Structuralist school: The Copenhagen School:
The Copenhagen Linguistic Circle, led by Louis Hjelmslev and Viggo Brondal, is
I. Introduction: structuralism in linguistics is a school of thought that focuses on
studying the structure of language. It originated from the ideas of the father of
modern linguistics and structuralism, Ferdinand de Saussure, a Swiss linguist known
as. Saussure's influential work, "Coure de Linguistic," published in 1916, played a
significant role in establishing linguistics as a distinct discipline in Europe and later in
America. Despite its complex nature, the book's emphasis on four dichotomies
became the foundation of structural linguistics.
II.The development of structural linguistics:
• European Structuralism:
Ferdinand de Saussure’s View of Language:
Ferdinand de Saussure is often credited as the founder of modern linguistics because
he shifted the focus from studying the historical aspects of language to describing its
structure at a specific moment in time. In the 19th century, linguists primarily
compared Indo-European languages and investigated language changes. However,
Saussure advocated for synchronic language study, which examines a language as a
whole at a particular point in time, separate from its historical evolution. He
introduced the concept of "langue" as the underlying system or shared knowledge of
a language, and "parole" as the actual individual utterances in specific situations.
Saussure also viewed language as a system of signs, with an arbitrary relationship
between concepts and the acoustic or visual forms that represent them. He
emphasized language's syntagmatic and paradigmatic dimensions, where words are
combined according to grammatical rules on the syntagmatic axis and choices can be
made between words on the paradigmatic axis. Saussure's ideas greatly influenced
linguists from the Prague and Copenhagen Schools in Europe.
The Prague school:
The Prague School in Europe, originating from the Prague Linguistic Circle, is a branch
of structuralism. Its members believe that a language is a system composed of
interconnected units and concentrate on analyzing linguistic data through
experiments and research methods at specific points in time. They are primarily
interested in studying language change, specifically, the analysis of language sounds,
rather than focusing on Saussure's concepts like langue and parole or synchrony and
diachrony. The Prague School's main focus is to understand the role and function of
different elements in actual speech.
another important structuralist school. They envisioned the creation of an "algebra
of language" known as "glossematics," which is a formalistic approach to linguistics.
This approach places a strong emphasis on the semiotic theory of Ferdinand de
Saussure. The focus of this linguistic theory is primarily on describing the formal
characteristics of language, and it involves a high level of mathematical and logical
precision.
• American Structuralism:
After its emergence in Europe, the structural views travelled to America and were
embraced by Edward Sapir, Leonard Bloomfield, and many other followers. However,
American structuralists studied language on other dimensions relating it to culture
and thought, and focusing on empirical, logical rigour.
• The features of American structuralism:
Edward Sapir, an American anthropologist, emphasized the close relationship
between language and culture in his book Language (1921). He believed that
language is acquired through cultural influences rather than being biologically
determined. Sapir argued that individuals cannot effectively communicate or convey
their thoughts without learning the language of their community. This is supported
by observations of children who grew up without human contact or in abusive
environments, as well as individuals with psychological disorders that affect language
acquisition.
Sapir, along with his student Benjamin Lee Whorf, developed the Sapir-Whorf
hypothesis, which explores the connection between language, thought, and culture.
The hypothesis has two main aspects:
1) Linguistic determinism: The language a person uses shapes their thinking process.
According to Sapir, the language habits of a community unconsciously influence their
perception and interpretation of the world.
2) Linguistic relativity: Each language is unique and different from others. This hypothesis can
be tested by studying the thought patterns of bilingual or multilingual individuals who have
command over significantly different languages. They can be asked if they find it easier or
impossible to think certain thoughts in one language compared to another.
Leonard Bloomfield, another influential figure in structural linguistics, focused on
being methodical and relying on evidence in his work Language (1933). He placed
great importance on grammar, and one key aspect of structuralism is immediate
constituent analysis (ICA). Bloomfield introduced ICA as a system for analyzing
sentences by dividing them into constituent parts. For example, the sentence "Poor
John ran away"
 Poor John ran away III. Operant Conditioning: : Operant, classical, or instrumental conditioning is a
(Two constituents) concept created by Ivan Pavlov and further developed by John Watson. It consists of
Poor John Ran away three phases: before conditioning, during conditioning, and after conditioning.
(The subject) (The predicate)
Poor John Ran Away In the first phase, we learn about the unconditioned stimuli, which are natural triggers
(head) (modifier) (verb) (particle) that produce expected responses. For instance, smelling food naturally makes us
salivate.
• The general principles of structuralism: The second phase occurs when an association is formed between a neutral stimulus
→ Structuralism forms the basis for semiotics, the study of signs (a sign is a union of and the natural response. For example, a dog learns to associate the sound of a bell
signifier and signified) Through semiotics, structuralism teaches us to view everything with the idea of being fed. The neutral stimulus then becomes a conditioned stimulus
as a text, composed of signs that follow conventions of meaning and are organized because the dog has been trained to respond to it.
by patterns of relationships. In the third and final phase, the conditioned stimulus alone can trigger a response
→ Structural linguistics relies on the idea that langue is abstract and parole is concrete. even without the presence of the unconditioned stimulus. In our example, the dog
Thus, the role of the linguist is to study the concrete level of language. starts salivating when it hears the bell ring, even if there is no food around.
→ It focuses on the spoken language, its culture, and its structure.
→ It relies on the objective, empirical study of language.
→ It gives importance to the synchronic study.

Behaviourist school:
I. Introduction: Psycholinguistics emerged as a distinct field of study in the 1960s and
was heavily influenced by the development of generative theory. One of its main
focuses became language acquisition, particularly understanding how children acquire
their first language. Psycholinguistics aims to answer questions such as how children
develop linguistically, how they effectively learn to use the stylistic aspects of their
native language, and how much they discover about language when exposed to it.
II. The behaviourist school: The behaviourist school of thought believes that learning is
solely influenced by our experiences and the environment around us. This
psychological theory emphasizes behaviour and dismisses the importance of the mind,
suggesting that behaviour is entirely determined by external factors. In the early 20th
century, John B. Watson developed a branch of behaviourism called methodological
behaviourism, which rejected introspection (looking inward) as a way to study
behaviour. Instead, it focused on observing and measuring observable behaviours and
events. One prominent aspect of behaviourism is classical conditioning, which involves
associating stimuli with certain responses.
V. The Behaviourist theory:
According to behaviourists like B.F. Skinner and Pavlov, behaviours such as actions,
thoughts, and feelings can be observed and measured scientifically. They view
language as a behaviour that is acquired through a process called operant conditioning
and reinforcement.
Operant conditioning is a type of learning where behaviour is changed through
repeated training. Skinner and his colleagues believe that learning occurs when
individuals voluntarily demonstrate new behaviours in response to a system of
rewards or punishments. The learner's free will plays a role in this process, as they are
not forced by external factors.
To support their theory, behaviourists conducted experiments to study the effects
of operant conditioning on behaviour and learning.
In the experiment, a rat is placed in a box with a bar. If the rat presses the bar, it
receives a pellet of food as a reward. The rat is not forced to press the bar; it does so
voluntarily. Initially, the rat may press the bar accidentally, but when it realizes that
pressing the bar leads to food, it continues to do so. As the experiment progresses, the
task becomes more challenging. The rat only receives a reward if it presses the bar
while a light is flashing, and later, it must press the bar a certain number of times to
receive food. Through repetition and reinforcement, the rat learns to associate specific
stimuli (such as the light) with a particular response (pressing the bar) in order to
receive a reward (food). This process is known as operant conditioning and can be
summarized as: stimulus, response, reinforcement, and repetition.
In operant conditioning, reinforcement is important for shaping behaviour. There
are two types of reinforcement:
a. Positive Reinforcement: Positive reinforcement involves praising, repetition,
frequent exposure, and rewards. It has been shown by the experiments that
positive reinforcement works much better in bringing about good learning.
b. Negative Reinforcement: Rebukes (criticism), physical punishment, and
discomfort fall into the negative reinforcement category.
V. Behaviourism and Language Acquisition:
The behaviourist theory proposes that human behaviour, including language
learning, is a result of stimulus-response interactions and reinforcement. Language
acquisition is seen as a process of forming habits through conditioning.
Infants learn language through imitation, association, rewards, and practice. When
a baby's babblings resemble words and are rewarded with praise or affection, they
start forming syllables and words. This reinforcement strengthens their language
production.
Children continue to learn language by imitating others and forming word
associations. They learn word chains or frames where each word acts as a stimulus for
the next. Grammar acquisition occurs through substituting words or phrases that fit
the requirements within these chains.
The behaviourists emphasize that early language behaviour is shaped by
environmental corrections and reinforcements rather than strict grammatical rules.
Children make errors before reaching full linguistic competence, and the frequency
and degree of reinforcement by parents and caregivers influence their language
development.
As children grow, their babblings and mutterings develop into socialized speech,
and they begin producing sentences that are indistinguishable from those of adults.
Overall, the behaviourist theory suggests that language learning is a result of
conditioning and reinforcement processes, with environmental factors playing a
significant role in shaping linguistic behaviour.
VI. Criticism of the Behaviourist Theory:
In simple words, the behaviourist theory suggests that children learn language
through imitation and receive praise and affection as rewards for their efforts.
However, this theory has been criticized for several reasons. For example, it doesn't
explain what happens when parents are not attentive or absent during language
acquisition, or why children would continue trying to speak if they don't receive
rewards.
Psycholinguists argue that language acquisition is not solely based on imitation,
association, and analogy. Natural exposure to language is also important. Since human
language is creative, babies may produce words or sentences that adults have never
heard before. Additionally, children cannot receive reinforcement for abstract ideas.
Critics, led by nativist/mentalist Noam Chomsky, argue that language acquisition is not
solely controlled by external rewards, and they offer alternative perspectives on how
language is acquired.
Mentalist school:
I.Introduction:
The mentalistic theory was developed in America by Noam Chomsky first and then by
Eric. H. Lenneberg. It is another school of thought arguing on the fundamental matter
of first language acquisition among children. It came as a reaction to Skinner’s
viewpoints and contradicted its principles. That is, according to this theory, the
speaker's inborn knowledge of the language, not the consequences of behaviour, can
be held responsible for the acquisition of language.
 ➢ When children make comparisons and generalizations, they are actually using
II.Brief Background of the Mentalist Theory: rules to create and apply them. When we use language, we often come up
Chomsky and his followers believe that everyone learns a language not because of with new sentences and patterns by following complex and abstract rules.
external conditioning, but because they have an innate ability that allows them to These rules go beyond simple connections or repeating what we've heard
acquire language naturally as they grow. Chomsky introduced the concept of the before. They allow us to be creative in how we use language. Currently, there
Language Acquisition Device (LAD), which is an inborn mental capacity present in every are no known principles or ways of reinforcing learning that can fully explain
individual. According to Chomsky, this device enables children to quickly grasp the this creative aspect of our normal behaviour.
abstract rules of their native language, even though they are not explicitly taught. In ➢ In simple terms, children often repeat the words and sentences they hear from
this view, the LAD is responsible for language acquisition, and the role of the their parents. However, sometimes kids don't just imitate what they hear
environment in the learning process is considered less significant. exactly, instead, they make overgeneralizations. For example, they might say
III.Language Acquisition Device: "speaked" instead of "spoke" or "goed" instead of "went."
Chomsky and his followers argue that language is governed by rules, unlike what ➢ Thus, following this type of mentalistic reasoning, it is clear that the major
Skinner and his followers claim. These rules are unconscious and exist in the minds of concepts of behaviourism to language are entirely inefficient for a satisfactory
children, allowing them to produce grammatically correct sentences in their language. description of language as verbal behaviour. A more complex approach called
Chomsky refers to these rules as "universal grammar," and they are not consciously Transformational-Generative Grammar has shown that language grammar is
known or described by children. They suggest that all language learners have an highly intricate. As a result, the behaviourist theory falls short in explaining
inherent capacity for language learning, even with limited exposure to the language. how a young child, who is not yet sophisticated, could consciously and
This innate capacity is characterized by: unconsciously understand and apply these complex rules of language.
a) The power to differentiate speech sounds from each other,
b) The capacity to organize linguistic events in various classes that can easily be V.The Mentalist Approach vs. the Behaviourist Approach:
redefined afterward,
Behaviourist Approach Mentalist Approach
c) Knowledge specifying the possible linguistic system and rejecting the impossible
Language acquisition is a stimulus-
and inadmissible ones, Language is an innate, in-born process
response process.
d) Data-selecting ability, its constant evaluation in an advancing linguistics system, Children learn language by imitation and
and of the linguistic data that are encountered. Children learn language by application.
analogy.
According to mentalists, this capacity is universal and innate, not acquired through Language is a conditioned behaviour, but Language is not a behaviour like others,
social learning. The Chomskian doctrine supports the idea that language universals are a specific mental process but a specific mental process
pre-programmed rules in infants' brains. The role of imitation and repetition is
The role of exposure to language is quite
IV.Chomsky’s Main Tenets: vital. Reinforcement and motivation are
important
➢ Language is universal concerning language acquisition. very significant in language learning
➢ Each child has an innate capacity to acquire his language. Language learning is analytical,
Language learning is based on practice.
➢ Most of the behaviourists’ principles (environment, reinforcement, rewards, generative, and creative.
and punishment..) are not so important because we can learn without these Language acquisition is the result of Language acquisition is the result of
nurture (environment). nature (innateness).
external facts and environment.
 In summary, when it comes to first language acquisition, there are two main theories: II. Background to SFL:
behaviourism and mentalism. Chomsky's view aligns more with mentalism, Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) is an approach to language developed by
emphasizing cognitive learning involving thoughts and the mind. Behaviourism is M.A.K. Halliday and his followers in the 1960s in the UK, later gaining popularity in
unable to fully explain how children acquire language, but it can offer insights into Australia. It draws on the works of influential linguists such as Bronislaw Malinowski
effective strategies for learning a second language as adults. Language acquisition is and J.R. Firth. SFL is widely used, particularly in language education.
not solely innate; it is also influenced by the social environment in which children grow The Hallidayian Functionalist tradition within SFL focuses on how language is used
up. The presence of parents or caregivers creates a natural social environment in social contexts to achieve specific goals or purposes. It emphasizes the function of
necessary for language learning. This comparison highlights the importance of both language rather than its structure, meaning that language is seen as appropriate or
nature and nurture, analogy and application, and practice and exposure in acquiring a inappropriate based on the context in which it is used. Language is not solely a tool
language. While children often repeat what they hear, they also produce utterances for conveying ideas but is primarily used to accomplish tasks and achieve results.
that have never been said before, showing that language learning is not merely an While language does convey ideas, it is just one aspect of achieving goals through
imitation. Children's errors in irregular past tense verbs demonstrate their creative use language.
of language. The systemic aspect of SFL means that it examines the meaningful choices in
language, such as using active or passive voice, without requiring a focus on the
Functions of syntactic Functions specific linguistic structure that realizes those choices. This approach allows for the
Functions of speech acts
structures of texts analysis of language based on its meaningful functions rather than strict structural
The way she description, considerations.
John liked Request Apology
smiled narrative, III. Language and its Context:
Subject predicate Complement "Can you pass me Please explanatory,
Halliday states that the functional approach to language study is concerned with the
senser Process Phenomenon this, please?" forgive me. expository...
function of syntactic units, speech acts, and texts.
Examples:
VI.Conclusion: In SFL, the appropriateness of linguistic options (choices) is conditioned by the
In sum, the end of the nature vs. nurture debate might never be marked. Each theory “context of the situation”. So, what is meant by the term ‘‘Context of the situation’’?
has been criticized over time. However, both of them contributed to explaining the
• Context of Situation:
mystery of how a little kid reaches an adult-like mastery of his language in a short
time. Chomsky’s mentalistic doctrine suggests the innateness of the language ability in It is the totality of extra-linguistic features having relevance to communicative act.
human beings and proposes a cognitive approach in the field of learning a language, those features of the situation that condition that language use.
Skinner’s behaviourism concentrates on the external behaviour of children, and both
Examples: A student addressing his teacher in a speech event, only two options or
theories are attempts to unveil that mystery in the process of language acquisition.
choices are appropriate (statement and question, and not a command).

Functionalist school:
I. Introduction:
In the early 20th century, the field of linguistics witnessed the emergence of several
theories focusing on different areas of study. Alongside Skinner's behaviourism and
Chomsky's innateness theory, M.A.K. Halliday's Functional Linguistics gained
significant attention in the linguistic and applied linguistics literature.
 • Components of the Context of Situation:
These three Register variables are used to explain people's intuitive understanding
Definition Example that individuals use different resources, different kinds, and different parts from the
The field gives us an indication of cooking (ingredients and process of system of language.
Field the topic or what is being talked preparing food)
about.
It helps us (father/daughter), IV. Benefits of Applying SFL:
Unequal
understand the Power (doctor/patient) ... ➢ SFL is serving as a communicative motivation in the process of learning a
people or relations (friend/friend), language.
Equal
participants in (student/student) … ➢ Through functional grammar (FG), students develop the ability to employ
communication I handed my essay in late
Formal language in different scenarios.
Tenor and the because my kids got sick.
relationships Formality The reason for the late ➢ by analyzing texts, FG succeeds in offering a considerable number of learners “a
between them. Informality submission of my essay was method of observing the relation between meaning and form in the different
the illness of my children alternatives available in the English language grammatical systems, and the
Close Bothers, friends, … methods used by schools in interpreting knowledge”
Closeness
Not close (employer/employee) … ➢ Research demonstrates that SFL is capable of helping learners master English
The mode refers language accompanying grammar from a grammatical point of view.
to the medium nonverbal activity, such as
or channel Ancillary when we talk as we cook
through which Role together in presenting a V. Conclusion:
communication recipe on a TV program To sum up, SFL was developed by M.A.K. Halliday during the 1960s in the UK and
takes place. the event is defined by the then in Australia. SFL is considered both a chief force in the world of linguistics and
Constitutive
language, as in a speech an influential tradition to linguistic study. In addition, it provides a useful tool for
It represents the
Projected communication method or
those who wish to analyze texts or discourse.
channel platform that the sender
chooses to use.
Channel It represents the
Mode communication method or
Intended
platform that the sender
channel
expects or desires the
recipient to use.
Uni- Television Broadcast, Public
directional Announcements, …
Directionality
Bi- Phone calls, instant
directional messaging, …
Visual Face-to-face conversation,
Media contact Video conferencing, …
Multimedia PowerPoints, blackboard, …
(Spontaneous vs. prepared); (rushed vs. time
Preparation for reflection).