22-02–2024

We consider the period from the 6th to the 12th centuries as the early mediaeval era,
characterised by significant historical developments, notably regionalism and regional
specificity. During this time, there was a notable expansion of agricultural land and the
granting of land to Brahmanas, along with the expansion of Brahmadeya and the
establishment of regional politics. This period marks a crucial phase in the emergence of
distinct regional identities. Preceding this era, the Gupta Empire dominated northern and
north-central India from around 320 AD to the end of the 5th century, with a centralised core
and provincial governance, as noted by Joanna Gottfried Williams. However, following the
decline of the Gupta Empire, various well-established regional kingdoms emerged. To the
east, there were the Shailodbhavas ruling from Bhubaneswar, while in northern Karnataka,
the western Chalukyas of Badami held sway. The Pallavas of Kanchipuram governed
Tondai Nadu in the south, while in the north, the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Kalachuris,
Chahamans of Shakambhari, and Chahamans of Nadol, along with Solanki rulers in
Gujarat, and the Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas in Karnataka, each established their regional
dominance. This regional orientation in governance persisted through subsequent dynasties
like the later Chalukyas and the Hoysalas. Despite the fluctuating political boundaries, each
regional polity retained a distinct character, shaping the socio-political landscape of early
mediaeval India. Each regional power during this period defined its own aesthetics of power,
reflecting the diverse religious landscape of expanding Hinduism. The proliferation of sects
such as the Shivas, Vaishnavas, Shaktas, and Tantras led to a surge in temple construction
activity, expanding the Hindu pantheon. This period witnessed significant changes in visual
culture and the built landscape compared to previous eras, such as the Mauryan period.
Patterns of patronage also underwent notable transformation. For instance, the patronage
patterns observed in stupas like Sanchi and Bharhut, where community patronage, including
monks and nuns, played a prominent role, differed significantly from those of early temples.
However, it's essential to note the complexity of patronage dynamics. While stupas like
Nagarjunakonda or Amravati received elite patronage, including from Hindu rulers like the
Ikshavaku dynasty, whose queens were key donors to Buddhist and Jain complexes,
complicating the narrative of patronage solely by laity, monks, and nuns. Thus, making
blanket statements about the patronage dynamics of Buddhist stupas could oversimplify the
intricate interactions between various social and religious groups during this period. Indeed,
the patterns of patronage in early mediaeval India varied significantly across religious
complexes. While elite patronage, including that of kings and nobles, was prominent in
Hindu temples, there were instances of elite involvement in Buddhist complexes as well, as
evidenced by the contributions of figures like the Ikshvaku king's chief physician at
Phanigiri in Telangana. Temples, in particular, served not only as centres of religious
worship but also as instruments of political legitimization. The divine authority associated
with temple rituals and the presence of deities provided kings with legitimacy in their rule.
This intricate intertwining of religion and politics resulted in a sophisticated and potent
institution in the form of temples. However, it's crucial to recognize that the institution of the
temple encompassed more than just political dynamics; it also involved religious and
aesthetic considerations. Agamic and samhita texts detailed religious rituals, iconographic
specifications, and temple architecture, highlighting the complexity of temple interpretation.
To navigate this complexity, regional case studies can provide valuable insights. For
example, the study of Khajuraho and its Lakshman temple, as explored in Devangana
Desai's work, offers a nuanced understanding of how religious developments and iconology
influenced the depiction of imagery on temple structures, encompassing both erotic and
religious motifs.

Discussing the regional case studies provides a comprehensive understanding of architectural

and religious elaborations within the Indian temple tradition. The temples of Bhubaneswar,
including Parashurameshwar and Mukteshwar, offer insights into the architectural
intricacies of the Nagara temple style, particularly well-preserved in eastern India. However,
to grasp the complexity of the Nagara style, it's crucial to begin with a study of the Dravida
style prevalent in Deccan and South India. By examining temples in the Tamil region and the
western Deccan first, students can comprehend the foundational morphology before
transitioning to the northern regions. One exemplary case illustrating the nexus between
religious symbolism and political ideology is the Brihadeshwara Temple in Thanjavur,
commissioned by the Chola dynasty. Works by scholars like Champakalakshmi and
Nagaswami shed light on the temple's historical and ritual significance, showcasing how
religion and politics intersected in temple construction. Additionally, the temples of Kashmir
provide a fascinating study, showcasing how geographical and cultural factors influenced
architectural morphology uniquely. This exploration could extend to the temples of Mysore,
offering further insights into regional variations. Considering the visual prominence of
temples in the landscape, dedicating a significant portion of the course to temple architecture
—potentially around 75%—seems warranted. Just as last semester focused on stupas,
responding to the visual landscape of the times enriches students' understanding of historical
and cultural contexts. Furthermore, considering sites like Shravanabelagola, a Jain
pilgrimage centre renowned for its architecture and the practice of Sallekhana, or voluntary
termination of life, offers a diverse perspective on religious and artistic expressions deserving
of thorough examination.

The concept of exploring Buddhism in eastern India and Ladakh offers intriguing avenues
for our study. We shall discuss the Alchi mural, highlighting early Tibetan influences on the
paintings, or alternatively, examine Buddhist bronzes and the historical sites of Nalanda. In
western India, at the very least, we could explore these aspects to enrich our understanding.
Additionally, we shall explore the concept of Rehman Prasad (mosque). The Maru Gurja
style of temple architecture in western India is particularly fascinating. It emerged from the
amalgamation of earlier architectural styles prevalent in Rajasthan (the Maha Maru) and
Gujarat (the Maha Gurjar), blending various stylistic elements to form the distinctive Maru
Gujar style. What's intriguing is that during the period of the Gujarat Sultanates and
Ahemadshah’s reign in Gujarat, mosques were constructed in the Maru Gurja style. Contrary
to the common belief that mosques were solely built from the spoils of destroyed temples,
many mosques were constructed using such spoils. Moreover, architectural treatises from the
twelfth and fifteenth centuries provide insights into the processes of accommodating mosque
construction within the same stylistic framework used for temples. This underscores the
shared artisanal heritage between temple and mosque construction. The mosques built in this
style were referred to as Rehman Prasad, reflecting their role as spaces for Islamic worship
alongside descriptions of Buddhist and Jain complexes. When discussing the Maru Gurja
style of temple architecture, it's essential to examine a Maru Gurjar mosque as well, to
comprehend the shared processes involved in constructing both temples and mosques.

The period between 400 to 600 AD is a time synonymous with Gupta dominance in
northern and north-central India. This era serves as a precursor to the early mediaeval temples
we'll be discussing. Last semester, we explored narrative relief culture, uncovering evidence
of India's early architectural language. While surviving sacred structures from the first or
second century AD are rare, archaeological findings provide glimpses into ancient building
practices. Archaeological remnants reveal multi-story structures, including barrel vaults and
wagon vaults, along with references to Gandhakuti and Kosamkuti, encompassing Buddhist,
Hindu, and Jain temples. However, these structures were typically constructed using unbaked
bricks or various types of wood, such as bamboo and weeds, reflecting the rich diversity of
vernacular architecture in ancient India. Stone architecture was minimal during this period,
evident even in structures like the Patiliputra palace, where only the stone base remains,
while the rest of the complex was likely constructed using less durable materials. Similarly,
the cyclopean fortification walls of Rajagriha from the pre-Mauryan period endure, but the
residential structures within them do not. Through the analysis of archaeological, visual, and
literary sources, historians and art historians have meticulously examined the early
architectural typologies of India.

It is around the early fourth century, specifically the late fourth to the turn of the fifth century,
that temples began to be constructed in stone in ancient India. Prior to this period, temples
were primarily made of less durable materials such as wood, unbaked brick, mud, bamboo, or
grass. However, a significant shift occurred during the reign of the powerful Gupta dynasty,
which promoted temple construction using stone, marking the emergence of sacred structures
built with more permanent materials. While residences continued to be constructed with less
permanent materials like unbaked brick and reed grass, the use of stone in architecture was
initially reserved for sacred structures before gradually extending to residential dwellings
much later. The earliest surviving temples made of stone, dating back to around 400 AD,
are primarily found in the region and terrain under Gupta rule in northern and north-central
India. Textual references mention temples in regions like Nagari in Rajasthan or dedicated to
Vasudeva Sankarshana in Mathura, dating back to the Kushan period and earlier. However,
actual surviving temples made of stone can be traced back to around 400 AD. While it would
be incorrect to claim that temples did not exist before this period, it is accurate to state that
the earliest surviving stone temples, albeit modest in structure, date back to around 400 AD.

Several significant sites stand out in central and north-central India, each offering valuable
insights into the development of temple art and architecture during the Gupta period.
Locations such as Gwalior, Jhansi, Allahabad, Varanasi, and Bhopal hold historical
significance in this regard. Close to Bhopal lies the renowned site of Sanchi, home to a
quaint temple dating back to around 400 AD, situated near the iconic Great Stupa of Sanchi.
Further exploration leads us to Udayagiri, where Gupta period cave temples have been
excavated, providing glimpses into the architectural achievements of the time. Moving north
of Jabalpur, Tigawa emerges as a site predominantly showcasing Jain remains from the early
mediaeval period, alongside a Gupta period temple structure, pivotal to our study of temple
art and architecture during the Gupta era. Eran, another pivotal site slightly north of Tigawa,
holds significant archaeological finds from the Gupta period, including a monumental
Varaha (boar) sculpture, both in animal and anthropomorphic form, as well as inscriptions
documenting the Huna invasion, shedding light on historical events of the time. Furthermore,
Eran boasts a plethora of Vaishnava archaeological remains and temple structures,
contributing to our understanding of religious practices during the Gupta period. Heading
eastwards to the region of Satna and Panna, we encounter two important sites: Bhumra and
Nachana Kothara. Bhumra features a Shiva temple from the Gupta period, while Nachana
Kothara hosts a temple dedicated to Mahadeva and Parvati from the same era. Additionally,
we discuss the historical significance of Allahabad, Sarnath, Nalanda, Rajgir, and
Bodhgaya during the Gupta period. These sites, with their predominantly Buddhist
archaeological remains (except Allahabad), offer invaluable insights into the cultural and
religious landscape of eastern India during the early mediaeval period, enriching our
understanding of Gupta era history and civilization.

1. Sanchi Temple
Sanchi temple- the Sanchi temple, situated within the vast Sanchi complex, its unassuming
appearance belies its architectural significance and historical context. While visitors may be
drawn to the grand stupas and ornate gateways, the Sanchi temple offers a unique glimpse
into the early architectural practices of ancient India. Measuring merely 8 feet by 8 feet, the
temple resembles a small room with a single entrance and no windows. Its construction
features a flat roof adorned with a double cornice, providing a distinctive architectural
element known as "chadyaki" or "chhajja." Despite its diminutive size, the temple boasts
intricately carved base mouldings and a walled sanctum area, complemented by an open-
pillared antechamber or mandapa. What appears to be brick walls is, in fact, a clever
construction of stone slabs affixed to a rubble core, a technique common in Gupta-era
architecture. The temple's architectural layout is notable for its evolution from a square base
to an octagonal shaft, further transitioning into 16 and 32-sided shafts before culminating in
a circular capital reminiscent of Mauryan columns.
Adorning this pillar are carvings of lions and a central tree motif, showcasing the distinctive
misra style with its mixed cross-section. Supporting the flat roof are four pillars and two
pilasters, creating an open-pillared mandapam that adds to the temple's airy and open
ambiance. Despite its architectural intricacies, determining the temple's sectarian affiliation
remains a challenge. Lacking iconic imagery or symbols typically associated with either
Buddhist or Hindu temples, such as deities or lingas, scholars grapple with identifying its
religious affiliation definitively. While the presence of lions and a tree motif suggests
Buddhist influence, its proximity to Buddhist structures within the Sanchi complex further
complicates the interpretation.

Detailed drawings of the temple's door jambs reveal subtle ornamentation, reflecting the
transition from earlier wooden door frames to stone architecture during the Gupta period.
These intricate carvings, reminiscent of earlier wooden craftsmanship, offer valuable insights
into the evolution of architectural styles and techniques during this era. The temple's door
frame, consisting of three door jambs or shakhas, exemplifies intricate craftsmanship
reminiscent of earlier wooden door frames. The innermost jamb, known as the patra
shakha, features a delicate leafy scroll pattern, while the middle one displays floral motifs,
specifically shalmali blossoms. The outer jamb, termed stambha shakha, is relatively plain
in comparison. This t-shaped door frame, a vestige of wooden construction techniques,
persisted even with the shift to stone architecture, highlighting the continuity of architectural
traditions. The sanctum of the temple, measuring 8 feet by 8 feet, is entirely enclosed by
solid walls, devoid of windows or trellises. Adjacent to the sanctum is an open
antechamber supported by four pillars, with the central pillar providing a wider entrance
space for worshippers or visitors seeking shelter from the sun or rain. Despite the temple's
modest size, it lacks any discernible imagery or symbols within the sanctum, leaving scholars
puzzled regarding its religious affiliation. The only ornamental features of the temple are
found on the door frame, where carvings of lions and a central tree motif adorn the jambs.
While these motifs have historical associations with Buddhism, particularly during the
Mauryan and post-Mauryan periods, it is premature to definitively classify the temple as
Buddhist based solely on these motifs. The absence of conclusive evidence complicates
efforts to determine whether the temple was dedicated to Buddhism, Hinduism, or another
religious tradition.

Doorjambs
Closer view
 2. Tigawa temple

Continuing with the evolution of temple architecture during the Gupta period, we turn our
attention to the temple structure at Tigawa, situated north of Jabalpur, approximately two
decades after the construction of Sanchi Temple 17. It's important to note that the numerical
designations such as "Temple 17" are modern classifications by archaeologists based on their
findings rather than contemporary names.
The temple at Tigawa bears a striking resemblance to Sanchi Temple 17, albeit with some
notable differences. It features thick walls, slightly larger dimensions, and more defined base
mouldings compared to its predecessor. Additionally, the temple exhibits more intricate
cornices, indicating a progression in architectural sophistication. Notably, there are drainage
channels visible within the sanctum and on the roof, suggesting a consideration for ritual
practices involving fluids or water within the sacred space. One significant departure from
Sanchi Temple 17 is the door frame configuration. At Tigawa, the temple boasts a
panchshaka door frame, featuring five door jambs on each side, adding complexity to its
architectural design. Moreover, the pillars and pilasters display enhanced ornamentation,
showcasing the refinement and artistic advancement in temple construction during the Gupta
era. It's important to note that while the temple itself dates back to the Gupta period, around
420 AD, there are later additions and modifications, including a 7th-century Jain figure,
indicating continued religious activity on the site over the centuries. The temple is situated on
the Tigawa Kankali Devi hillock, named after a local deity. However, there is no
iconography or image of Kankali Devi found within the temple. The architectural style of the
temple reflects a progression from a square to octagonal to 16-sided to 32-sided mixed
cross-section, showcasing the development of temple design during the Gupta period. One
distinctive motif seen on the temple is the vase and foliage motif, which symbolises fertility,
abundance, and creation, drawing from ancient Indian cosmogony and the concept of
creation from water. The presence of adored lions and trees atop the temple, similar to those
seen at Sanchi, highlights a shared architectural and sculptural language prevalent during this
period. Examining the ornamentation of the Tigawa Kankali Devi temple reveals several
intriguing details. Figural ornamentation, such as two female figures on L-shaped brackets,
suggests a level of artistic expression in Gupta-era temple architecture. Additionally, the
decorative ceiling features intricate dentil structures, reminiscent of the ends of wooden
rafters used in traditional wood architecture. The temple's ceiling, which is a samatala
ceiling (level ceiling), is adorned with a meticulously carved lotus pattern, a motif deeply
rooted in Indian artistic tradition. The central pendant, indicated by a mortise hole, once held
a bulbous stone projection resembling a bud, adding a three-dimensional aspect to the
ceiling's ornamentation. Surrounding the central pendant is a mesmerising depiction of a
thousand-petal lotus, with smaller petals extending outward in intricate detail, creating a
captivating portrayal of a blooming lotus flower. This lotus motif on the ceiling bears
symbolic significance, drawing parallels to the canopies held over Mahapurushas or kings
as they walked, which often featured a radiating lotus motif underneath. As temple
architecture evolved from mobile canopies to stationary structures, the lotus motif continued
to be a prominent feature, symbolising purity, enlightenment, and the cycle of creation and
rebirth. The inclusion of the lotus motif on the temple's ceiling reflects a profound continuity
in artistic symbolism across different mediums of Indian art, from ancient vedica railings to
temple architecture. This continuity highlights the enduring significance of the lotus in Indian
cultural and religious iconography. In later architectural treatises, such as the Brihat Samhita
of Varaha Mihira from the 6th century and the Vishnu Dharmottarapurana from the late
6th to early 7th centuries, detailed descriptions of temple architectural elements are provided.
The specific type of ceiling pattern seen in the Tigawa Kankali Devi temple would typically
be referred to as padmapatra, meaning lotus leaves ceiling, underscoring the importance of
botanical motifs in temple design and decoration. Furthermore, the term vitana, denoting the
ceiling in these architectural treatises, underscores the meticulous attention paid to every
architectural element in temple construction, highlighting the spiritual significance attributed
to the temple as a sacred space dedicated to divine worship and contemplation.
The continuation of the artistic vocabulary across different belief systems and artistic
contexts highlights the adaptive nature of artistic expression to suit the needs of various
patrons and cultural contexts. The motif of the woman and the tree, symbolising fertility
and abundance, transcends religious boundaries and finds expression in both Buddhist and
Hindu iconography. In Buddhist art, the motif is exemplified by the Toranas and
Shalabhanjikas, representing the nurturing qualities associated with the feminine form and
nature. This motif undergoes a transformation in Hindu visual culture, where it manifests as
the Makaravahani and Kachchhapavahani, embodying the river goddesses Ganga and
Yamuna. Additionally, within Buddhist tradition, the Shalabhanjika or Vrikshaka motif and
Maya's birthing of Siddhartha, the Bodhisattva, under a sal tree, further illustrate the
continuity of symbolic imagery across different religious narratives. This continuity
underscores the shared cultural heritage and collective symbolism that transcends religious
affiliations, rooted in the universal concepts of fertility, growth, and nurturing found in
nature. Artists utilise familiar motifs and iconographies to convey diverse meanings, adapting
them to the specific needs and preferences of patrons and cultural contexts. Moreover, the
architectural vocabulary seen in the Maru Gurjar style, utilised in both temples and
mosques, exemplifies the versatility of artistic expression and craftsmanship in responding to
the demands of patrons.

Ganga and Yamuna

The presence of the woman and tree motifs, depicted on the l-shaped brackets of the
doorframe, holds significant iconographic meaning within the context of the Gupta period
temple architecture. The depiction of a woman (Ganga and Yamuna), reminiscent of
Chandayakshi from the Bharhut Stupa, grasping the branches of a fruiting mango tree and
holding a fruit, symbolises fertility, abundance, and the nurturing aspect of nature.
Moreover, the identification of the woman standing on a kachhapa (tortoise) with Yamuna,
the river goddess, and another woman standing on a Makara (hybrid crocodile-fish
creature) with Ganga, further emphasises the sacredness and importance of these rivers
within the religious and cultural landscape of ancient India. This symbolism is reinforced by
the placement of these motifs on either side of the temple's door frame, suggesting a
ritualistic association with purifying oneself in the holy waters of Ganga and Yamuna before
entering the sanctum. However, while the presence of the river goddesses may suggest a
Hindu affiliation due to their significance in Hindu mythology and rituals, it does not
conclusively determine the temple's sectarian identity. The absence of explicit religious
symbols or iconography within the temple complicates the interpretation of its religious
affiliation. Thus, while the depiction of the river goddesses brings the temple closer to the
Hindu tradition, it does not definitively establish it as a Hindu temple.

3. Udaygiri cave temple

The exploration of temple architecture during the Gupta period extends beyond structural
temples in stone to encompass cave temples as well. One notable site is Udayagiri, located
near Sanchi, which features a group of 20 ancient caves carved into the cliffside. Among
these caves, Cave 4 stands out for its magnificent depiction of Varaha, the boar incarnation
of Vishnu. The entrance to this cave, resembling a door frame, is intricately carved with three
shakhas, or door jambs, including a patra shakha, a rupa shakha with a human form, and a
stambha shakha. The presence of the woman and tree motif on both sides of the
entranceway, with both figures standing on the Makara, highlights a period of
experimentation and artistic innovation during the Gupta era. The absence of Yamuna and the
doubling of Ganga on either side of the entrance at Udayagiri Cave 4 reflects a departure
from conventional iconographic representations, suggesting a willingness to explore new
artistic expressions and symbolic arrangements. This departure from the traditional pairing of
Ganga and Yamuna and the inclusion of multiple representations of Ganga signify a period
of flux and creative exploration in Gupta-era temple architecture. The depiction of the
battle between gods and asuras (demons), with Vasuki the serpent acting as the rope for the
churning of the ocean of milk (samudra manthan), is a significant motif carved above the
entrance. This scene symbolises the eternal struggle between good and evil and holds
profound religious significance in Indian and Southeast Asian art.

The prevalence of the woman and tree motif across various contexts, such as Bharhut Stupa,
Sanchi Torana, Tigawa Kankali Devi temple, and Udayagiri cave entrance, underscores its
enduring symbolic importance in ancient Indian iconography. This motif, often associated
with fertility and abundance, serves as a link between different religious traditions and
architectural styles, reflecting the fluidity and interconnectedness of cultural expressions
during the Gupta period. Furthermore, the transition from earlier building practices in
materials like wood to the construction of temples in stone is evident in the architectural
evolution witnessed at sites like Sanchi. The presence of both single and double-storied
temple structures on the Sanchi monument highlights the gradual shift towards stone as the
primary material for temple construction.

23-02-2024

We are now transitioning to the last quarter of the fifth century. In terms of geography, our
focus shifts slightly eastward, yet we remain firmly within central India, specifically in the
Panna and Satna districts. Our exploration centres on two temples from this period, both
dedicated to Shiva. These temples are notable for their clear sectarian affiliation and the
detailed iconography displayed on the walls, door frames, and pillars. Over the span of
approximately five decades, these structures exhibit features that were previously absent or
only emerging in the buildings we examined yesterday.

Before moving forward, examine the picture above, which depicts the temple's discovery in
the modern era by archaeological surveys. The image shows the temple's plinth, or jagati—a
tallish platform that originally supported the ground and first floors of the temple.
Unfortunately, the temple has since fallen into ruin, with the upper structure that once stood
atop the platform having collapsed. Notably, another floor featuring a door frame is visible,
along with certain architectural projections and cantilevering that suggest the temple was
originally designed with a covered circumambulatory path. This discovery highlights
several key developments in temple architecture, marking a departure from earlier structures
such as Temple 17 at Sanchi to the Kangali David temple at Tigawa. The first notable
difference is the presence of a circumambulatory path, absent in previous examples.
Secondly, the use of a jagati platform represents a significant architectural advancement.
Most strikingly, this temple features a two-storey (dwitala) design, a departure from the
single-storied, flat-roofed structures common before the fifth century.

Recap of architectural evolution- Previously, structures were predominantly single-storied

with flat roofs. The introduction of two-story buildings with domical and vaulted roofs,
although not yet in stone, marked a significant architectural shift. This temple's design
includes eve cornice, a ground floor, a first floor with a barrel-vaulted roof featuring a
gavaksha (dormer or horseshoe-shaped arch), and a parapet or railing, reminiscent of a
balcony. While architectural terms like arpita (covered balcony) and anarpita (uncovered
balcony) emerged only after the 10th century, the concept of multi-story structures was
already evident.

In addition to religious buildings, secular architecture also evolved, with references in ancient
texts like the Arthashastra (Durga Vidhana) to multi-storied gatehouses (Pratoli) at city
limits. This period's architectural vocabulary was diverse, extending beyond simple flat-
roofed structures to include both sacred and non-sacred buildings with complex designs. This
evolution reflects a rich building tradition that incorporated varied roof styles, from thatched
huts to four-sided domes, and residential structures with up to two and a half stories,
indicating a sophisticated understanding of space and design well before the fifth century. As
we discuss the origins of shrines, it's essential to understand their evolution from open-air to
enclosed structures. Inscriptions from Sanchi refer to sacred shrines like
Sudhamasadevasabha, Gandha Kuti, and Kosam Kuti, highlighting the presence of Buddhist
shrines within this context. Additionally, Patanjali's Mahabhashya mentions small
structures, indicating the prevalence of such sacred spaces in ancient times. The concept that
early temples were initially open-air is supported by evidence of natural or sacred elements
such as trees or lingams being venerated in an unenclosed environment. These sites often
featured a hypaethral (open to the sky) arrangement, with wooden pillars surrounding the
sacred centre but no roof, allowing for direct exposure to the elements. This setup is notably
seen in the Bodhi Vriksha shrines, where the Bodhi tree itself was the focal point of worship.
The transition from these open-air shrines to covered temples is a subject of debate among
historians. Some suggest that this evolution occurred later than it might have, relying on
archaeological and art historical records for evidence. The shift likely stemmed from the
desire to protect the sacred elements and accommodate a growing number of devotees,
leading to the development of more complex architectural forms. This transition marks a
significant milestone in the history of religious architecture, reflecting changes in worship
practices, community needs, and technological advancements in construction.

4. The Parvati temple

The Parvati Temple at Nachana stands as a remarkable milestone in the evolution of Indian
temple architecture, primarily due to its material and technological innovations. Unlike the
earlier examples of two-storied and cave temples carved from rock, such as those at Bhaja,
Karla, and Pitalkhora, the Parvati Temple signifies a significant shift towards structural
stone construction. This transition from using wood or unbaked bricks to stone slabs
intricately assembled through a system of interlocking, without the use of cement,
represents a leap in architectural sophistication and challenges.

The importance of this two-storied stone temple extends beyond its architectural
achievements; it serves as a counter-narrative to early Orientalist scholars' claims. These
scholars argued that Indian builders lacked the knowledge to construct multi-storied
structures and were incapable of creating anatomically accurate sculptures or employing
advanced building techniques. Such assertions were part of a broader colonial rhetoric aimed
at depicting the colonised cultures as inferior, necessitating the coloniser's intervention to
bring about 'civilization' and 'culture.' This viewpoint was not only condescending but also
fundamentally flawed, as it overlooked the complexity and depth of indigenous architectural
and artistic traditions. The Parvati Temple, with its advanced stone construction and
interlocking technology, challenges these misconceptions and highlights the ingenuity and
skill of Indian artisans in working with new materials and techniques. The temple's existence
and the sophistication of its design are testaments to the architectural prowess present in India
long before the arrival of colonial influences.
Analysing the architectural plan of the Parvati Temple, we uncover a sophisticated design
that combines functionality with aesthetic appeal. The approach to the temple is marked by a
stairway leading to a long passage, which then broadens as it ascends to the top of the jagati,
or platform. This deliberate progression towards the temple's main structure emphasises a
sense of journey and anticipation for the visitor. The main structure itself, perched atop the
platform, features a singular entrance door flanked by lattice (jalidar) windows on two
sides, providing both light and ventilation while maintaining privacy and security. The rear of
the temple presents a solid stone wall, suggesting a focus towards the front and sides for both
entry and illumination. Inside, an elevated pedestal suggests a place for an image or shrine,
though it remains empty, adding a layer of mystery to the temple's purpose and dedication.
The absence of an image of Parvati or any goddess within the sanctum raises questions about
the temple's nomenclature and the deity it was intended to venerate.

The restoration of the Parvati Temple, guided by the principle of anastylosis, reveals a
meticulous approach to architectural conservation. Anastylosis involves reconstructing a
structure based on the surviving sections and extrapolating these patterns to restore missing
parts. This method is particularly effective for structures with a consistent design but
becomes challenging for more complex or ornately decorated buildings where missing
narrative sculptures or intricate details cannot easily be replicated. In such cases, restorers
may opt for a neutral elevation, leaving conjectural portions unfilled to maintain historical
integrity. Despite the challenges, the restoration has highlighted the temple's architectural
finesse, from the articulated mouldings at the base of the platform to the elaborate door frame
and intricately carved latticed windows, known as jalavatayan. These features not only
demonstrate the skill and creativity of the artisans but also enhance the temple's aesthetic and
spiritual ambiance. Unfortunately, the temple's second story, evidenced only by archival
photographs, is missing today, leaving us to imagine its original grandeur. The well-defined
mouldings and the elaborate craftsmanship of the door frame and windows speak volumes
about the temple's architectural significance and the advanced state of art and construction
techniques of the period. The temple's lattice windows, or jalavatayan, are noteworthy for
their T-shaped structure, mirroring the temple's door frames. These windows are framed by
two jambs: the outer jamb features the Purna Ghata (vase and foliage) motif, symbolising
abundance and prosperity, from which decorative patterns emerge. The inner jamb
showcases a beautifully incised and deeply carved Patrashaka (leafy scroll) motif. This
motif is adorned on all sides with the Kirtimukha (gorgon face or Kalamukha), a motif
that has persisted through time as an apotropaic symbol, intended to ward off evil or the evil
eye. The Kirtimukha, with creepers emerging from its jaws, represents a theme of endless
regeneration and abundance. However, the use of jalavatayan in the sanctum walls of the
temple is an architectural experiment that was not widely adopted in later temples. The
garbhagriha, or inner sanctum, is traditionally viewed as a womb chamber, symbolising the
site of creation and intended to be a dark, cave-like space. The introduction of lattice
windows contradicts this traditional concept by allowing light to penetrate the sanctum,
which might explain why this architectural feature was not continued in the design of early
mediaeval temples and other ancient Indian temples. The temple's door frame is
distinguished by its four door jambs, moving away from the T-shaped design. The first two
jambs feature figurative motifs, including the Patrashakha with figures at both ends,
suggesting themes of fertility and abundance. The presence of Mithuna Shaka, or couples
(mithuna), further emphasises this theme. These couples are depicted not necessarily in
explicit poses but as asakta mithuna, or infatuated couples, showcasing love and affection.
The subsequent layers include the Stambha Shakha and a garlanded Stambha Shakha,
adding to the rich tapestry of symbolic motifs that adorn the temple's architecture.

The intricate carvings on the inner door frame of the temple, featuring pot-bellied dwarfs
known as jambakas from whose navels lush foliage emerges, offer a rich tapestry of
symbolism deeply rooted in ancient Indian culture. This imagery evokes the Bharhut
Yakshi, symbolising fertility and nourishment. The navel, as a source of life where the
umbilical cord connects the mother to her offspring, serves as a powerful emblem of birth,
nurture, and the interconnectedness of nature and life. This motif transcends specific religious
boundaries, drawing from a shared substratum of popular belief systems that cut across Hindu
and Buddhist ideologies, illustrating a universal reverence for the processes of life and
creation.
Pratihara and Goddess Ganga

Pratihara and Goddess Yamunaa

The presence of door guardians (pratiharas) wielding tridents (trishuls) suggests a Shaiva
affiliation, indicating that the temple may have been dedicated to Shiva, although the exact
nature of the sanctum's iconography remains unknown. The consistency in design between
the pedestals of these door guardians and the moldings found on the temple's walls and the
jagati platform underscores a cohesive architectural and symbolic vision. Above the door
guardians, the depiction of Vidyadhara couples in flight—mithunas—adds another layer of
symbolism. These figures, engaged in tender and affectionate interactions, evoke themes of
love and companionship. Their portrayal is reminiscent of the early mediaeval tradition of
depicting erotic mithunas on temple walls, yet here they are presented in a more subdued and
possibly spiritual context.

The door frame's architectural details, including the varied types of stambha shakha (pillar
segments) and the use of motifs such as the poorna ghata (full vase), further enhance the
temple's visual narrative. These elements symbolise abundance and prosperity, themes
recurrent in Indian temple architecture. The description of the last stambha shakha (pillar
segment) retaining remnants of the T-shaped door frame, transitioning into L-shaped
brackets, reveals a fascinating aspect of architectural evolution and iconography in temple
design which contrasts with earlier examples, such as the Kankali Devi Tigawa temple,
where the figures stand on makara and kachapa (mythological creatures), indicating a shift in
iconographic practices. Here, the figures stand on lotus pedestals, suggesting a connection to
purity and enlightenment, further emphasised by the presence of river goddesses and an
expansive lotus-shaped canopy under the parasol.

The verses from Varaha Mihira's Brihad Samhita (त्रिपञ्चसप्तनवभिः शाखाभिस्तत्प्रशस्यते । अब शाखाचतुर्भागे
प्रतीहारौ निवेशयेत् ।। शेषं मङगल्यविहगैः श्रीवृक्षैः स्वस्तिकै र्घटैः । मिथुनैः पत्रवल्लीभिः प्रमथैश्चोपशोभयेत् ।।), as translated by Ajay
Mitra Shastri, provide a fascinating glimpse into the ancient architectural norms for temple
door frames in the 6th century. These verses prescribe the use of an expanded number of
shakhas (jambs) for the doors, specifying that a door could have three, five, seven, or nine
jambs. This level of detail indicates a sophisticated approach to temple architecture,
suggesting that the aesthetics and symbolic aspects of temple design were subjects of careful
consideration.

The instruction to place the pratihara (door guardian) at the lower fourth part of the door
frame and to decorate the rest with auspicious symbols such as mangalya vihagais
(auspicious birds), shri vrikshas (sacred trees), swastikas, ghatas (pots), mithunas (couples),
and patra vallis (leafy vines) illustrates the importance of integrating symbolic motifs that
convey blessings, prosperity, fertility, and protection. This not only served to embellish the
temple but also imbued it with layers of spiritual meaning, making the architecture a medium
for conveying religious and cultural values. The mention of these architectural practices
occurring in a period of flux, with experimentation preceding textual codification, highlights
the dynamic nature of ancient Indian architectural development. It suggests that while texts
like the Brihad Samhita provide valuable insights into the principles and ideals of the time,
actual architectural practices were likely even more varied and innovative, with artisans
experimenting with forms and techniques to achieve the desired aesthetic and spiritual
outcomes. By the 10th century, the existence of sapta shakha and navashakha door frames
in situ indicates that these earlier recommendations had been embraced and further
developed, showcasing the evolution of architectural complexity over time. The alignment,
though not perfect, between the textual descriptions and the archaeological material from
slightly earlier periods, points to a continuity and development in architectural traditions.

Let us see a detailed examination of specific elements within Indian art and architecture,
focusing on the transition from its early stages to a period of significant maturity and
innovation. Our exploration begins with an appreciation of the Jambaka and Patra Shakha,
followed by an insightful look at a door guardian, which showcases the exquisite quality of
carving characteristic of this era. It's noteworthy to mention the cultural evolution during the
5th and 6th centuries was marked by the predominance of Gupta themes in north and north-
central India, saw the beginning of a cultural maturation that set a standard for future
generations. However, it's important to recognize that temple architecture, at this stage, was
relatively undeveloped, especially when compared to the elaborate structures of the early
mediaeval period in the 8th, 9th, and 10th centuries. These early mediaeval temples, which
we will examine in greater detail, served as the foundational precursors to the zenith of Indian
architectural achievement observed in the 9th through 12th centuries. Despite the nascent
state of temple architecture, sculpture during this time had reached an advanced level of
sophistication, establishing norms that would influence later artistic endeavours. A prime
example of this mature sculptural art is the depiction of a parasol with an unfolding lotus and
Ganga on the Makara, showcasing the typical Gupta period hairstyle and an expansive
chest that diverges from the muscular depictions found in Greco-Roman sculpture. This
reflects a distinct worldview and artistic philosophy unique to this period. On one side of the
structure, we find a row of Shiva Ganas, the elemental beings that form part of Shiva's
entourage. These figures are represented as fractals of the totality of existence that Shiva
embodies within Shiva philosophy. In artistic depictions, Shiva Ganas are portrayed as pot-
bellied, dwarfed creatures with varying dispositions—some benevolent, others less so. Their
activities range from playing musical instruments and engaging in foolery to performing
acrobatics, illustrating the diverse aspects of Shiva's following.
The trellis window from the Parvati temple at Nachana is now integrated into the wall of the
nearby Mahadev temple due to restoration efforts. This particular window, originally part of
the temple's ambulatory which was lost, highlights the adaptability and continuity of
architectural elements through preservation. The window features a keyhole motif flanked by
two female attendant figures at the centre and two male figures at the sides, emphasising the
balanced representation of gender roles in sacred contexts. The outer part of this window
displays the "Ghata Pallava" (pot and foliage) motif and the "Shri Vriksha" (sacred tree)
motif atop, signifying the "Patra Shakha". Notably, the window's structure draws a parallel to
traditional door frames, with four pillars supporting a cornice, surmounted by the "Gavaksha"
(dormer) motif and the dentil of the rafter end. The concept of the "jagati" or platform is
central to this discussion. Exceptionally, in the temple in question, the artist conceptualises
the jagati as a mountain replete with little caves, a design choice that is both symbolic and
functional. This mountainous representation is populated with deer, pairs of musicians, or
Gandharvas, all of which contribute to an evocation of Mount Kailash—the mythological
abode of Shiva and Parvati. Such a design not only serves an aesthetic purpose but also
deepens the temple's spiritual significance, suggesting that the structure itself is a sacred
space that mirrors celestial realms. The presence of these elements on the jagati helps identify
the temple as dedicated to Shiva, if not Parvati, reinforcing the thematic focus on divinity
through architectural means. The archaeological findings of musician couples and fruiting
trees, described as Gandharvas, further underscore the temple's connection to divine music
and natural abundance, themes closely associated with the cosmic order Shiva and Parvati
represent. The meticulous depiction of hairstyles, as seen in the sculptures from this period,
reflects another layer of cultural expression. The elaborate coiffures, typical of the Gupta
period, suggest a societal emphasis on aesthetics and perhaps a deeper symbolic meaning
related to status, spirituality, or both. The question of whether these hairstyles were a daily
practice or an artistic exaggeration remains open, highlighting the need for textual
corroboration. However, the uniformity of these depictions across various artefacts suggests a
widespread cultural or artistic norm.

The identification of a temple as dedicated to Parvati, a principal deity in Hinduism and

consort of Lord Shiva, is a subject of both scholarly interest and religious significance. The
presence of specific iconographic elements within the temple's architecture and sculpture
provides clues to its dedication and the deities worshipped therein.

The presence of Shaiva Ganas (followers of Shiva) and Dwarapalas (door guardians)
wielding Trishuls (tridents) signifies the temple's association with Shiva. These elements are
common in temples dedicated to Shiva, reflecting his role as a protector and his association
with the cosmic order. The lalata bimba, or the central forehead image above the temple
door, is a critical piece of iconographic evidence. Here, the depiction of Shiva as Veena
Dhara (bearer of the veena, a stringed musical instrument) is significant. The presence of a
female figure holding a fly-whisk on one side and Parvati on the other side of Shiva further
emphasises the temple's connection to Shiva and suggests familial aspect, presenting Shiva in
a domestic and harmonious context with Parvati.
Typically, in Shiva temples housing a Shivalinga in the sanctum, the lalata bimba features
only Shiva. The unique presence of Parvati alongside Shiva in this temple raises the
possibility of it being dedicated to Parvati. However, without explicit evidence or inscriptions
confirming this dedication, the temple's classification remains conjectural, leaning towards a
broader Shaiva affiliation rather than being exclusively identified as a Parvati temple. The
architectural choice to shape the jagati (platform) like a mountain is imbued with
symbolism, alluding to Mount Kailash, the mythical abode of Shiva and Parvati. This design
choice not only enhances the temple's sacred geography but also subtly hints at the
inseparable connection between Shiva and Parvati, reinforcing the possibility of the temple's
dedication to Parvati alongside Shiva. The architectural and sculptural elements suggest a
celebration of the divine couple, highlighting their joint worship within a Shaiva context

5. Bhumara Temple

Exploring a temple in Bhumara, not far from Nachana and near the Panna district, reveals a
fascinating architectural plan that mirrors the elevated design observed in Nachna. This
temple features a prominent jagati (platform), distinguished by its height and the stairway
that leads up to it, inviting a closer examination of its architectural elements and their
symbolic significance. At the heart of this temple's design is the tall jagati, an elevated
platform that not only raises the temple structure above the ground but also symbolically
elevates it from the mundane to the divine. This elevation is accentuated by a stairway, which
provides a physical and spiritual ascent for devotees entering the sacred space. A key
architectural feature of this temple is the well-defined Vedibandha mouldings (explained
below the paragraph). Drawing from the concept of the vedica, or railing, found around
stupas, the Vedibandha mouldings serve a similar purpose in the temple context. In ancient
stupas, the vedica delineates the sacred space, setting it apart from the profane. Although
early temples like this one do not feature a separate railing encircling the temple, the
Vedibandha mouldings perform this vital role. They cling to the temple walls, encircling and
defining the Vedi, or sacred altar, thereby sanctifying the space within. These Vedibandha
mouldings are not merely decorative; they are deeply imbued with symbolic meaning,
marking the boundaries of the holy precincts and reinforcing the temple's role as a conduit
between the earthly and the divine. The Vedibandha plays a crucial role in the design of the
Shiva temple at Bhumara. From this period onward, the Vedibandha is characterised by a
harmonious combination of five specific mouldings, each contributing to the overall aesthetic
and symbolic significance of the temple's sacred architecture. These mouldings, consistently
found together, include the Khura, Kumbha, Kalasa, Patta, and Kapotapali. Let's delve into
the evolution and meaning of each component:

Composition of the Vedibandha Mouldings (Eave cornice)

1. Khura (Base Moulding): The term 'Khura' translates to 'hoof' in vernacular,

suggesting stability and support, much like the hoof of a horse. This moulding forms
the base of the VediBandha, grounding the structure and symbolizing its firm
connection to the earth.
2. Kumbha (Elongated S-shaped Moulding): Above the Khura, the Kumbha moulding
features an elongated S-shape, adding elegance and fluidity to the architectural
design. This moulding might symbolize abundance or continuity, contributing to the
sacred narrative of the temple.
3. Kalasa (Convex Moulding): The Kalasa, a convex, pitcher-shaped moulding, follows
the Kumbha. Often associated with fertility and purity, the Kalasa reinforces the
temple's role as a source of spiritual nourishment and sanctity.
4. Patta (Intervening Recess Band): Situated between the Kalasa and the Kapotapali,
the Patta serves as a recessed band that creates a visual separation between the
mouldings, adding depth and distinction to the design.
5. Kapotapali (inverted cyma): The series is crowned by the Kapotapali, known in
Western architectural terminology as the eave cornice. This moulding not only
provides a decorative finish but also offers protection, symbolically sheltering the
sacred space within the temple.
Throughout the early mediaeval period, these Vedibandha mouldings emerged as a cohesive
group, embodying the temple's sacred geometry and architectural integrity. As observed in
the Shiva temple at Bhumara, these mouldings remain tightly interconnected, collectively
known as the Vedibandha and serving to delineate and sanctify the temple's sacred altar. The
sequence of Vedibandha mouldings—Khura, Kumbha, Kalasha, Antarapata, and Kapotapali
—demonstrates the architectural sophistication and symbolic layering in Gupta-period
temples. These elements not only enhance the temple's aesthetic appeal but also embed
cosmic and philosophical meanings into the structure's very foundation. Atop the wall of the
Jagati, the temple features a fluted capping known as Ushneesh. This term draws a parallel
to the Ushnisha seen in Buddhist iconography, signifying enlightenment and spiritual
elevation. In the context of the temple, the Ushneesh serves both as a functional coping stone
and a symbolic crown, encapsulating the divine essence within the structure.

Now, the Bhumara temple at Nachana boasts a significant addition previously missing at
Parvati temple: two subsidiary shrines, known as devakulikas. These shrines are noteworthy,
though only the bottom plinth stones remain intact today. This detail is evident in both the

plan map and elevation views, underscoring the limited physical remnants of these structures.
However, archaeological explorations have uncovered some remnants, including a door
frame that could have belonged to one of these smaller shrines, suggesting their original form
and purpose. The main sanctum of the temple, or garbhagriha, housed an important icon or
symbol, integral to the worship practices conducted there. The absence of Jalavatayans
(perforated stone windows) in the sanctuary is noted, indicating variations in architectural
design or perhaps the loss of these elements over time. This temple features a door frame
with jambs, hinting at the existence of an adjoining hall or mandap, which has since been
destroyed. This architectural configuration, consisting of a sanctum (garbhagriha) and a hall
(mandap), is typical of temple architecture from this period, facilitating both the housing of
the deity and the congregation of devotees. The last quarter of the 5th century was the
temporal context for these structures, situating them before 500 AD. This dating is crucial for
understanding the developmental phase of temple architecture during this period, highlighting
the Bhumara temple at Nachana and its contemporaneous structures (Parvati temple) as
significant examples of early Indian temple design. The presence of a Shivling inside the
sanctum, in situ, alongside a three-shakha door frame, further emphasises the religious
significance and architectural choices characteristic of this era.

The presence of Ganga and Yamuna, deified representations of India's sacred rivers, on the
two sides of the temple entrance, reinforces the temple's sanctity and symbolic purification
role for devotees entering the space. The turtle and Makara (crocodile-like creature) signify
the respective rivers, offering a visual narrative of natural and divine order.
Rupashakha and Patrashakha- These terms refer to decorative bands or motifs on the
temple structure. The patrashakha, organised in geometric patterns of half squares and
circles with rosettes, and the rupashakha, possibly another decorative motif, contribute to
the temple's elaborate aesthetic. The shri vriksha (custard apple tree) motif adds a layer of
symbolic fertility and prosperity to the temple's architectural canvas. Lalata Bimba- The
central focus of the door frame, the lalata bimba, features a bust of Shiva, emphasising the
temple's dedication to the deity. The absence of Parvati in this particular representation and
the presence of a Shivalinga categorised as Ekamukhaling (one-faced linga) underscore the
temple's Shaiva affiliations. The dentil patterns and converging mala vidyadhars (celestial
garland bearers) further accentuate the sanctity and focus on Shiva at the temple's entrance.

The analogy drawn between the human body and the temple's architectural elements
introduces a fascinating dimension to temple design. This anthropomorphic representation
includes- Shikhara (Head/Skull Cap): Represented by the temple's peak or dome,
symbolising the head or intellect of the divine structure. Jangha (Thigh), Kati (Waist),
Kandha (Shoulder): These parts correspond to the temple's vertical divisions, suggesting a
standing figure and imbuing the structure with human-like qualities and proportions.

The use of dormer-shaped gavakshas (ornamental window) and the Gavaksha Chudamani
(a jewel-like ornament placed on Shiva's matted hair) exemplifies the intricate relationship
between architectural decoration and divine symbolism. These elements not only enhance the
temple's aesthetic appeal but also serve as metaphors for divine attributes, such as the
gavaksha's resemblance to the eye or the mind's eye, emphasising perception and
enlightenment.

Iconography of Shiva at the temple:

Shiva's matted locks (jatas) and tiara are emblematic of his ascetic qualities and his supreme
reign over the spiritual and material worlds. The inclusion of the Gavaksha Chudamani, a
jewel resembling a dormer window, and the Balindu (crescent moon) further accentuate his
cosmic significance and control over time cycles. The depiction of the Ekawali, a necklace
with a prominent central bead flanked by smaller ones, symbolises unity and the
concentration of power. This is complemented by the Graiveyaka, a flattened necklace,
enhancing the regal yet ascetic demeanour of Shiva. Despite the damage to the nose, the
sculpture captures a meditative expression, a hallmark of Gupta artistry, reflecting an inward
focus and spiritual transcendence. The Ekamukhalinga (single-faced linga) with the third
eye visible, albeit without the typical half-closed eyes of the Gupta period, embodies Shiva's
all-seeing, omniscient nature. This representation emphasises the linga's significance as a
symbol of Shiva's unmanifest creative potential. The single-faced linga, particularly from the
Shiva temple at Bhumara and another exquisite example from Khoh, showcases the Gupta
period's characteristic elegance and spiritual depth. These representations often feature
detailed adornments such as the Gavaksha Chudamani (a jewel-like ornament), elongated
earlobes (Mahapurusha Lakshana), and intricately carved jatas (matted hair), emphasizing
Shiva's ascetic and royal aspects. Comparing these Shaiva representations with Buddhist
art from the same period reveals both continuities and changes in religious art, reflecting the
dynamic cultural landscape of ancient India. The similarities in artistic techniques and motifs,
such as the elongated earlobes and the serene expressions, underscore a shared aesthetic
vocabulary, while the specific iconographic elements distinguish the two traditions. The
transition of Mukhalinga representations from the Kushan to the Gupta period illustrates
a significant evolution in religious iconography and temple architecture in ancient India.
During the Gupta period, the Ekamukhalinga became the most prevalent form of Mukhalinga,
symbolising a focused representation of Shiva. This shift reflects broader trends in religious
and artistic expressions, highlighting a period of refinement and consolidation in Hindu
iconography.

Symbolism and Significance of Mukhalinga: The concept of the Mukhalinga, particularly

popular from the Kushan period onward, integrates the phallic representation of the linga
with anthropomorphic features, such as faces, to convey profound philosophical and
theological meanings. This fusion symbolises the union of the cosmic and the personal, the
immanent and the transcendent aspects of Shiva. The face on the linga invites devotees to
engage with the divine in a more intimate, personal manner, bridging the abstract and the
manifest. The Mukhalinga serves as a potent symbol of Shiva's creative potential, which,
according to Shaiva philosophy, remains unmanifest until activated by Shakti, the female
principle. This unmanifest potential is the source of all creation, encompassing the five
categories of actions and materiality. These are represented by the Pancha Mahabhutas (Five
Great Elements): earth, water, fire, air, and ether. Together, these elements constitute the

foundation of all that exists, animate and inanimate, illustrating the comprehensive scope of
Shiva's creative power.
 Ekamukhakinga

Shaiva philosophy offers a profound and intricate understanding of creation, embodying the
concepts of the transcendent and the immanent within the figure of Parashiva, the supreme
reality. This philosophy articulates a vision of the universe and its origins that intertwines the
ineffable nature of the divine with the tangible reality of the world we inhabit. Parashiva is
envisioned as both transcendent and immanent, embodying the ultimate reality that is
beyond mundane comprehension (transcendent) while also residing within all creation
(immanent). This duality presents a theological challenge: how to conceptualise and represent
a deity who is both beyond all and present within each aspect of the universe. The answer lies
in the multifaceted representations of Shiva, each aspect capturing a portion of this vast,
unbounded essence. To bridge the gap between the finite human understanding and the
infinite divine, Shaiva philosophy employs both verbal and visual forms. Icons like
Nataraja (Lord of Dance), Veena Dhara (Bearer of the Veena), Dakshinamurti (Teacher
facing South), Samhara (Destroyer), and Umasahitumurty (Shiva with Uma) personify
different dimensions of Shiva's nature and activities. These representations make the abstract
aspects of Shiva accessible, allowing devotees to engage with the divine in a more intimate
and comprehensible manner. The transition from the unmanifest (Avyakta), represented by
the Shivalinga, to the manifest forms (Vyakta) of Shiva embodies the movement from
potentiality to actuality. This progression is symbolised through the concept of the Pancha
Mahabhutas (Five Great Elements) and the five faces of Shiva, which correspond to these
elements:

1. Ether (Akasha): Represented by Ishana, is considered the most subtle element and is
often not depicted due to its intangible nature.
2. Air (Vayu): Symbolized by Tatpurusha, associated with the directional aspect of east
and qualities of movement and expansion.
3. Fire (Agni): Embodied by Aghora, representing transformation and destruction,
necessary for renewal.
4. Water (Jala): Manifested through Vamadeva, the feminine aspect, relating to
fluidity, emotion, and purification.
5. Earth (Prithvi): Represented by Sadyojata, denoting stability, materiality, and
grounding.

This hierarchy, from the gross (earth) to the subtle (ether), reflects the philosophical
understanding of the cosmos as an interplay of material and spiritual forces, where the
manifest world emerges from the unmanifest potential of Parashiva, mediated by the dynamic
power of Shakti

The archaeological remnants of the Bhumara temple, many of which are preserved in the
Indian Museum, Kolkata, provide invaluable insights into the architectural and artistic
practices of the time. These remains allow for a deeper understanding of the temple's original
grandeur and the intricate details that adorned its structure.
The evolution of architectural and sculptural elements in Indian temple art, particularly from
the Bharhut period onwards, illustrates the dynamic nature of religious expression and artistic
innovation. The gavaksha motif, a recurrent theme in Indian temple architecture, exemplifies
this progression, evolving from a simple dormer structure to a more ornate and symbolically
rich element in later periods. The transition to an ornate gavaksha adorned with a lotus
flower and the depiction of deities marks a significant development in the aesthetic and
symbolic complexity of temple architecture. The incorporation of a deity figure, such as
Yama seated, with a club, in what is described as a "European posture" or more accurately in
traditional poses like bhadrasana or pralambapadhasana, reflects the integration of
iconographic richness into architectural elements. The detailed portrayal of deities in various
aspects of life and afterlife serves to remind devotees of the moral and cosmic order.
Dynamic expressions of divine energy, the Shiva Ghanas, depicted engaging in a range of
activities from playing musical instruments to dancing and even comedic or irreverent
postures, embody the playful and multifaceted aspects of Shiva's energy. These sculptures
highlight the temple's role as a space of celestial celebration and divine presence. The
depiction of deities underscores the thematic diversity of temple sculpture and the role of
architecture in conveying religious narratives.

Seated Yama

Shiva Ganas
Shiva Ganas

The amalaka, situated atop the temple, draws its inspiration from the amla (Indian
gooseberry) fruit. This architectural feature not only adds a visual accent to the temple's
silhouette but also carries deep symbolic meaning, often associated with fertility, purity, and
spiritual elevation. Its significance across different temples, such as in Vishnu temples like
Deogarh, underscores the shared cultural and religious symbolism in Hindu architecture.