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Class 12th Physics

01 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

ELECTRIC FIELD

ELECTRIC FIELD
An electric field is defined mathematically as a vector field that can be associated with each point in
space, the force per unit charge exerted on a positive test charge at rest at that point.

The formula of the electric field is given as,

F
E =
q0

Where,

E is the electric field.

F is the force.

q0 is the charge.

The direction of the field is taken as the direction of the force which is exerted on the positive charge.
The electric field is radially outwards from the positive charge and radially towards the negative point
charge.
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ELECTRIC FIELD

The electric field is generated by the electric charge or by time-varying magnetic fields. In the case
of an atomic scale, the electric field is responsible for the attractive forces between the atomic
nucleus and electrons which hold them together.

According to Coulomb’s law, a particle with electric charge q1 at position x1 exerts a force on a particle
with charge q0 at position x0 of,
1 q1 q 0
F= ⋅ r̂
4πε0 (x1 − x0 )2 1,0
Where,

r1,0 is the unit vector in the direction from point x1 to point x0

ε0 is the electric constant, also known as absolute permittivity of free space C 2m-2N-1

When the charges q0 and q1 have the same sign, the force is positive, and the direction is away from
other charges, which means they repel each other. When the charges have unlike signs, the force is
negative, and the particles attract each other.

The electric field is force per unit charge,

1
F q
4πε0 1
( )
E x0 = = r̂
q0 (x1 − x0 )2 1,0
The electric field can be found easily by using Gauss’s law which states that the total electric flux out
of a closed surface is equal to the charge enclosed divided by the permittivity.
1
Or total flux linked with a surface is times the charge enclosed by the closed surface.
ε0

1
∮ ⃗E ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ds = q.
ε0
The electric field can also be calculated by Coulomb’s law, but Gauss’s law is easier. Besides, Gauss’s
law is just a replica of Coulomb’s law. If we apply Gauss’s theorem to a point charge enclosed by a
sphere, we will arrive at Coulomb’s law.

Electric Field at a point due to point charge

Electric Field of a Point Charge Formula

The electric field intensity (E) due to a point charge (Q) at any point in its electric field is defined as
the electrostatic or Coulomb’s force (F) per unit of charge exerted on an infinitesimal positive test
charge (qo) at rest at that point.

Mathematically, the electric field intensity is given by

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Class 12th Physics

01 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

ELECTRIC FIELD

F
E =
qo

• It is a vector quantity.
• SI unit of electric field intensity is Newton per coulomb (NC-1) or Volt per meter (Vm-1).
• Dimensional formula of electric field intensity is [MLT-3A-1].

According to Coulomb’s law, the force between two charges Q and qo separated by distance r is given
by
1 Qqo
F =
4πϵo r 2
Where ∈o is the absolute permittivity of free space.

Therefore, the electric field intensity is given by

F 1 Q
E = =
q0 4πϵo r 2
Above expression represents the electric field due to a point at distance r.

Derivation of Electric Field Due to a Point Charge

Consider two-point charges q1 and q2 placed at A and B having position vector r1 and r2

The force on qo due to q1 is given by

1 q 0 q1
F1 = (r − r1 )
4πϵ0 |r − r1 |3

Force on qo due to q2 is given by

1 q0 q2
F2 = (r − r2 )
4πϵ0 |r − r2 |3
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01 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

ELECTRIC FIELD

Net force acting on qo placed at point P is given by

F = F1 + F2

1 q 0 q1 1 q0 q2
⇒ F = (r − r1 ) + (r − r2 )
4πϵ0 |r − r1 |3 4πϵ0 |r − r2 |3
q0 q1 q2
⇒F = [ 3
(r − r1 ) + (r − r 2 ) ]
4πϵ0 |r − r1 | |r − r2 |3

Electric field intensity at point P, is given by

⃗F
⃗E =
qo

1 q1 q2
⇒ ⃗E = [ ( r − r1 ) + (r − r 2 ) ]
4πϵ0 |r − r1 |3 |r − r2 |3

Electric Field Due to a System or Group of Point Charges

The electric field intensity at any point because of a system or group of charges is equivalent to the
vector sum of electric field intensities because of individual charges at the same point. Currently, we
would perform the vector sum of electric field intensities:

⃗E = ⃗E1 + ⃗E2 + ⃗E3 + ⋯ + ⃗En

1 i=n Q
i
⃗E1 = ∑ 2r ̂i
4πε0 i=1 ri
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ELECTRIC FIELD

Here,

• ri is the distance of the point P from the ith charge Qi

• ri is a unit vector directed to the point P from Qi.

Let’s say charge Q1, Q2...Qn is positioned in a vacuum at places r1, r2...., and r? respectively.

The net forces at P are the vector sum of forces because of individual charges, given by,

i=n
1 Qi
⃗ =
F q0 ∑
4πϵ0 3
|r − ri | × |r − ri |
i=1

⃗F
⃗ =
As, E
qo

Therefore,

i=n
1 Qi
⃗E = ∑
4πϵ0 |r − ri |3 × |r − ri |
i=1

1
Putting = k
4πϵ0

Q1 Q2 Qn
⃗E = k + k +. . . . . . . . . . . . . +k
r12 r22 rn2

Electric Field due to Continuous Distribution of Charge

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01 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

ELECTRIC FIELD

A system of closed spaced electric charges forms a continuous charge distribution. It can be on a line,
on a surface, or on the entire volume.

To calculate the electric field due to charge distribution, the concept of charge density is introduced.

Linear charge density (λ): It is defined as the charge per unit length of the conductor. It is given by
q
λ =
l

Surface charge density (σ): It is defined as the charge per unit area of the conductor. It is given by

q
σ =
A

Volume charge density (ρ): It is defined as the charge per unit volume of the conductor. It is given
by

q
ρ =
V

Electric field intensity due to Linear charge distribution is given by

F 1 λdL
E = = ∫ 2
qo 4πϵo L r

Electric field intensity due to Surface charge distribution is given by

F 1 σdA
E = = ∫ 2
qo 4πϵo A r

Electric field intensity due to Volume charge distribution is given by

F 1 ρdV
E = = ∫ 2
qo 4πϵo V r

Electric field lines

Electric field lines always point away from a positive charge and towards a negative point. In fact,
electric fields originate at a positive charge and terminate at a negative charge.
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ELECTRIC FIELD

Also, field lines never cross each other. If they do, it implies that there are two directions for the
electric field at that point. But this is impossible since electric fields add up vectorially at any point
and remember that “A field line is drawn tangentially to the net electric field at a point”. Thus, electric
field lines can never intersect one another.

As said before field lines are a great way to visualize electric fields. You can almost feel the attraction
between unlike charges and the repulsion between like charges as though they are trying to push
each other away.

Coming to our initial example of static charge on hair, the direction in which charged hair stands up
traces the local electric field lines. The charges on the hair exert forces on the hair strand as they
attempt to leak into the surrounding uncharged space. The hair aligns accordingly so that there is no
net force acting on it and inadvertently traces the electric field lines.

Properties of Electric Field Lines

• Electric field lines start from a positive charge and end at a negative charge, in case of a single
charge, electric field lines end at infinity.
• In a charge-free region, electric field lines are continuous and smooth.
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01 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

ELECTRIC FIELD

• Two electric field lines never intersect or cross each other, as if they do, there will be two
vectors depicting two directions of the same electric field, which is not possible.
• These lines never form a closed loop. This is because an electric field is conservative in nature
and hence the lines don’t form a closed loop.

Rules for Drawing Electric Field Lines

The rules used for drawing electric field lines are discussed below:

• For positive charge, electric field lines always start at their surface and go up to infinity, for
negative charge it starts from infinity and ends at its surface.
• The more field lines in an area the more the strength of the electric field.
• Electric field lines never intersect each other.
• Electric field and electric field lines are always tangent at the point where they pass through.

Electric dipole
A pair of equal and opposite point charges q and –q separated by a distance 2a form an electric
dipole and the electric dipole moment (p) is the product of the charge and the space between the
charges (2a). It is used to determine the strength of an electric dipole.

As we know that Electric Dipole is a vector quantity i.e., it has both magnitude and direction. The
magnitude of the electric dipole is the product of either of the electric charge and the distance
between them. The direction of the electric dipole is from negative charge to positive charge.

Visualising Electric Dipole

Let’s take two charges +q and -q equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, and the distance
between them is d. Then this system is called the electric dipole.

An electric dipole is denoted by the symbol “p”. It is a Vector quantity. In the image given below two-
point charges +q and -q are separated by distance ‘d’ and hence the electric dipole moment is

p=q×d

Magnitude and Dimension of an Electric Dipole

An electric dipole is a vector quantity, and its magnitude is given as,

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01 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

ELECTRIC FIELD

|p| = q × d

Electric Dipole is measured in Coulomb- meter.

Its dimensional formula is [M0L1T1I1]

Electric Dipole Moment

The electric dipole moment, a vector, is directed along the line from negative charge toward positive
charge.

p = q.d

Where q = magnitude of charge and d = distance of separation between these two charges.

Electric Potential due to a Dipole (V)

Let’s take two charges -q and +q placed at A and B respectively. The distance between them AB is d
they form a dipole as p = qd the centre of AB is Q. Now, if any point P which makes an angle θ with
the AB and QP is r then the electric potential at P by the electric dipole is given by,

1 cos(θ)
V = × [p ]
4πεo r2

When θ = 0°

Then,

cos θ = cos 0° = 1

Now,

1 cos(θ)
V = × [p ]
4πεo r2

1 cos(0°)
V = × [p ]
4πεo r2
1 p
V = × [ 2]
4πεo r
When θ = 90°

Then,

cos θ = cos 90° = 0

Now,
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01 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

ELECTRIC FIELD

1 cos(θ)
V = × [p ]
4πεo r2

1 cos(90°)
V = × [p ]
4πεo r2

V = 0
Electric Field of an Electric Dipole

Coulomb’s law and the superposition principle may be used to calculate the electric field of a pair of
charges (–q and q) at any point in space. For the following two scenarios, the results are simple and
clear,

• When the point is on the dipole axis,

• When it is on the equatorial plane of the dipole, i.e. on a plane perpendicular to the dipole
axis through its centre.

By applying the parallelogram law of vectors, the electric field at any general point P is determined
by summing the electric fields E–q due to the charge –q and E+q due to the charge q.

Electric field intensity on the axis due to dipole

Consider a system of charges -q and +q separated by a distance 2a. Let “P” be any point on the axial
line where the electric field intensity needs to be determined.

Electric Field at P (EB) due to +q is given as follows:

1 q
EB =
4πε0 BP2
1 q
EB =
4πε0 (r − a)2
The electric field at P (EA) due to -q is given as follows:
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01 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

ELECTRIC FIELD

1 q
EA =
4πε0 (AP)2
1 q
EA =
4πε0 (r + a)2
The following equation gives the net field at point P:

EP = EB − EA
1 q q
2
−
4πϵ0 (r − a) (r + a )2

Simplifying the above equation, we get

q 2r
Ep = × 2
4πϵ0 (r − a2 )2
Further simplifying, we get
2kpr
Ep =
(r 2 − a 2 )2
In the equation, p = 2aq and
1
k=
4πϵ0

Electric field intensity on the equatorial position due to dipole

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ELECTRIC FIELD

Then, the electric field E + q due to the charge +q can be expressed as,
q 1
E+q =
4πϵ0 r 2 + a2
Similarly, then the electric field E-q due to the charge –q can be expressed as,
q 1
E−q =
4πϵ0 r 2 + a2
The above expression can be added as,
̂
E = (E+q + E−q ) cos θP
2q a
E= ̂
P
4πϵ0 (r + a2 )3/2
2

At large distances (r >> a), the above expression can be written as,
2q a
E= ̂
P
4πϵ0 (r )3/2
2

2q a
E= ̂
P
4πϵ0 r 3
̂
p = q × 2aP
The electric field of a dipole at large distances (r >> a) assumes simple shapes in terms of p:
p
At a point on the equatorial plane: E =
4πϵ0 r3

Electric field due to an electric dipole on an equatorial point – Formula

Electric field due to an electric dipole on the equatorial point:

1 p
Eequatorial = ( ) r3
4πε0

Torque on an electric dipole in uniform field

Torque is the measurement of the force that causes an item to rotate around an axis.

τ = Fr sinθ

Where,

• F is the force acting on the axis,

• r is the length of moment arm,
• θ is the angle between the force vector and moment arm,
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01 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

ELECTRIC FIELD

• τ is the torque vector

Electric Dipole

Unit: Cm

Quantity: Vector

Torque on an electric dipole

⃗ × ⃗E| = pE sinθ
|τ| = |p

The force on the charges, F = ± qE

The components of the force perpendicular to the dipole, F = ± qE sinθ

Torque = Force × distance between forces

τ = (qE sinθ) d = qd E sinθ

Thus,

τ = pE sinθ

⃗⃗⃗⃗+ = +qE
F ⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗− = +qE
F ⃗

The components of force perpendicular to the dipole are:

F+⊥ = +qEsinθ
⊥
F{−} = −qEsinθ

Torque (τ) = Force × distance separating forces

τ = d qE sinθ

Since dipole moment is given by

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p = qd

τ = pEsinθ

or,

τ⃗ = p ⃗
⃗ ×E
⃗⃗⃗⃗
|τ| = |p ⃗ | = pEsinθ
⃗ × E