Celestial Sphere: The Apparent Motions of

the Sun, Moon, Planets, and Stars

earth north axis approximately

Although originally developed as part of the ancient Greek concept of an Earth-

centered universe (i.e., a geocentric model of the Universe), the hypothetical celestial
sphere provides an important tool to astronomers for fixing the location and plotting
movements of celestial objects. The celestial sphere describes an extension of the lines of
latitude and longitude, and the plotting of all visible celestial objects on a hypothetical
sphere surrounding the earth.

The ancient Greek astronomers actually envisioned concentric crystalline spheres,

centered around Earth, upon which the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars moved. Although
heliocentric (Sun-centered) models of the universe were also proposed by the Greeks,
The celestial sphere is an imaginary projection of the Sun, Moon, planets, stars, and all
astronomical bodies upon an imaginary sphere surrounding Earth. The celestial sphere
is a useful mapping and tracking remnant of the geocentric theory of the ancient Greek
astronomers.

they were disregarded as "counter-intuitive" to the apparent motions of celestial bodies

across the sky.

Early in the sixteenth century, Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543)

reasserted the heliocentric theory abandoned by the Ancient Greeks. Although sparking
a revolution in astronomy, Copernicus' system was deeply flawed by the fact the Sun is
certainly not the center of the Universe, and Copernicus insisted that planetary orbits
were circular. Even so, the heliocentric model developed by Copernicus fit the observed
data better than the ancient Greek concept. For example, the periodic "backward"
motion (retrograde motion) in the sky of the planets Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn and the
lack of such motion for Mercury and Venus was more readily explained by the fact that
the former planets' orbits were outside of Earth's. Thus, the Earth "overtook" them as
it circled the Sun. Planetary positions could also be predicted much more accurately
using the Copernican model.

Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe's (1546–1601) precise observations of movements

across the "celestial sphere" allowed German astronomer and mathematician Johannes
Kepler (1571–1630) to formulate his laws of planetary motion that correctly described
the elliptical orbits of the planets.

The modern celestial sphere is an extension of the latitude and longitude coordinate
system used to fix terrestrial location. The concepts of latitude and longitude create a
grid system for the unique expression of any location on Earth's surface. Latitudes—
also known as parallels—mark and measure distance north or south from the equator.
Earth's equator is designated 0° latitude. The north and south geographic poles
respectively measure 90° north (N) and 90° south (S) from the equator. The angle of
latitude is determined as the angle between a transverse plane cutting through Earth's
equator and the right angle (90°) of the polar axis. Longitudes—also known as merid
ians—are great circles that run north and south, and converge at the north and south
geographic poles.

On the celestial sphere, projections of lines of latitude and longitude are transformed
into declination and right ascension. A direct extension of Earth's equator at 0° latitude
is the celestial equator at 0° declination. Instead of longitude, right ascension is
measured in hours. The celestial sphere, is a projected sphere surrounding Earth. The
angle of the north celestial pole (NCP) with the horizon varies with latitude. The
observer's zenith is directly overhead. Illustration by K. Lee Lerner with Argosy. The
Gale Group. Corresponding to Earth's rotation, right ascension is measured from zero
hours to 24 hours around the celestial sphere. Accordingly, one hour represents 15
angular degrees of travel around the 360° celestial sphere.

Declination is further divided arcminutes and arcseconds. In 1° of declination, there are

60 arcminutes (60') and in one arcminute there are 60 arcseconds (60"). Right ascension
hours are further subdivided into minutes and seconds of time.

On Earth's surface, the designation of 0° longitude is arbitrary, international

convention, long held since the days of British sea superiority, establishes the 0° line of
longitude—also known as the Prime Meridian—as the great circle that passes through
the Royal National Observatory in Greenwich, England (United Kingdom). On the
celestial sphere, zero hrs (0 h) right ascension is also arbitrarily defined by international
convention as the line of right ascension where the ecliptic—the apparent movement of
the Sun across the celestial sphere established by the plane of the earth's orbit around
the Sun—intersects the celestial equator at the vernal equinox.

For any latitude on Earth's surface, the extended declination line crosses the observer's
zenith. The zenith is the highest point on the celestial sphere directly above the observer.
By international agreement and customary usage, declinations north of the celestial
equator are designated as positive declinations ( + ) and declinations south of the
celestial equator are designated as negative declinations ( − ) south.

Just as every point on Earth can be expressed with a unique set of latitude and
longitude coordinates every object on the celestial sphere can be specified by declination
and right ascension coordinates.

The polar axis is an imaginary line that extends through the north and south geographic
poles. The earth rotates on its axis as it revolves around the Sun. Earth's axis is tilted
approximately 23.5 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic (the plane of planetary orbits
about the Sun or the apparent path of the Sun across the imaginary celestial sphere).
The tilt of the polar axis is principally responsible for variations in solar illumination
that result in the cyclic progressions of the seasons. The polar axis also establishes the
principal axis about which the celestial sphere rotates. The projection of Earth's
geographic poles upon the celestial sphere creates a north celestial pole and a south
celestial pole. In the Northern Hemisphere, the star Polaris is currently within
approximately one degree (1°) of the north celestial pole and thus, from the Northern
Hemisphere, all stars and other celestial objects appear to rotate about Polaris and,
depending on the latitude of observation, stars located near Polaris (circumpolar stars)
may never "set."
For any observer, the angle between the north celestial pole and the terrestrial horizon
equals and varies directly with latitude north of the equator. For example, at 30° N
latitude an observer views Polaris at +30° declination, at the terrestrial North Pole (90°
N), Polaris would be directly overhead (at the zenith) at +90° declination.

The celestial meridian is an imaginary arc from the north point on the terrestrial
horizon through the north celestial pole and zenith that terminates on the south point of
the terrestrial horizon.

Regardless of location on Earth, an observer's celestial equator passes through the east
and west points of the terrestrial horizon. In the Northern Hemisphere, the celestial
equator is displaced southward from the zenith (the point directly over the observer's
head) by the number of degrees equal to the observer's latitude.

Rotation about the polar axis results in a diurnal cycle of night and day, and causes the
apparent motion of the Sun across the imaginary celestial sphere. The earth rotates
about the polar axis at approximately 15 angular degrees per hour and makes a
complete rotation in 23.9 hours. This corresponds to the apparent rotation of the
celestial sphere. Because the earth rotates eastward (from west to east), objects on the
celestial sphere usually move along paths from east to west (i.e., the Sun "rises" in the
east and "sets" in the west). One complete rotation of the celestial sphere comprises a
diurnal cycle.

As the earth rotates on its polar axis, it makes a slightly elliptical orbital revolution
about the Sun in 365.26 days. Earth's revolution about the Sun also corresponds to the
cyclic and seasonal changes of observable stars and constellations on the celestial
sphere. Although stars grouped in traditional constellations have no proximate spatial
relationship to one another (i.e., they may be billions of light years apart) that do have
an apparent relationship as a two-dimensional pattern of stars on the celestial sphere.
Accordingly, in the modern sense, constellations establish regional location of stars on
the celestial sphere.

A tropical year (i.e., a year of cyclic seasonal change), equals approximately 365.24
mean solar days. During this time, the Sun appears to travel completely around the
celestial sphere on the ecliptic and return to the vernal equinox. In contrast, one orbital
revolution of Earth about the Sun returns the Sun to the same backdrop of stars—and
is measured as a sidereal year. On the celestial sphere, a sidereal day is defined as the
time it takes for the vernal equinox—starting from an observer's celestial median—to
rotate around with the celestial sphere and recross that same celestial median. The
sidereal day is due to Earth's rotational period. Because of precession, a sidereal year is
approximately 20 minutes and 24 seconds longer than a tropical year. Although the
sidereal year more accurately measures the time it takes Earth to completely orbit the
Sun, the use of the sidereal year would eventually cause large errors in calendars with
regard to seasonal changes. For this reason the tropical year is the basis for modern
Western calendar systems.

Seasons are tied to the apparent movements of the Sun and stars across the celestial
sphere. In the Northern Hemisphere, summer begins at the summer solstice
(approximately June 21) when the Sun is reaches its apparent maximum declination.
Winter begins at the winter solstice (approximately December 21) when the Sun's
highest point during the day is its minimum maximum daily declination. The changes
result from a changing orientation of Earth's polar axis to the Sun that result in a
change in the Sun's apparent declination. The vernal and autumnal equinox are
denoted as the points where the celestial equator intersects the ecliptic.

The location of sunrise on the eastern horizon, and sunset on the western horizon also
varies between a northern most maximum at the summer solstice to a southernmost
maximum at the winter solstice. Only at the vernal and autumnal equinox does the Sun
rise at a point due east or set at a point due west on the terrestrial horizon.

During the year, the moon and planets appear to move in a restricted region of the
celestial sphere termed the zodiac. The zodiac is a region extending outward
approximately 8° from each side of the ecliptic (the apparent path of the Sun on the
celestial sphere). The modern celestial sphere is divided into twelve traditional zodiacal
constellation patterns (corresponding to the pseudoscientific astrological zodiacal signs)
through which the Sun appears to travel by successive eastwards displacements
throughout the year.

During revolution about the Sun, the earth's polar axis exhibits parallelism to Polaris
(also known as the North Star). Although observing parallelism, the orientation of
Earth's polar axis exhibits precession—a circular wobbling exhibited by gyroscopes—
that results in a 28,000-year-long precessional cycle. Currently, Earth's polar axis points
roughly in the direction of Polaris (the North Star). As a result of precession, over the
next 11,00 years, Earth's axis will precess or wobble so that it assumes an orientation
toward the star Vega.

Precession causes an objects celestial coordinates to change. As a result, celestial

coordinates are usually accompanied by a date for which the coordinates are valid.

Corresponding to Earth's rotation, the celestial sphere rotates through 1° in about four
minutes. Because of this, sunrise, sunset, moonrise, and moonset, all take approximately
two minutes because both the Sun and Moon have the same apparent size on the
celestial sphere (about 0.5°). The Sun is, of course, much larger, but the Moon is much
closer. If measured at the same time of day, the Sun appears to be displaced eastward
on the star field of the celestial sphere by approximately 1° per day. Because of this
apparent displacement, the stars appear to "rise" approximately four minutes earlier
each evening and set four minutes later each morning. Alternatively, the Sun appears to
"rise" four minutes earlier each day and "set" four minutes earlier each day. A change
of approximately four minutes a day corresponds to a 24-hour cycle of "rising" and
"setting" times that comprise an annual cycle.

In contrast, if measured at the same time each day, the Moon appears to be displaced
approximately 13° eastward on the celestial sphere per day and therefore "rises" and
"sets" almost one hour earlier each day.

Because the earth is revolving about the Sun, the displacement of the earth along it's
orbital path causes the time it takes to complete a cycle of lunar phases—a synodic
month—and return the Sun, Earth, and Moon to the same starting alignment is slightly
longer than the sidereal month. The synodic month is approximately 29.5 days.
Earth rotates about its axis at approximately 15 angular degrees per hour. Rotation
dictates the length of the diurnal cycle (i.e., the day/night cycle), creates "time zones"
with differing local noons. Local noon occurs when the Sun is at the highest point
during its daily skyward arch from east to west (i.e., when the Sun is at its zenith on the
celestial meridian). With regard to the solar meridian, the Sun's location (and reference
to local noon) is described in terms of being ante meridian (am)—east of the celestial
meridian—or post meridian (pm) located west of the celestial merid

TIME,DAY AND SEASONS

How the sun and moon, control times and seasons

"God said, 'Let there be lights in the expanse of the sky to separate day from night; they shall
serve as signs for the set times - the days and the years; and they shall serve as lights in the
expanse of the sky to shine upon the earth.' And it was so. God made the two great lights, the
greater light to dominate the day and the lesser light to dominate the night, and the stars."
Gen.1:14-16

These two magnificent lights are the sun, and the moon, respectively. The word for 'set times'
here is medic (appointed times) which is the very word that God chooses to use to describe
His festivals. One more passage that speaks of these two lights is found in Psalms 104:19:
"He made the moon to mark the seasons; the sun knows when to set."

This passage clearly sets the moon apart as the main marker of the seasons, while the sun is
to mark the day. The moon that reflects the light of the Sun confirms throughout the month as
it waxes and wanes that the created order is not chaotic. Its visible rebirth each month is very
orderly and precise, but not predictable. Therefore, each month has a degree of expectancy
absolutely about it.

The Ordination of the New Moon

What we call the months in the Sacred calendar are established as lunar months. Therefore
the appearance of the new moon was ordained to establish the beginning of the monthly
cycle and therefore the first day of the month. The moon's full cycle of illumination lasts a
little over 29 days. Therefore we have our biblical months of either 29 or 30 days.

The New Moon is a precise astronomical event, hence it can occur on different days because
of the earth's rotation . The determination of the New Moon, therefore, must be determined
from the time in which it occurs in Jerusalem to make sure that we have uniform religious
worship throughout the world, given increased communication.

This is based biblical injunction which places Jerusalem as the throne of Almighty
God(Jeremiah 3:17), the central- focus of the law which will be given under Messiah (Isaiah
2: 3) through the waters of the Spirit (Zechariah 8:22; 14:8-21). God has placed His name
there forever (2 Chronicles 33: 4) Before the time of modern calendars, the new moon was
vortanitally important as it was the official announcement of when the new month had begun.
Because God gave commandment to observe the feasts and festivals in their given times it
was vital to keep accurate count of when the new month began to celebrate the festivals
correctly.

“God spoke to His servant Moses, saying: Speak to the Children of Israel and say to them:
Yahweh’s appointed festivals that you are to set aside as holy convocations — these are My
appointed festivals.” (Leviticus 23:1-2) “These are the appointed festivals of the almighty
God , the holy convocations, which you shall designate in their appropriate time.” (Leviticus
23:4).

The Almighty God is very clear that the festivals are to be celebrated not because they are for
man but because they are His appointed times. All These festivals are holy not because man
makes them so, but because the almighty God Himself declares them holy. Since Yahweh is
the One who instituted them, it is a reasonable act of worship and obedience to keep them
when He designated.

The Sanhedrin, which was the council of elders in Israel, would confirm the appearance of
the new moon based upon reliable witnesses and so far were blown in accordance with the
scripture to announce the beginning of the month. currently, the rabbinical calendar is based
on calculations set up by Rabbi Hillel the second in the mid fourth century. Around that time,
the Sanhedrin (the high court of ancient Israel) was out of existence. Hillel felt that the New
Moon could not be declared visually without a Sanhedrin to affirm its appearance, so he
concluded it must be calculated. Rabbis now know that Hillel's calculations were/are off,
sometimes as much as two days, which means the festivals are not celebrated on the correct
day. But they have decided to wait until a Sanhedrin is established again to change it.

The Ordination of the New Year

The present annual calendar is set by the alignment of both the monthly lunar cycle(cycle of
the moon) and the annual solar cycle(the cycle of the sun). The lunar cycle sets the seasons
based on the solar equinoctal cycle. The moon and sun together are governing signs. God’s
Sacred Year begins with Aviv or Nisan (Exodus 12:1-2).

"And The almighty God spoke unto Moses and Aaron in the land of their captivity, Egypt,
saying, This month [Abib] shall be unto you the beginning of months: it shall be the first
month of the year to you". (KJV)

This is determined from the New Moon nearest to the spring equinox in the Northern
Hemisphere, which begins the summer season,(Note all scholars within the Hebrew Roots
believe this statement is totally correct. Herb Solinski who has researched this quite indepth
says this should be the new moon crescent on or after the vernal equinox ,
www.biblicalcalendar.org . At this website you will find his sources quoted in 300 plus pages
of documentation) at which time the barley crop will be "in the green" ready for harvest at
Passover. This month Abib or Nisan was to be the first of months and, hence, its
determination would set the start and finish of the year and, hence, the calendar. The
autumnal equinox in the Northern Hemisphere begins the winter season. These are the two
seasons mentioned by the Bible which are used to determine the beginning of the year to
coincide with the festival harvests. (Genesis 8:22; Psalm 74:17) The day of the New Year is
to be kept as a solemn feast day. A record of the festival of the New Moon is found in the
Temple Scroll (11Q19-20). In column 14 we see that the sacrifices for the first day of the
month, that is the New Moon, are listed, as are the special instructions for the New Year of
the first day of the First Month. Thus, the Dead Sea Scrolls quite clearly identify the New
Moon of the First Month (Nisan) as the New Year and as a day of solemn assembly and
sacrifice. These ordinances are followed by the requirements for the seven day purification of
the annual ordination of the priesthood. This is what column 14 says of the New Year of
Nisan: "On the first day of the [first] month falls the beginning of months; for you it is the
beginning of the months] of the year. [You are to do] no work, [You shall offer .. .. .."

Judaism changed the New Year from Nisan to Tishri, which is the seventh month, based on a
man-made system derived from the rabbinical determinations introduced from Babylon in
344 CE and sanctioned by Rabbi Hillel II in 358 CE.. The Dead Sea Scrolls, the LXX and
modern scholarship have exposed this change which was made. However, even rabbinical
scholars such as Rabbi Kohn, the Chief Rabbi of Budapest writing in 1894, states
categorically that the New Year of Rosh haShanah in Tishri is a late third century post
Temple period innovation (Sabbatarians in Transylvania, CCG Publishing, 1998, p. v et. seq).
The Bible gives instruction that Israel kept, as we are to keep, the Feast of Nisan (New Year's
Day) as a feast day.

Sighting the New Moon

Various factors such as atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity along the light path,
altitude, latitude and longitude, fog, cloud/dust cover, glare etc. can all affect a first sighting.
No one can infallibly predict the moment when the new moon will become visible to the
naked eye. The general consensus of authoritative opinion is that a first sighting of the new
moon could occur any time between about 15 and 48 hours after a conjunction. The
conjunction being when the earth is between the sun and the moon in perfect alignment. The
first sighting of the moon will be after the moon has moved out of this alignment.

In sighting the New Moon, one faces the western sky at sunset, drawing an imaginary line
from the zenith overhead toward the setting sun, seeking the thin scimitar of light on either
side of this imaginary line. The sun sets in the west slightly right of where the new moon will
be seen. As the sky darkens the first star is seen which is actually the planet Venus. Gradually
the crescent appears as a sliver just above the horizon. The faint New Moon will bulge out to
the right, with the horns pointing toward the left. However, in early spring (autumn in
southern hemisphere) the “Passover moon” will appear much like a saucer with both horns
pointing upward. Variations of this New Moon may be seen in springtime. Biblical months
are either 29 or 30 alternating days in length; at times two consecutive 30-day months may
occur. Only on the new moon will the moon be invisible until the sun sets. It is as if Yahweh
is concealing it so we will intentionally have to look for His sign in the sky.

Determining the New Year

The New Year is determined by the New Moon which falls nearest the equinox, which
ensures that the Full Moon falls after the equinox, while the sun stands in the sign of Aries. In
the Gregorian system (The calendar system of most English world|) the equinox can fall on
21-23 March. The earliest date for the New Year has to be 14 days before 21 March, so that
Passover will be at the full moon – i.e. 8 April. This was the earliest date for 1 Nisan. The
latest date is determined by 15 Nisan and the sun in Aries. The sun leaves Aries on 19 April.
Thus, the day 19/20 April is the last day in which Passover can begin. The 15th Nisan cannot
be later than 20/21 April. According to the ancient rules of the Hebrews, 1 Nisan, or the start
of the sacred year, was not earlier than 8 March and not later than the Hebrew day on 8/9
April (Gregorian) in the case of a thirty day month falling with an equinox on 23 March. It is
impossible, therefore, for there to be a Passover earlier than the vernal equinox (21 March) or
one later than 20/21 April.

Philo, the Jewish historian and contemporary of Yeshua the Messiah and the apostles, says
that Moses established the moon of the vernal equinox as the first month of the year (The
Works of Philo, On the Life of Moses II, chapter XLI, Part 222 and 224) Josephus the Jewish
historian also confirms this and defines it as "when the sun was in Aries" (Josephus, Ant.
3.201; III.x.5].

Because harvests are governed by the seasons, which are controlled by the movements of the
heavenly bodies, the maturity of the barley crop in Israel will coincide with these calculations
and is the necessary factor for establishing the new year so that there is the required grain to
be offered .

Different religion of the world with different calendar, but something to them all. The moon
sighting is their basis for calculating the month.