.

■ Spread Art and Culture: The mass media spread the culture through its various mediums. The media
attracts the tourists by showing them the Indian culture. The Heritage sites, forts, cultural dance, festivals,
fairs are the main parts to attract tourists and to boost up the Indian economy. The wellness tourism
centers are open for all and it influence the tourist to come and visit these places.
 Negative impact of media on society
■ Mental Ilnesses: There are many positive effects of social media, but there is also a shaddy side
of this infinite scroll which always coming back with the option of more. The social sites affect
the teenager's mental health and due to that they suffer with anxiety and depression and which
lower their confidence level. The students engage on the social networking sites which hamper
their studies and reduces their mental and physical growth.
■ Unequal access to technology: Many accidents are caused by taking the selfies at the river bank
and on mountains to upload them on social sites. It is a craze which arises among youngsters now
a days. Due to the obsession for any web series or social networking site people sacrifice much of
their time and get the headache and suffer with low vision problem.
■ Cause violence in society: As the people get the updates from social media but the information
overload can mislead them and can cause the factual errors. The people also get bad habits and
they might indulge in crime by watching the influencing videos on online sites. The teenagers
follow the famous personality and try to dress-up like them and they set their unrealistic
expectations which arouses the negative body image and they start dieting which results in the
eating disorders. The worst impact of cyber media is the cyber bullying which makes very
difficult for the victim to live their life normally.
■ Increased risk of obesity from inactivity: Exposure to media leads the obesity in
children through increased eating while watching the television, social sites, watching
movies while sitting on a same place for a long time. This causes the low nutrients in
their body and make them fatty. Excessive screen use, and having a television in
bedroom make them the obese.

■ Sleep problems and health issues: Media usage can hamper your sleep. Children and
adults who uses social media continuously suffer with the problem of insomnia. The
person who keeps their electronic gadget with themselves while sleeping they might
suffer with some health issues due to the radiations from these electronic devices.

■ Impact of excessive exposure on mental health: Excessive exposure to social media

deteriorates the teenager's attachment to their school, which results in lower academic
score with lack of attention and retention. Due to inadequate uses of online media the
child’s mental growth do not take place in right direction which creates loneliness, risk
of anxiety and self- harm. Excessive use can increase the number of aggressive scripts in
their mind that may store in their long-term memory which will affect their behaviour.
 Characteristics of Print Media
■ It is expected that the use of print medium will increase significantly with the increase of
literacy and purchasing power of the people.

■ Print media used for mass communication are powerful sources of bringing about
attitudinal change and motivating people for action.

■ Newspapers provide place for debate. For example, the topics like political participation
of women and civic affairs, discussed in series of articles in Times of India provided a
very effective platform to debate on these topics, by the people from a cross section of
the society. These national debates in newspapers analyse and mould the culture and
influence the government Newspapers have been the leading print medium ever since
Johann Gutenberg started his press in mid-fifteenth century.
■ Print media such as newspapers, magazines, journals etc. also play a role of watchdog
and present a true picture of the events to the people many times.

■ Thus print media play an important role in connecting and adequately informing people
about the events and developing understanding of the social realities especially in a
society consisting of different ethnic, linguistic and religious communities.

■ News papers as mass media today do not just observe and report but ask, pursue,
investigate, doubt and demand.

■ News papers and magazines offer wider variety of reading material and viewpoints of
many people and thus provide better comprehension of the affairs and issues.

■ Print media provide space for expression of their views and grievances in reader's
columns. Thus providing for feedback component of effective communication process.
This generates debates on various social and other issues.
IMPACT OF MEDIA ON THE
SOCIETY
■ Information and Awareness: Media serves as a powerful tool for disseminating
information, enabling people to stay informed about local, national, and global events,
politics, social issues, and scientific advancements.

■ Education and Learning: Media platforms, such as educational websites, online

courses, and documentaries, provide access to a wide range of educational resources,
promoting learning and knowledge acquisition.

■ Public Opinion and Influence: Media has the ability to shape public opinion by
presenting news, editorials, and commentary that can sway public perception on
various issues, impacting social and political discourse.
■ Cultural Exchange and Diversity: Media allows for the exchange and sharing
of cultural ideas, traditions, and perspectives, fostering understanding and
appreciation for different cultures and promoting diversity.

■ Entertainment and Recreation: Media offers a wide range of entertainment

options, including movies, television shows, music, games, and social media,
providing opportunities for leisure, relaxation, and escapism.

■ Social Connectivity and Networking: Social media platforms have

revolutionized communication and networking, allowing individuals to connect,
share ideas, collaborate, and mobilize for various causes.

■ Consumerism and Advertising: Media plays a significant role in promoting

consumerism by advertising products and services, influencing consumer
behavior, and shaping societal values and aspirations
■ Fake News and Misinformation: With the rise of digital media, the spread of
fake news and misinformation has become a concern, potentially impacting public
perception, trust, and the democratic process.

■ Privacy and Surveillance: Media technologies raise concerns about privacy and
surveillance, as personal information can be collected, stored, and analyzed,
impacting individual autonomy and digital rights.

■ Mental Health and Well-being: Media consumption patterns and exposure to

certain content can affect mental health, leading to issues like addiction, anxiety,
and body image concerns, necessitating responsible media usage.
 Fantasy V/S Reality in the Media
■ Media, such as movies, television shows, video games, and books, often present
fictional worlds and narratives that can be categorized as fantasy. On the other hand,
reality refers to the actual world we live in and the experiences we encounter in our
daily lives. The interplay between fantasy and reality in media can have significant
effects on individuals' psychological processes and behaviors.
 Does the fantasy world created by media
helps us in any way?

■ Escapism and Entertainment: Fantasy media often serves as a means of escapism,

allowing individuals to temporarily detach from reality and immerse themselves in
imaginative and often more exciting worlds. This escapism can provide a break from
the stresses and challenges of real life, serving as a form of entertainment and
relaxation.

■ Psychological Needs: Media that incorporates elements of fantasy can fulfill various
psychological needs. For example, fantasies can provide a sense of autonomy,
competence, and relatedness, allowing individuals to explore different identities,
engage in heroic acts, or build connections with fictional characters. These
experiences can satisfy psychological needs that may be unmet in reality.
■ Emotional Regulation: Fantasy media can also serve as a tool for emotional
regulation. People may turn to fictional worlds to experience catharsis, find solace, or
process difficult emotions. For example, engaging with sad or heartwarming stories in
media can elicit emotional responses and provide a sense of release or comfort.

■ Impact on Behavior: Media that blurs the line between fantasy and reality, such as
virtual reality or augmented reality experiences, can have direct effects on behavior.
These immersive technologies can influence individuals' actions, decisions, and social
interactions. For example, virtual reality simulations can be used for training
purposes, desensitization therapies, or even as a form of entertainment with interactive
storytelling.
 Fantasy vs. Reality: Unveiling the Hidden
Dangers in Mass Media's Grey Area
■ Unrealistic Expectations: Media portrayals of fantasy worlds, idealized characters,
and extravagant lifestyles can create unrealistic expectations for individuals. This can
lead to dissatisfaction with one's own life, body image issues, and feelings of
inadequacy when real-life experiences fail to match the fantasies depicted in media.

■ Escapism and Avoidance: Excessive engagement with fantasy media can lead to a
form of escapism, where individuals may use media as a means to avoid real-world
problems or responsibilities. This can hinder personal growth, social interactions, and
the development of necessary coping skills to deal with real-life challenges.

■ Distorted Perceptions: Media's portrayal of fantastical scenarios and events can

distort individuals' perceptions of reality. This can result in difficulty distinguishing
between what is fictional and what is real, leading to confusion, misinformation, and
the blurring of boundaries between fantasy and reality.
■ Desensitization: Graphic violence, explicit content, and extreme behaviors often depicted
in fantasy media can desensitize individuals to real-life violence and consequences.
Exposure to such content may diminish empathy, increase tolerance for aggressive
behavior, and impact individuals' emotional responses to real-world events.
■ Social Comparison and Self-Esteem: The constant exposure to idealized and flawless
characters in fantasy media can contribute to negative social comparison. Individuals may
compare themselves unfavorably to these fictional characters, leading to diminished
self-esteem, body dissatisfaction, and psychological distress.
■ Influence on Decision-making: Media narratives that blur the line between fantasy and
reality can potentially influence individuals' decision-making processes. Misinformation or
unrealistic representations of real-world situations can affect individuals' beliefs, attitudes,
and actions, leading to poor decision-making or misguided behavior.
■ Addiction and Time Management: The immersive nature of fantasy media, such as
video games or online virtual worlds, can lead to addictive behaviors and excessive time
spent on media consumption. This can result in neglect of real-life responsibilities,
compromised relationships, and negative impacts on physical and mental health.
 How to not get caught in the web of the
fantasy world that the media creates?
■ Develop Media Literacy Skills
■ Set Realistic Expectations
■ Maintain a Balanced Media Diet
■ Engage in Real-Life Activities
■ Limit Screen Time
■ Practice Mindfulness
■ Seek Diverse Perspectives
■ Foster Real-Life Connections
■ Reflect and Evaluate
 SOCIALIZATION IN THE
MEDIA & IT’S
DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES
 Socialization
■ Socialization refers to the process through which individuals acquire the knowledge,
skills, values, and behaviors necessary to function effectively within a society. It
involves learning and internalizing the social norms, customs, and expectations of a
particular culture or group

■ From a perspective of media psychology, socialization encompasses the ways in

which media and technology influence and shape individuals' social development.
Media plays a crucial role in shaping our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, and it has
become an integral part of modern socialization processes.

■ There are several others agents of socialization such as family, peers, personality,
motivation, educational and cultural background. These interact with media and
influence socialization of an individual.
 Theories on Socialization
■ Social Learning Theory: Developed by Albert Bandura, social learning theory
emphasizes the role of observational learning and modeling in socialization.
According to this theory, individuals learn by observing and imitating the behaviors,
attitudes, and values of others. They also learn through reinforcement and punishment,
which shape their behavior. Social learning theory suggests that people acquire social
behaviors through a combination of observation, imitation, and the consequences of
their actions.

■ Social Cognitive Theory: Proposed by Jean Piaget, cognitive development theory

focuses on the intellectual and cognitive processes that influence socialization. As they
interact with their environment and socialize with others, they develop cognitive
schemas and structures that shape their understanding of social rules, relationships,
and moral reasoning. Cognitive development theory suggests that socialization is
influenced by the cognitive abilities and developmental stages of individuals.
■ Attachment Theory: Developed by John Bowlby, attachment theory explores the
emotional bonds individuals form with their primary caregivers and how these
attachments impact socialization. Bowlby posited that secure attachments during
infancy and early childhood contribute to the development of trust, emotional
regulation, and positive social interactions later in life. Attachment theory emphasizes
the importance of early relationships in shaping individuals' social and emotional
development, influencing their ability to form healthy relationships and navigate
social situations.

■ Psycho-social Development Theory: Identity theory, associated with Erik Erikson,

focuses on the development of identity and the formation of a sense of self within the
social context. According to this theory, individuals go through different psychosocial
stages throughout their lifespan, each presenting a unique social challenge or conflict.
Successful resolution of these challenges leads to the formation of a coherent identity.
Identity theory emphasizes the influence of social interactions, role models, and
cultural expectations in shaping individuals' identities and sense of self
 Impact of socialization on children
and adolescents
Media has a significant influence on the socialization of children and adolescents. Younger
children are particularly susceptible to media messages and may imitate behaviors,
attitudes, and values they observe in media content.
■ Media Role Models: Children and adolescents often look up to characters or
personalities portrayed in media as role models. For example, superhero movies can
inspire children to emulate the values of courage and justice.
■ Body Image and Self-Esteem: Media portrayals of idealized body images can impact
body image and self-esteem among young individuals. Unrealistic beauty standards in
magazines or on social media platforms may lead to body dissatisfaction or unhealthy
behaviors.
■ Gender Stereotypes: Media can reinforce gender stereotypes and influence children's
understanding of gender roles. For instance, TV shows that depict female characters in
traditional caregiver roles may shape children's perceptions of gender expectations.
 Impact of socialization on young
adults
Young adults often engage with media as a means of socializing and forming social
connections. Social media platforms play a significant role in their socialization processes,
as they can facilitate online friendships, romantic relationships, and the exploration of
personal and social identities.
■ Online Socialization: Social media platforms provide avenues for young adults to
socialize, form connections, and express their identities. For instance, platforms like
Instagram allow users to curate their online personas by sharing experiences, hobbies,
and interests.
■ Influence on Lifestyle and Consumerism: Young adults are often targeted by media
advertisements that promote certain lifestyles, fashion trends, or consumer products.
These messages can influence their aspirations and consumer behaviors.
■ Political and Social Awareness: Media plays a significant role in shaping the political
and social views of young adults. News outlets, online forums, and documentaries can
expose them to different perspectives and influence their opinions on social issues.
 Impact of socialization on adults
Media continues to shape socialization processes in adulthood.

▪ Media and Decision-Making: Media content, such as news reports or expert opinions,
can influence adults' decision-making processes. For example, political debates or
investigative journalism can impact their political choices or attitudes toward certain
policies.
■ Cultural and Social Norms: Media reflects and reinforces cultural and social norms,
shaping adults' perceptions of what is considered acceptable or desirable in society. TV
shows or movies that depict certain lifestyles or relationship dynamics may influence
adults' attitudes and behaviors.
■ Media for Entertainment and Escapism: Adults often engage with media for
entertainment and relaxation purposes. Books, movies, or TV series can provide a
means of escapism and offer opportunities for leisure and enjoyment.
 Impact of socialization on older
adults
Older adults may engage with media for entertainment, information, and maintaining
social connections. Media can serve as a source of learning, social engagement, and
emotional support.

■ Digital Inclusion and Social Connectivity: Media can help older adults stay
connected with family, friends, and communities. Social media platforms, video calls,
and online forums provide opportunities for socialization and combat feelings of
isolation.
■ Health and Well-being: Media can contribute to older adults' health and well-being
through educational content, exercise programs, or mindfulness apps. For instance,
fitness videos or meditation apps can promote healthy habits and enhance overall
well-being.
■ Intergenerational Learning: Media can facilitate intergenerational learning, where
older adults and younger generations exchange knowledge and experiences. Online
platforms that promote storytelling, mentorship, or educational content allow older
adults to share their wisdom with others.
STEREOTYPING IN THE
MEDIA AND IT’S IMPACT
■ India in the 21st century, is fast becoming a country where the internet,
television and cell phones are ubiquitous. These have penetrated the villages and
small towns in India with only a few remote places left untouched.
■ In the past few decades, the media has increasingly become an important agent
of socialization. One way in which the media affects our worldviews is through
perpetuating and reinforcing stereotypes. The characters we see on television
and other media are often very straightforward and stereotypical. Depictions of
straightforward characters make it easy both for the producers to illustrate their
stories as well as the audiences to understand them.
■ These depictions however perpetuate and maintain stereotypes.
■ A STEREOTYPE is a simplistic and generalized representation of a social
group that ignores diversity. It often has both positive and negative attributes
about the group members and leads to certain expectations regarding them.
These stereotypes however may also change with time if contradictory
information is provided.
STEREOTYPES IN MEDIA
■ Every day we hear several media messages that convey what it means to be a
member of a social group such as belonging to a gender, caste, race etc. These
media representations influence the way we perceive ourselves and the world in
which we live.
■ One of the primary tools for understanding media representations is content
analysis. This involves systematically studying the content to identify patterns.
However, the method involves a lot of challenges such as analyzing thousands of
print pages and digging deep into archives of radio, television and other media.
■ The first dimension relates to quantity of representation
(underrepresentation/overrepresentation) while the second relates to the quality
of representation (positive/negative).
■ Both these dimensions are influenced by a number of factors such as cultural,
social, economic and political that vary across time and space.
 Theoretical Perspectives
■ One perspective is the gatekeeping theory which focuses on “what” will be presented to
the public. The theory states that the media act as gatekeepers and decide what will be
covered and what will be ignored.
■ Another perspective i.e., the agenda setting theory states that the media sets the agenda
by concentrating on selective issues only. Consequently, the public perceives these issues
as more important than others.
In one study by Bloemraad and Hamlin (2015), the visibility of Vietnamese and
Indian-origin communities in four regional North American newspapers was examined. The
study found no link between demographic patterns in the region and media coverage of
certain groups.
■ The question of “how” the groups will be represented in the media can be understood in
terms of the frame theory. The theory emphasizes words and other symbols that are used
to present certain perspectives and thereby mould public opinion.
For example, if certain groups are presented as threats to the society, then public opinion will
become very negative and public policies will be formulated to deal with these threats.
 1. Gender Stereotypes
■ The Indian society is predominantly patriarchal. Men hold primary power and
women are at the bottom of the social ladder.
■ Men's stereotypes are represented by an “agentic” cluster that contains features like
independence, strength, and self-assurance. Stereotypes about women's qualities are
represented by a “communal” cluster that contains features like emotional, helpful,
and compassionate features (e.g., Eagly and Steffen, 1984).
■ Eagly and Mladinic (1994) have noted that communal features in the stereotypes
associated with women suit them for domestic responsibilities and lower status
roles, whereas the stereotypes associated with men are associated with high-status
roles.
■ Media have played a key influence in the perpetuation and reinforcement of the
above- mentioned stereotypes. There are two underlying patterns that are visible
with respect to gender stereotypes in the media (Oliver, Hoeweet al., 2014)
1) The first pattern is that female characters continue to be underrepresented in
contrast to male characters (Smith & Granados, 2009, as cited in, Oliver and
Raney, 2014).
■ According to the content analysis study done on US TV (Gunter, 1995), there were
only 20 to 35 per cent of characters who were females during the 1950s to
1970s. Increasing Representation of Women in Media 50:50 The Equality Project
https://www.bbc.co.uk/5050
The 50:50 Project was launched in 2017 by BBC to address women's underrepresentation in the
media. When the project initially began, men dominated interviews and were often shown as expert
contributors. However, due to the project there was a gradual shift in this scenario as women's
representation in BBC and its partner institutions showed an increase. At the BBC, the target of
having 50% representation of women was achieved as the number increased to 50% women
contributors in March 2021, from 36% when they first started in 2017. This increase in representation
of women in media has been achieved by BBC and its partner institutions in several ways. For e.g.,
many of the media have increased female interviewees, have more equal contributions by men and
women as experts and also developed media content that is more relevant and interesting for women.
This has ensured that women's perspectives can also be seen and heard in the media. The Project has
now been broadened to include other underrepresented groups including people from diverse cultures
and people with disability.
2) The second pattern that emerges are the stereotypical representations of female
characters in the media. In these representations women are usually shown in
domestic roles and are appreciated for looking young, and attractive.

e.g. Jain and Pareek (2018) observed that out of 30 TV serials that aired from
1990-2016 and 14 old and new TV advertisements, the majority of depictions of
women were of them doing household chores. This is also true for Indian TV serials
where women characters are usually limited to the domestic sphere. The spilt between
the “good woman” and the “bad woman” is also very apparent in these serials where
the “good” are those who show love, concern, nurturance, and emotional support while
the “bad” are those who show anger, and are conniving (heartless).

■ Laura Mulvey’s gaze theory (1975) has argued that in a patriarchal society, the
male gaze determines what will appeal to men especially heterosexual men and this
then determines the cinematic content.
 What is the result of these media
representations of women?
■ The stories that are depicted in the media display the male perspective while women
are silenced and remain invisible. Few stories are talk about sexual harassment,
restrictions of mobility, and limited educational and employment opportunities
■ Furthermore, as young girls and women aspire to have media hyped “ideal bodies”,
there are others in the media who show that such aspirations can be very easily
achieved through the various products that they advertise to the consumers.
■ It has been observed that when women get aware of the stereotypical belief that
women do not perform as well as men in certain areas (such as math) then they tend
to underperform in these areas. Similarly, one of the most deleterious consequence of
stereotype threat in the area of leadership for women, is reduced motivation and
engagement. This leads to it being a self-fulfilling prophecy.
 2. Caste and Ethnic Stereotypes
■ The diversity of India is reflected in its numerous languages, religions, castes and
ethnic cultures. However, this diversity is often not reflected in the Indian media.
■ For example: Several marginalized caste groups are either absent in the Indian media
or have been reported from the lens of the privileged and upper caste. In this context,
the Dalits represent an oppressed group in the Indian society who have been in
shown in stereotypical ways in the Indian media.
■ According to a study by Oxfam India (2019), on print media, people from the upper
caste hold majority of newspaper leadership positions. In addition, the survey
showed that only 10 out of the 972 articles featured on the cover page of the
magazines were related to caste issues.
■ This underrepresentation of Dalits in leadership positions results in stories being
represented from the viewpoint of the upper caste. Historically, Dalits were shown as
a homogeneous group, dark skinned, with impure bodies, illiterates, and as passive
victims in the Indian media.
■ Thakur (2019) observed that Dalits are now able to use the new media in myriad
ways: to shatter negative stereotypes, to express a sense of pride, to create
mobilization against caste discrimination and to express resistance to the
dominant caste narrative.
■ The author notes that Dalit online users are now able to use several Indian
languages on social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter to present a
distinct worldview and this has helped them to a large extent in expressing their
diverse identities.
■ In addition to caste stereotyping there is also stereotyping of ethnic minorities.
Several ethnic minorities across the world have also been portrayed in very
simplistic terms.
■ Studies of portrayals of ethnic minority groups in the US, shown that such
groups are underrepresented and shown in stereotypical ways just like many of
the marginalized groups in our society. For e.g., a lot of research has focused on
the portrayals of African Americans on American television. Historically, they
have been underrepresented in the American media and were given only a small
range of roles, often negative and were shown as aggressive or dangerous.
 3. Stereotypes of Elderly
■ India is mainly a collectivistic society where the joint family system is quite prevalent
and different generations reside together in the same household. One of the core
values of Indian culture is respect and care for the older adults.
■ Nevertheless, the media is responsible for propagating at least some negative
stereotypes towards older adults. A small but significant body of research in the
Indian context indicates that the elder lies are represented in small numbers relative to
their proportion of the actual population in the Indian media and this is especially true
for elderly women (Harwood and Roy, 1999).
■ Even when they are presented, they are rarely portrayed in major roles and remain
marginalized. Most of the media content is made for the young audiences while it
ignores the elderly and their issues.
■ This gives a signal to the society that issues of the elderly are unimportant,
uninteresting and not newsworthy. Studies across the world indicate the presence of
similar negative stereotypes that emphasize old age and physical dependency
(Wilińska and Cedersund 2010).
■ Such negative stereotypes result in “ageism” that is expressed as prejudice and
discrimination towards the elderly. This can negatively impact the wellbeing of
older people and limit their capacities (Levy et al. 2002).

■ However, it should also be noted that media images of older adults in recent
years have changed and become quite positive. In a comparative study between
American and India, it was found that in both cultures, older people were
depicted in a positive manner and were shown as active, happy, and healthy
(Harwood and Roy, 2006 as cited in Bai 2014).

■ Research in other cultures such as Korea, has found that unlike the American
media, the elderly are more likely to play an important role in Korean TV
commercials. They also have a higher chance of being portrayed positively in
Korean media, indicating that the advertising content is affected by cultural
values (Lee et al., 2006, cited in Bai 2014).
 4. Stereotypes of People with
Mental Health Disorders
■ This group is portrayed negatively due to mental illness.

■ Characters with mental problems in the media are frequently shown as far more
violent than their real-life counterparts (Diefenbach, 1997). They are also
typically depicted as helpless, frail, or otherwise unable to manage their own life
(Coverdale, Nairn, 8c Claasen, 2002). This has resulted in the belief in the
general population that persons with psychiatric disorders are uncontrollable and
dangerous and should be feared and avoided.
 5. Stereotypes of Queer Individuals
■ Media representations often depict queer individuals as sexual predators or
threats. A study by McLean and Syed (2015) found that negative portrayals of
LGBTQ+ individuals in media contribute to the perpetuation of stereotypes and
prejudice.
■ Media often presents narrow and stereotypical representations of gay and
lesbian individuals. According to a content analysis by Ward and Lippman
(2015), media tends to depict gay men as effeminate and focused on fashion,
while portraying lesbians as masculine and lacking femininity.
■ LGBTQ+ individuals are also depicted as comic relief or objects of ridicule.
Media sometimes portrays queer characters solely for comedic purposes or as
objects of mockery.
■ Media representation also depicts queer individuals as promiscuous or
hypersexual. Media often associates queer individuals with exaggerated and
hypersexual behaviors.
REPRESENTATIO
N OF VIOLENCE IN
THE MEDIA
Examples
■ Colorado mass shooting incidence on 20 July 2012 that happened during the
screening of the movie Batman: The Dark Knight Rises is an unforgettable incidence.
The convict James E. Holmes came in wearing a ballistics helmet, bulletproof vest,
bulletproof leggings, a gas mask and gloves. He detonated multiple smoke bombs
before shooting the unsuspecting crowd of hundreds of attendees. 10 died at the
scene, while 2 died at local hospitals and 70 were injured. He stated that he was “The
Joker”, the villain in the second installment of the "Batman" movie trilogy, "The
Dark Knight." Investigations found large quantities of ammunition at his home
(Jacobo, 2017).

■ Inspired by the Hindi movie “Special 26”, a gang of 5 people disguised themselves
as CBI officials and robbed Rs 36 lakh, jewellery and foreign currency from a
doctor's house in Northwest Delhi. (27 March, 2021).
 Theoretical Perspectives
1. Social Learning Approaches-
– this theory proposes that individuals imitate what they observe. (Bandura, 1977)
– The Social Learning Model talk about the people developing violent media
cognitive scripts as a result of watching violent media. So, in real life settings,
they would tend to respond with hostility, is a proposition made by these
theories.
2. Catalyst model-
– Ferguson et al., (2008) proposed that there is an interaction between biological
and external forces of aggression. Environmental stressors are basically
catalysts for violence as they do not cause but stimulate specific violent acts in
an individual
– On the other hand, media violence is neither a cause nor a stimulant but is
actually a stylistic catalyst since individuals who decide to act aggressively may
sometimes do so in a way similar to what they have seen in media. In the absence
of media influence, these individuals would still act violently but in a slightly
different way.
 Strategies to reduce violence
caused by consuming violent media
content
■ Ensure parental guidance of children’s content being consumed and promote media
literacy
■ Implementation and enforcement of age-appropriate content ratings and restrictions
■ Promote alternative forms of entertainment and media such as sports, arts, reading, and
social interactions.
■ Launch public campaigns that raise awareness about the potential harmful effects of
excessive exposure to violent media content
■ Encourage the media industry to self-regulate by avoiding excessive violence and
promoting responsible content creation
■ Incorporate media literacy education into school curricula, teaching students critical
thinking skills to analyze and interpret media content
■ Collaborate with mental health professionals to provide resources and support for
individuals who may be more vulnerable to the effects of violent media exposure.
CYBERCRIME
 Introduction
• Sussman and Heuston (1995) (in Sarmah, Sarmah, & Baruah, 2017) were the first
to propose the term “cybercrime” with it being a collection of acts or conducts.
• Also called cyber-dependent crimes, they are offences that can only be carried out
with the help of a computer/ laptop, computer network or other forms of
information communications technology.
• It includes spreading viruses or malware, hacking and distributed denial of service
attacks (UN manual on prevention and control of computer related crime, 1995).
Some definitions of cyber crime also include copyright infringement (Krone, 2005)
as well as child pornography with cyber stalking (Zeviar- Geese, 1997). Hence, the
computer or device can be the agent, facilitator or target of crime (Gordon & Ford,
2006).
• The uniqueness about the cyber crime is that it does not require the victim and
offender to come into direct contact.
 Classification of Cybercrime
1) CYBERCRIME AGAINST AN INDIVIDUAL-
■ committed by cyber criminals against a person like,
❑ Email spoofing- forging an email header wherein the message appears as if
received from a source other than the actual source which appears to be known
or legitimate
❑ Spamming- junk email or mass message that reaches through spam bots which
crawl the internet in search of email addresses
❑ Cyber defamation- harms the reputation of the person in the eyes of others
through cyber space
❑ Internet relay chat- rooms in which many people worldwide chat together and
discuss techniques to hack, hold meetings or where pedophiles allure small
children. They become places for extortions, sexual harassment and threats.
❑ Phishing- attackers gain login or account information by pretending to be
reputable individuals or IT support.
■ 2) CYBERCRIME AGAINST PROPERTY-
includes vandalism of computers as well as intellectual crimes of copyright, patents
and trademark. They include,
❑ Software piracy- unauthorized copying
❑ Copyright infringement- use of copyright materials like music, software or
text
❑ Trademark infringement- unauthorized use of service mark or trademark
■ 3) CYBER CRIME AGAINST ORGANIZATION
❑ Unauthorized changing or deleting data
❑ Unauthorized reading or copying confidential information
❑ Attacking the servers, overwhelming the victim's resources to make it difficult
for them to use it
❑ Many emails are sent to an email address to flood the mailbox called email
bombing
❑ Attacking the online database to seize customer information like bank and
credit card details called salami attack. The hacker draws small amounts of
money over time which goes undetected or for which no complaint is filed.
■ 4) CYBER CRIME AGAINST SOCIETY-
■ it includes
Forgery- making false document, signature, currency or revenue stamp
Web jacking- a fake website is created which when clicked on leads to victim to
clicking another link and getting redirected to the fake page which buys time to
get access and control over the victim's system.

• With the digitalisation of India, the aim is to transform the society into the
information society where the internet would be used to conduct sensitive
transactions and store data on the cloud. For instance, the very ambitious Unique
Identification Authority of India (UIDAI) has been a project that requires
resident to have biometric IDs so as to obtain government benefits.
• The 12-digit aadhaar number requiring collection of 10 fingerprints, irisscans,
name, date of birth, address will be hosted in the e-Governance cloud platform.
Many scholars have discussed how this can make India more prone to
cybercrimes in the coming future.
Incidence rates
• As per the NCRB (2019), A total of 44,546 cases were registered under Cyber
Crimes, showing a huge increase of 63.5% in registration in 2019 compared to
2018 (27,248 cases).
• Crime rate under this category increased from 2.0 in 2018 to 3.3 in 2019.
• During 2019, 60.4% of cyber-crime cases registered were for the motive of fraud
(26,891 out of 44,546 cases) followed by sexual exploitation with 5.1% (2,266
cases) and causing disrepute with 4.2% (1,874 cases).
• KPMG in its Cybercrime Survey Report (2014), states that 89% Indian
organizations have considered cybercrime as a “major threat”.
• The Norton Cybercrime Report (2011) reported 30 million Indians having been
victims of cybercrime, costing the Indian economy $7.6 billion a year.
 Factors Affecting Cybercrime and
Cybersecurity
• Economic and social characteristics of a developing economy- low levels of income and
education lead to poor human development, high unemployment, high income inequality and
weak democratic institutions.
• Political and economic institutions- Government lacks technological sophistication, law
enforcement manpower and accurate criminal database
• Culture or informal institutions- cybercrime is not considered a stigma. There is lack of guilt,
remorse and an ethical sense among cybercriminals. Call centres employees consider it
disrespectful to undergo security checks. Password sharing is a very common practice.
• Human capital- lack of cybersecurity related manpower and cybersecurity orientation of
Internet users; low demand of cyber specialists and over reliance on basic security systems like
anti virus softwares.
• Technology- less acceptance of cyber security related technology; underdeveloped
cybersecurity system; low-cost technology; lack of indigenous technology and patents related
to cyber security; computers using crime prone technologies and low investment in Research
and Development.
 How to prevent Cybercrime
While the cyber law exists, one must be cautious of the frauds happening around
through technology and our increasing dependence on it. Hence, the ways to
prevent oneself from falling victim to a cyber crime as per Raskar and Pol (2019)
can be considered useful. They are:

• Updating the computers regularly

• Setting strong passwords
• Not using the same password for every service used online
• Changing passwords regularly
• Protecting the computer with security software
• Being careful in sharing personal information online
• Being cautious of any strange emails
• Not responding to email messages asking for personal information
• Paying attention to privacy policies on websites
• Guarding one's email address
• Reviewing bank and credit card statements regularly
• Supervised use of electronic gadgets with adolescents
• Ensuring informed use of social media and awareness of basic security of
internet as well as gadgets especially in children and adolescents
THANK YOU!