1.

Construction and working principle of DC generator:

Electrical machine used to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy.

The main parts of de machine are:-

 Yoke : The outer frame of a dc machine is called

as yoke. It is made up of cast iron or steel. It not
only provides mechanical strength to the whole
assembly but also carries the magnetic flux
produced by the field winding.

 Pole: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of

bolts or welding. They carry field winding and pole
shoes. Pole shoes serve two purposes; (i) they
support field coils and (ii) spread out the flux in air
gap uniformly.

 Field winding: They are usually made of copper. Field coils are former wound and placed on each
pole and are connected in series. They are wound in such a way that, when energized, they form
alternate North and South poles.

 Armature: It is the rotor of a dc machine. It is cylindrical in shape with slots to carry armature
winding. The armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks for reducing eddy current
losses. It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for cooling purposes. Armature is
keyed to the shaft. It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests in armature slots. The
armature conductors are insulated from each other and also from the armature core. Armature
winding can be wound by one of the two methods; lap winding or wave winding. Double layer
lap or wave windings are generally used. A double layer winding means that each armature slot
will carry two different coils.

 Commutator: Physical connection to the armature winding is made through a commutator-brush

arrangement. The function of a commutator, in a dc generator, is to collect the current generated
in armature conductors. Whereas, in case of a dc motor, commutator helps in providing current to
the armature conductors. A commutator consists of a set of copper segments which are insulated
from each other. The number of segments is equal to the number of armature coils. Each segment
is connected to an armature coil and the commutator is keyed to the shaft.

 Brushes: Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite. The function of brushes is to collect
current from the commutator. These are rectangular in shape, made of carbon normally. These
brushes are housed in brush holder usually of the box type variety. Ball bearings are employed due
to their reliability but for heavy duty, roller bearings are also used. The balls and rollers are
generally packed in hard oil for quieter operation. Sleeve bearings are also used where low wear
is required.
2. . Working principle of DC generator

A DC generator is an electromechanical energy conversion device that converts mechanical

power into DC electrical power through the process of electromagnetic induction. A DC generator
operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction i.e. when the magnetic flux linking a
conductor changes, an EMF is induced in the conductor. A DC generator has a field winding and
an armature winding. The EMF induced in the armature winding of a DC generator is alternating
one and is converted into direct voltage using a commutator mounted on the shaft of the
generator. The armature winding of DC Generator is placed on the rotor whereas the field
winding is placed on the stator.

Consider a single loop DC generator (as shown in the figure), in this a single turn loop „ABCD‟
is rotating clockwise in a uniform magnetic field with a constant speed. When the loop rotates, the
magnetic flux linking the coil sides „AB‟ and „CD‟ changes continuously. This change in flux
linkage induces an EMF in coil sides and the induced EMF in one coil side adds the induced EMF
in the other.

The EMF induced in a DC generator can be explained as follows

 When the loop is in position-1, the generated EMF is zero because, the movement of coil
sides is parallel to the magnetic flux.
 When the loop is in position-2, the coil sides are moving at an angle to the magnetic flux
and hence, a small EMF is generated.
 When the loop is in position-3, the coil sides are moving at right angle to the magnetic
flux, therefore the generated EMF is maximum.
 When the loop is in position-4, the coil sides are cutting the magnetic flux at an angle, thus
a reduced EMF is generated in the coil sides.
 When the loop is in position-5, no flux linkage with the coil side and are moving parallel
to the magnetic flux. Therefore, no EMF is generated in the coil.
 At the position-6, the coil sides move under a pole of opposite polarity and hence the
polarity of generated EMF is reversed. The maximum EMF will generate in this direction
at position-7 and zero when at position-1. This cycle repeats with revolution of the coil.

It is clear that the generated EMF in the loop is alternating one. It is because any coil side (say
AB) has EMF in one direction when under the influence of N-pole and in the other direction when
under the influence of S-pole. Hence, when a load is connected across the terminals of the
generator, an alternating current will flow through it. Now, by using a commutator, this
alternating emf generated in the loop can be converted into direct voltage. We then have a DC
generator.
Voltage Equation of a DC Generator

The armature supply voltage V has to overcome the

opposition posed by the back emf Eb and some other
voltage drops such as brush drop and the voltage drop across Ra.

V = Eb + Ia Ra + Vb

But voltage drop across brushes is negligible.

∴ V = Eb + Ia Ra

Induced emf of a DC Motor/Genarator

For one revolution of the conductor,

⚫ Let, Φ = Flux produced by each pole in weber (Wb)

⚫ and P = number of poles in the DC generator.

⚫ Total flux produced by all the poles

⚫ Time taken to complete one revolution

⚫ N = speed of the armature conductor in rpm.

⚫ Now, according to Faraday‟s law of induction, the induced emf of the armature conductor
is denoted by “e” which is equal to rate of cutting the flux.

⚫
⚫ Induced emf of one conductor is

Derivation for Induced EMF for DC Generator

⚫ Let , Z total numbers of conductor in a generator, and arranged in such a manner

that all parallel paths are always in series.

⚫ Z = total numbers of conductor

 ⚫ A = number of parallel paths

⚫ Then, Z/A = number of conductors connected in series

⚫ We know that induced emf in each path is same across the line

⚫ Therefore, Induced emf of DC generator

⚫ E = emf of one conductor × number of conductor connected in series.

Induced emf of DC generator is

⚫
Simple wave wound generator

⚫ Numbers of parallel paths are only 2 = A 



⚫
Simple lap wound generator

⚫ Numbers of parallel paths are only P = A 



3. Working principle of a DC motor:

When a current-carrying conductor kept in a magnetic field, it gains torque and develops a
tendency to move. When electric fields and magnetic fields interact, a mechanical force arises.
This is the principle on which the DC motors work. When the armature of the DC motor rotates
under the influence of driving torque, the windings or conductors on the armature also rotate in
the magnetic field.

According to "Faraday's Laws of Electro-Magnetic Induction" emf is induced in the conductors.

The induced emf is in the opposite direction to the applied voltage and is known as the back emf.
This back emf tries to oppose applied voltage V, but it has to drive armature current Ia against
the opposing of back emf Eb.
Back emf makes the DC motor a self-regulating machine. It automatically changes the armature
current to meet the load requirement as follows

 At no-load, a small torque is required to overcome the mechanical losses. Hence, the Ia is
small and back emf is nearly equal to the applied voltage.
 At load, it causes the armature to slow down and hence, the back emf decreases. The
decreased back emf causes the larger current to flow through the armature and the large
armature current means increased developed torque by the motor. Hence, the torque is
increased when the motor slows down. The motor will stop slowing down when the
armature current is sufficient to produce the increased torque required by the load
 When the load on the motor is decreased, then the torque is momentarily more than the
requirement so that the armature is accelerated. As the speed of the armature increases, the
back emf also increases and causes the armature current is decrease. The motor will stop
accelerating when the armature current is sufficient to develop the torque requiredby the
load.

Electrical power delivered to the armature = Armature emf  Armature current

Pa = Eb  Ia

This power creates the torque to make the armature rotate.

Electrical torque developed in the armature = Electrical power delivered to the armature

Angular velocity
 Pa  ZNP 
Te     I a 
ω 60 A 
2πN
here,  
60
ZP
Te  Ia Newton meters
2πA
 ZP
Te  K a I a Newton meters. where,  K a 
 2πA 

1. Types of DC Motors

1. D.C Shunt Motor

In shunt wound motor the field winding is connected in parallel with armature. The current
through the shunt field winding is not the same as the armature current. Shunt field windings
are designed to produce the necessary m.m.f. by means of a relatively large number of turns
of wire having high resistance. Therefore, shunt field current is relatively small compared
with the armature current

2. D.C Series Motor

In series wound motor the field winding is connected in series with the armature. Therefore,
series field winding carries the armature current. Since the current passing through a series
field winding is the same as the armature current, series field windings must be designed with
much fewer turns than shunt field windings for the same mmf. Therefore, a series field winding
has a relatively small number of turns of thick wire and, therefore, will possess a low
resistance.

2. D.C Compound Motor

Compound wound motor has two field windings; one connected in parallel with the
armature and the other in series with it. There are two types of compound motor connections

1. Short-shunt connection
2. Long shunt connection

1. Short-shunt connection
When the shunt field winding is directly connected across the armature terminals it is called
short-shunt connection.

2. Long shunt connection

When the shunt winding is so connected that it shunts the series combination of armature and
series field it is called long-shunt connection.
2. D.C Motor Characteristics
1. D.C Shunt Motor

a. Torque versus Armature current

Ta is proportional to Ia

b. Speed versus Armature current

c. Speed versus Torque

2. D.C Series Motor

a. Torque versus Armature current

Ta is proportional to Ia2

b. Speed versus Armature current

c. Speed versus Torque

1. D.C Compound Motor

Speed Control of DC Motors

1. DC shunt motor
i. Flux control

As speed is inversely proportional to the flux.

 The flux is dependent on the current through the shunt field winding.
 Thus flux can be controlled by adding a rheostat (variable resistance in series with the shunt
field winding as shown in above figure.
 At the beginning the rheostat is kept at minimum.
 The supply voltage is at rated value. So current through the shunt field winding is also its
rated value. Hence the speed is also the rated value.
 Resistance is increased, shunt field current is reduced (flux is reduced) and speed is increased
beyond its rated value.

ii. Armature voltage control or rheostatic control

  The speed is directly proportional to the voltage applied across the armature.
 As the supply voltage is normally constant, the voltage across the armature can be controlled by adding
a variable resistance in series with the armature as shown in figure above.

Applied voltage control

  Shunt field of the motor is permanently connected to the fixed voltage supply.
 Armature is supplied with various voltages by means of suitable switchgear arrangements.

Potential divider control

 When the variable rheostat position is at start point shown, voltage across the armature
is zero.
 As rheostat is moved towards minimum point shown, the voltage across the armature increases,
increasing the speed.
 At maximum point the voltage is maximum and speed is rated value

Application of DC Motor
PROBLEMS

A 4 pole generator with wave wound armature has 51 slots each having 24
conductors. The flux per pole is 10 mWb. At what speed must the armature
rotate to give an induced emf of 0.24 kV. What will be the voltage
developed, if the winding is lap connected and the armature rotates at the
same speed?

Given data
P=4
No.of slots = 51
No.of conductors/slot = 20 Eg=
0.24 Kv = 240 V

Φ = 10 mW= 10/1000 Web

Find N &Eg at same N?

Solution
Total no. of conductors, Z = 51x20 = 1224

Wave winding, A=2

From EMF equation,

N= Eg60A / ΦZP = (240x60x2)/(10/1000x1224x4) = 612.75 rpm

Lap winding, A=P=4

Eg = PΦZN/60A = (4x10/1000x1224x612.75)/(60x4) = 0.125 kV

2. A 250 volt DC shunt motor has armature resistance of 0.25 ohm on load it
takes an armature current of 50A and runs at 750rpm. If the flux of the
motor is reduced by 10% without changing the load torque, find the new
speed of the motor.

Given data

V = 250
Ra = 0.25
Ia = 50
N1 = 750
Φ2 = 90%Φ1
Find N2?

Solution

Eb1 = V-Ia1Ra = 250-(50x0.25) = 237.5V

Eb2 = V-Ia2Ra
Load torque is constant Ta1 =
Ta2

Φ1Ia1 = Φ2Ia2 Ia2

= 55.55A
Eb2 = 250-55.55X0.25 = 236.12V
 N2 = 828 rpm

4. Construction and working principle of transformer

The transformer is the static device which works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. It
is used for transferring the electrical power from one circuit to another without any variation in
their frequency.

The transformer mainly consists of the Magnetic circuit, electric circuit, dielectric circuit, tanks,
and accessories. The main elements of the transformer are the primary and secondary windings
and the steel core.

Core

For high power applications, transformer

core is made with high permeability
material which provides the low
reluctance path for the magnetic flux.
The cross section of the core would be
square or rectangular. The core of the
transformer is made up of silicon steelin
order to provide a continuous magnetic
path. Usually, the core of the transformer
is laminated for minimizing the eddy
current loss.

Windings

The primary winding, secondary winding and the magnetic core are the three important of the
transformer. These coils are insulated from each other. The main flux is induced in the primary
winding of the transformer. This flux passes through the low reluctance path of the magnetic
core and linked with the secondary winding of the transformer. The voltage connected to the
primary winding is called primary voltage whereas the induced voltage in the secondary is called
as secondary voltage. If the secondary voltage is more than the primary, it is called as step-up
transformer and if less, it is called as step-down transformer. Therefore, the windings are
designated as HV and LV windings based on the voltage level. Compared to the LV winding, HV
winding needs more insulation to withstand high voltages, also needs more clearance to the core
and the body.

Conservator tank which is used to provide the necessary oil storage such that the pressure of the
oil under heavy loads settles down. When the oil in the transformer subject to the heat, naturally,
oil expand and contract. Under this, oil is subjected to heavy pressure so without a conservator
tank, there will be a chance of bursting the transformer.

The bushings provide the insulation to the output terminals to be taken from the windings of the
transformer. These can be porcelain or condenser type bushing and based on the level ofoperating
voltage these are selected. Because of simple, durable and rugged construction, transformers
require a little maintenance. Because of no moving parts, the efficiency of the transformer is very
high which may vary from 95% to 98%. The insulated stranded conductors are used as windings
for carrying high currents. This insulation avoids turns contacting with other turns.

Types by Design

 Core- Type Transformer

 Shell-Type Transformer
In core-type transformer, the windings are given to a considerable part of the core. The coils used
for this transformer are form-wound and are of cylindrical type. Such a type of transformer can
be applicable for small sized and large sized transformers. In the small sized type, the core will
be rectangular in shape and the coils used are cylindrical. In shell-type transformers, the core
surrounds a considerable portion of the windings.

Working principle:

The operation of the transformer is based on the principle of mutual induction between two coils
or winding which are linked by a common magnetic flux. When the primary winding is
energized with AC source supply, a magnetic flux is established in the primary winding.

This flux is linked with both primary and secondary windings because the core provides a low
reluctance path for the magnetic flux. Hence, most of the flux produced by the primary winding
links with the secondary winding. This is called as main flux or useful flux. And also, the flux
which does not link with the secondary winding is called as leakage flux. Most of the
transformers are designed to have low leakage flux to reduce the losses.

According to the Faraday‟s laws of electromagnetic induction, this flux linkage with both primary
and secondary windings induces EMFs in them. This EMF induced in each winding is
proportional to the number of turns in it. The voltage or EMF induced in the primary winding is
called as back EMF which opposes the input supply voltage to the extent that no primary current
would flow.

But small magnetizing current flows through the primary of the transformer. The EMF induced
in the secondary winding is the open circuit voltage. If the secondary circuit is closed or the load
is connected, secondary current starts flowing through it which causes to create demagnetizing
magnetic flux. Due to this demagnetizing flux, the unbalance is created between the applied
voltage and back EMF. To restore the balance between these two, more current is drawn from the
supply source so that equivalent magnetic field is created to balance with secondary field.

Since the same mutual flux cuts both windings, the EMF induced in the each turn of both
windings are same. Hence the total induced EMF in each winding must be proportional to the
number of turns in that winding. This turns out for the establishment of well-known relationship
between induced EMF and the number of turns.

E1 /E2 = N1 / N2

Since the terminal voltages of the both windings are slightly different from their induced EMFs,

V1/V2 = N1/N2

This is called as the transformation ratio of the transformer. This transformation value is greater
than unity in case of step-up transformer and less than unity in step-down transformer.

In terms of ampere turns balance, I1N1 = I2N2 and I1/I2 =

N2/N1

E.M.F Equation of a Transformer

The emf induced in each winding of the transformer can be

calculated from its emf equation.Let,

T1 = Number of turns in primary T2

= Number of turns in secondary

Ømax = Maximum flux in the core in webers = Bmax X Af

= Frequency of alternating current input in hertz (HZ)

Now, rate of change of flux per turn means induced electro motive
force in volts.

The linking of the flux is represented by the faraday law of electrmagentic induction. It is
expressed as,

The above equation may be written

as,

where Em = maximum value of e. For a sine wave, the r.m.s value of e.m.f is given by
The emf induced in their primary and secondary winding is expressed as,

The secondary RMS voltage is

Where φm is the maximum value of flux in Weber (Wb), f is the frequency in hertz (Hz) and
E1 and E2 in volts.

If, Bm = maximum flux density in the magnetic circuit in Tesla (T)

A = area of cross-section of the core in square meter (m2)

The winding which has the higher number of voltage has high voltage while the primary winding
has low voltage.

Voltage Ratio and Turns Ratio

The ratio of E/T is called volts per turn. The primary and secondary volts per turns is given by
the formula
The equation (1) and (2) shows that the voltage per turn in both the winding is same, i.e.

The ratio T1/T2 is called the turn ratio. The turn ratio is expressed as

The ratio of primary to secondary turn which equals to primary to secondary induced
voltage indicates how much the primary voltage lowered or raised. The turn ratio or induced
voltage ratio is called the transformation ratio, and it is denoted by the symbol a. Thus,

The any desired voltage ratio can be obtained by shifting the number of turns.

This constant K is known as voltage transformation ratio.

(1) If T2> T1, that is K>1, then transformer is called step-up transformer.

(2) If T2< T1, that is K<1, then transformer is known as step-down transformer.

Applications of a transformer

 Transformers are used in most electronic circuits. A transformer has only 3 applications;
 To step up voltage and current.
 To Step down voltage and current
 To prevent DC – transformers can pass only Alternating Currents so they totally prevent
DC from passing to the next circuit.

PROBLEMS

A 400 kVA transformer has a primary winding resistance of 0.5 ohm and
a secondary winding resistance of 0.001 ohm. The iron loss is 2.5 Kw and
the primary and secondary voltages are 5 kV and 320 V respectively. If the
power factor of the load is 0.85, determine the efficiency of the transformer
(i) on full load and (ii) on half load.
 Solution
Rated output = 400 kVA = 400x103 kVA

Full load secondary current, I2 = Rated output/V2 = 1250 A

Total resistance referred to secondary, re2 = r2+r1(V2/V1)2 = 0.033 ohm Full load copper loss,
Pc = I 2re2 = 51.5625 Kw
2

Iron loss, Pi = 2.5 x103 watts

(i) Transformer efficiency at full load and 0.85 pf

= 86.2%

(ii) Transformer efficiency at half load and 0.85 pf

= 91.69%

2. Find all day efficiency of a transformer having maximum efficiency of

98% at 15 kVA at unity power factor. Compare its all day efficiencies for
the following load cycles:

a. Full load of 20 kVA, 12 hours per day and no load rest of the day. b. Full
load, 4 hours per day and 0.4 full load rest of the day.

Assume the load to operate on upf all day

Solution
5. Working principle of three-phase induction motor:

 The three-phase induction motor is the extensively used for various kinds of industrial drives.

 The electromagnetic induction is the phenomenon in which the electromotive force induces
across the electrical conductor when it is placed in a rotating magnetic field.

 The stator and rotor are two essential parts of the motor. The stator is the stationary part, and
it carries the overlapping windings while the rotor carries the main or field winding. The
windings of the stator are equally displaced from each other by an angle of 120°.

 The induction motor is the single excited motor, i.e., the supply is applied only to the one
part, i.e., stator. When the three phase supply is given to the stator, the rotating magnetic
fieldproduced on it.

 Alternating flux is produced around the stator winding due to AC supply. This alternating
flux revolves with synchronous speed. The revolving flux is called as "Rotating Magnetic
Field" (RMF).

 The relative speed between stator RMF and rotor conductors causes an induced emf in the
rotor conductors, according to the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. The rotor
conductors are short circuited, and hence rotor current is produced due to induced emf.
Thatis why such motors are called as induction motors.

 (This action is same as that occurs in transformers, hence induction motors can be called as
rotating transformers.)

 Now, induced current in rotor will also produce alternating flux around it. This rotor flux
lags behind the stator flux. The direction of induced rotor current, according to Lenz's law, is
suchthat it will tend to oppose the cause of its production.

 As the cause of production of rotor current is the relative velocity between rotating stator
flux and the rotor, the rotor will try to catch up with the stator RMF. Thus the rotor rotates in
the same direction as that of stator flux to minimize the relative velocity. However, the rotor
never succeeds in catching up the synchronous speed. This is the basic working principle of
induction motor of either type, single phase of 3 phase.

Synchronous speed:

The rotational speed of the rotating magnetic field is called as synchronous speed.

where, f = frequency of the spplyP

= number of poles
Slip:

Rotor tries to catch up the synchronous speed of the stator field, and hence it rotates. But in
practice, rotor never succeeds in catching up. If rotor catches up the stator speed, there wont be
any relative speed between the stator flux and the rotor, hence no induced rotor current and no
 torque production to maintain the rotation. However, this won't stop the motor, the rotor will
slow down due to lost of torque, the torque will again be exerted due to relative speed. That is
why the rotor rotates at speed which is always less the synchronous speed.

The difference between the synchronous speed (Ns) and actual speed (N) of the rotor is called
as slip.

There are two types of induction motor rotors:

1. Squirrel-cage rotor or simply cage rotor.

2. Phase wound or wound rotors. The motors that use this type of rotor are known as Slip-ring
rotors.

Squirrel cage rotor:

Squirrel cage motor works on the principle of Electromagnetism. It consists of Rotor, Stator and
other parts like bearings, cylindrical laminated core, shaft, etc.

The function of bearings in cage rotor motor is to reduce friction between the rotating and
stationary parts of the machine. The rotor of the motor consists of a cylindrical laminated core
with parallel slots for carrying the rotor conductors. The rotor conductors are not wires, but it
consists of heavy bars of copper, aluminum, or an alloy. The shaft is used in the motor to transfer
mechanical power from or to the machine. The stator is the outer stationary part of the motor.

Wound rotor or slip ring rotor:

The wound rotor consists of a slotted armature. Insulated conductors are put in the slots and
connected to form a three-phase double layer distributed winding similar to the stator winding.
The windings of the rotor are connected in star.
 Rotor windings are distributed uniformly and usually connected in the star with here leads brought
out of the machine by via slip rings placed on the shaft. The slip rings are tapped using copper
carbon brushes. Wound rotor construction is generally used for large size machine, where the
starting torque requirements are stringent. External resistance can be added in the rotor
circuit through slip ring for reducing the starting current and simultaneously the starting torque.

Cage and wound rotors:

Cage rotors have robust construction and are cheaper than wound rotors.
These rotors do not have brushes because of which the risk of sparking is reduced.
It requires very less maintenance. They have high efficiency and higher power factor.
Wound rotors have high starting torque and low starting current in comparison with cage rotors.
In the case of wound rotors, we can connect additional rotors in the rotor circuit to control the
speed.

Slip and rotor frequency.

Slip frequency may be defined as the difference between the frequency corresponding to the
synchronous speed and the frequency corresponding to the rotor speed(other than Ns)

Rotor frequency is the number of cycles per second of the rotor. Rotating speed is given in
rotations per seconds (RPS) or rotations per minute (RPM).

The synchronous speed of the rotor in RPM

Ns = 120f/P

where f is the frequency of the stator current and P is the number of poles.

The slip (S) = Ns - N where N is the slip speed.

The frequency of the rotor fr = N

6. Three Phase Alternator (SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR)

 Fundamental principle of electromagnetic Intuition as like DC generator
 When the flex linking a conductor changes, an emf is induced in the conductor.
 In alternator, armature winding is mounted on a stationary clement called STATOR
 Field winding is on a rotating element called ROTOR
Advantages
 Better insulation
 Ease of current Collection.
 Rigid Construction
 Reduced armature leakage reactance

CONSTRUCTION OF ALTERNATOR-

The main components of an alternator or synchronous generator are rotor and stator. The main difference
between rotor and stator is, the rotor is a rotating part and stator is not a rotating component means it is a
stationary part. The motors are generally run by rotor and stator. The stator word based on the stationary and
the rotor word based on the rotating. The construction of the stator of an alternator is equal to the construction
of the stator of an induction motor. So induction motor construction and synchronous motor construction are
both are same. Thus the stator is the stationary part of the rotor and the rotor is the component that rotates
inside of the stator. The rotor is located on the stator shaft and the series of the electromagnets arranged in a
cylinder causing the rotor to rotate and create a magnetic field. There are two types of rotors.

Salient Pole (Non cylindrical) Rotor

The meaning of the salient is projecting outward, which means the poles of the rotor are projecting outward
from the center of the rotor. There is a field winding on the rotor and for this field winding will use DC
supply. When we pass the current through this field winding N and S poles are created. The salient rotors are
unbalanced so the speeds are restricted. This type of rotor used in hydro stations and diesel power stations.
The salient pole rotor used for low-speed machines approximately 120-400rpm.
Non-salient pole (cylindrical) rotor
The cylindrical rotor is also known as a non-salient rotor or round rotor and this rotor is used for high-speed
machines approximately 1500-3000 rpm and the example for this is a thermal power plant. This rotor is
made up of a steel radial cylinder having the number of slots and in these slots, the field winding is placed
and these field windings are always connected in series. The advantages of this are mechanically robust,
flux distribution is uniform, operates at high speed and produces low noise.
Armature windings of alternators are different from that of DC machines. Basically, three phase
alternators carry three sets of windings arranged in the slots in such a way that there exists a phase
difference of 120° between the induced EMF in them. In a DC machine, winding is closed while in
alternators winding is open i.e., two ends of each set of the winding are brought out.

Working Principle of Alternator

All the alternators work on the principle of electromagnetic induction. According to this law, for producing
the electricity we need a conductor, magnetic field and mechanical energy. Every machine that rotates and
reproduces Alternating Current. To understand the working principle of the alternator, consider two opposite
magnetic poles north and south, and the flux is traveling between these two magnetic poles. In the figure (a)
rectangular coil is placed between the north and south magnetic poles. The position of the coil is such that the
coil is parallel to the flux, so no flux is cutting and therefore no current is induced. So that the waveform
generated in that position is Zero degrees. If the rectangular coil rotates in a clockwise direction at an axis a
and b, the conductor side A and B comes in front of the south pole and C and D come in front of a north pole
as shown in figure (b). So, now we can say that the motion of the conductor is perpendicular to the flux lines
from N to S pole and the conductor cuts the magnetic flux. At this position, the rate of flux cutting by the
conductor is maximum because the conductor and flux are perpendicular to each other and therefore the
current is induced in the conductor and this current will be in maximum position.
The conductor rotates one more time at 900 in a clockwise direction then the rectangular coil comes in the
vertical position. Now the position of the conductor and magnetic flux line is parallel to each other as shown
in figure (c). In this figure, no flux is cutting by the conductor and therefore no current is induced. In this
position, the waveform is reduced to zero degrees because the flux is not cutting.

In the second half cycle, the conductor is continued to rotate in a clockwise direction for another 900. So here
the rectangular coil comes to a horizontal position in such a way that the conductor A and B comes in front of
the north pole, C and D come in front of the south pole as shown in the figure (d). Again the current will flow
through the conductor that is currently induced in the conductor A and B is from point B to A and in
conductor C and D is from point D to C, so the waveform produced in opposite direction, and reaches to the
maximum value. Then the direction of the current indicated as A, D, C and B as shown in figure (d). If the
rectangular coil again rotates in another 900 then the coil reaches the same position from where the rotation is
started. Therefore, the current will again drop to zero.

This is the process of producing the current and EMF of a single-phase.

Now for producing 3 phases, the coils are placed at the displacement of 1200 each. So the process of producing the
current is the same as the single-phase but only the difference is the displacement between three phases is 1200. This is
the working principle of an alternator.