. How does extrusion differ from rolling and forging?

Forging is a basic process in which the workpiece is shaped by

compressive forces applied through various
dies and tooling.
Rolling is the process of reducing the thickness or changing the cross
section of a long workpiece by compressive forces applied through a set
of rolls
In simple extrusion, a cylindrical billet is forced through a
die (Fig. 15.1) in a manner similar to squeezing toothpaste from a tube.
A wide variety of solid or hollow
cross sections can be produced by extrusion, which basically are
semifinished products

2 Explain the difference between extrusion and drawing.

Extrusion and drawing have numerous applications in manufacturing
continuous as well as discrete products from a wide variety of metals
and alloys. In simple extrusion, a cylindrical billet is forced through a
die (Fig. 15.1) in a manner similar to squeezing toothpaste from a tube.
A wide variety of solid or hollow
cross sections can be produced by extrusion, which basically are
semifinished products
A characteristic of extrusion (from the Latin extrudere, meaning to force
out) is that large deformations
can take place without fracture, because the material is under high
triaxial compressive stresses (see Section
2.2.8). Since the die geometry remains unchanged throughout the
process, extruded products typically have
a constant cross section along their length

In drawing, developed between 1000 and 1500 A.D., the cross section
of a solid rod, wire, or tubing
is reduced or changed in shape by pulling it through a die. Drawn rods
are used for shafts, spindles, and
small pistons and as the raw material for fasteners such as rivets, bolts,
and screws. In addition to round
rods, various profiles also can be drawn
3. What is a dead-metal zone?
Note the dead-metal zone in Fig. 15.6b and c, where the metal at the
corners essentially remains stationary.

Define the terms (a) cladding, (b) dummy block, (c) shear dies,
(d) skull, and (e) canning.
dummy block, shown in the
figure, is to protect the tip of the pressing stem, particularly in hot
extrusion.
In indirect extrusion, also called reverse, inverted, or backward
extrusion, the die moves toward the stationary billet (Fig. 15.3a).
Indirect extrusion has the advantage of having no billet–container
friction, since
there is no relative motion; thus, it is used on materials with very high
friction, such as high-strength steels.
In hydrostatic extrusion (Fig. 15.3b), the billet is smaller in diameter
than the container, which is filled
with a fluid, and the pressure is transmitted to the fluid by a ram. The
fluid pressure imparts triaxial compressive stresses on the billet, thus
improving its formability (see Section 2.2.8). Furthermore, there is much
less workpiece–container friction than in direct extrusion. A less
common type of extrusion is lateral (or side)
extrusion (Fig. 15.3c)

Die design requires considerable experience, as can be appreciated by

reviewing Fig. 15.7.
Square dies, also called shear dies, are used in extruding nonferrous
metals, especially aluminum. These
dies develop dead-metal zones

shear dies, are used in extruding nonferrous metals, especially

aluminum. These
dies develop dead-metal zones, which in turn form an effective die
angle
As a result, a thin shell (skull), consisting mainly of the outer
oxidized layer of the billet, is left in the container; it is later removed
from the chamber.
a thin-walled container made of a softer and lower strength metal, such
as copper
or mild steel; this procedure is called jacketing or canning

Cladding in extrusion refers to the process of applying a layer of

one material onto the surface of another material using the
extrusion technique. This process is commonly used in industries
where the properties of one material need to be combined with
those of another to achieve specific performance characteristics.

5. Why is glass a good lubricant in hot extrusion?

Glass (Section 8.4) is
an excellent lubricant for hot extrusion of steels, stainless steels, and
high-temperature metals and alloys.
In a process developed in the 1940s and known as the S´ ejournet
process, a circular glass or fiberglass pad
is placed in the chamber at the die entrance. The hot billet conducts heat
to the glass pad, whereupon a
thin layer of glass melts, is entrained, and acts as a lubricant. Before the
hot billet is directly placed in the
chamber, its cylindrical surface is coated with a layer of powdered glass,
to develop a thin glass lubricant
layer at the billet–chamber interface.
6. What types of defects may occur in (a) extrusion and (b)
drawing?

Surface Cracking. If extrusion temperature, friction, and speed are too

high, surface temperatures can
rise significantly, which may cause surface cracking and tearing (fir-tree
cracking or speed cracking). These
cracks are intergranular (along the grain boundaries; see Fig. 2.27), and
usually are caused by hot shortness
(Section 1.5.2). Such defects occur especially in aluminum, magnesium,
and zinc alloys; they can be avoided
by lowering the billet temperature and the extrusion speed.
Surface cracking may occur also at lower temperatures, attributed to
periodic sticking of the extruded
part along the die land. Because of its similarity in appearance to the
surface of a bamboo stem, it is known
as a bamboo defect. The explanation is that, when the product being
extruded temporarily sticks to the die
land (see Fig. 15.7), the extrusion pressure increases rapidly; shortly
thereafter, it moves forward again, and
the pressure is released. The cycle is repeated continually, producing
periodic circumferential cracks on the
surface.
Pipe. The type of metal-flow pattern in extrusion shown in Fig. 15.6c
tends to draw surface oxides and
impurities toward the center of the billet, much like a funnel. This defect
is known as pipe defect, tailpipe,
or fishtailing; as much as one-third of the length of the extruded product
may contain this type of defect,
and has to be cut off as scrap. Piping can be minimized by modifying the
flow pattern to be more uniform,
such as by controlling friction and minimizing temperature gradients
within the part. Another method is
to machine the billet’s surface prior to extrusion (so that scale and
surface impurities are removed) or by
chemical etching of the surface oxides prior to extrusion.
Internal Cracking. The center of the extruded product can develop
cracks, variously called center cracking,
center-burst, arrowhead fracture, or chevron cracking (Fig. 15.16a).
Cracking has been attributed to a state of
hydrostatic tensile stress that develops at the centerline in the
deformation zone in the die (Fig. 15.16b); this
condition is similar to the necked region in a tensile-test specimen (see
Fig. 2.23). Such cracks also have been
observed in tube extrusion and in tube spinning (see Fig. 16.49b and c),
appearing on the inside surfaces of
tubes. The tendency for center cracking (a) increases with increasing die
angle, (b) increases with increasing
amount of impurities in the material, and (c) decreases with increasing
extrusion ratio and friction
typical defects in a drawn rod or wire are similar to those observed in
extrusion, especially center cracking
(see Fig. 15.16). Another major type of defect in drawing is seams,
which are longitudinal folds in the drawn
product. Seams may later open up during subsequent forming
operations, such as upsetting, heading,
thread rolling, or bending of the rod or wire, and may cause serious
quality-control problems. Various other
surface defects, such as scratches and die marks, may be due to improper
selection of process parameters,
poor lubrication, or poor die condition.
Because they undergo nonuniform deformation during drawing, cold-
drawn products usually have
7. Describe the difference between direct and reverse extrusion
Direct Extrusion, sometimes called Forward Extrusion, is the
most common type of extrusion. As shown in the figure below, the
process begins by loading a heated billet (only for hot extrusion,
discussed later) into a press cavity container where a dummy
block is placed behind it. Then the mechanical or hydraulic ram
presses on the material to push it out through the die. Then, while
still hot, the part is stretched to straighten. This process is
beautifully animated by Core Materials. Under direct extrusion,
the high friction caused by steels at higher temperatures is
reduced using molten glass as a lubricant while oils with graphite
powder are used for lubrication for low temperatures. The dummy
block protects the tip of the pressing stem (punch or ram) in hot
extrusion. When the punch reaches the end of its stroke, a small
portion of the billet called the “butt end” cannot be pushed through
the die opening
In Indirect Extrusion, the die is located at the end of the
hydraulic ram and moves towards the billet inside the cavity to
push the material through the die. This is illustrated in figure 2
below.

Figure 3 – In-direct
extrusion (source: Kalpakjian & Schmid)
This process consumes less power due to the static billet
container causing less friction on the billet. However, supporting
the extruded part is difficult when the extrudate exits the die.

8. It is possible to extrude straight gears; can helical gears also be

extruded? Explain

Yes, helical gears can also be extruded, but with some key
differences compared to extruding straight gears.

Straight Gear Extrusion:

 Straight gears have teeth that are parallel to the axis of

rotation.
 The extrusion process for straight gears is relatively simple.
A gear blank with the desired profile (typically involute) is
pushed through a die that shapes the teeth.
 The die essentially acts like a cookie cutter, forming the gear
teeth as the blank material is forced through.

Helical Gear Extrusion:

 Helical gears have teeth that are angled relative to the axis
of rotation. This creates a smoother, quieter operation
compared to straight gears.
 Extruding helical gears is more complex than straight gears
due to the helical angle.
 A specialized extrusion die with a matching helical profile is
required.
 The extrusion process may involve a mandrel (a rod)
inserted through the center of the gear blank to maintain its
shape and guide the material flow during extrusion.
 Some extrusion techniques for helical gears involve a
rotating die or a rotating mandrel to achieve the helical
pattern on the teeth.

8 What is impact extrusion?

Impact extrusion is similar to indirect extrusion, and the process often is
included in the cold-extrusion
category. The punch descends rapidly on the blank (slug), which is
extruded backwards (Fig. 15.14). Because
of volume constancy, the thickness of the tubular extruded region is a
function of the clearance between the
punch and the die cavity.
Typical products made by this process are shown in Fig. 15.15a to c.
Other examples are collapsible
tubes, some cylindrical computer housings, light fixtures, automotive
parts, and small pressure vessels.
Most nonferrous metals can be impact extruded in vertical presses and at
production rates as high as two
parts per second.
The maximum diameter of parts made is about 150 mm. The impact-
extrusion process can produce
thin-walled tubular sections, with thickness-to-diameter ratios as small
low as 0.005
10. What is the pipe
defect in
extrusion?

Pipe. The type of metal-flow pattern in extrusion shown in Fig. 15.6c

tends to draw surface oxides and
impurities toward the center of the billet, much like a funnel. This defect
is known as pipe defect, tailpipe,
or fishtailing; as much as one-third of the length of the extruded product
may contain this type of defect,
and has to be cut off as scrap. Piping can be minimized by modifying the
flow pattern to be more uniform,
such as by controlling friction and minimizing temperature gradients
within the part. Another method is
to machine the billet’s surface prior to extrusion (so that scale and
surface impurities are removed) or by
chemical etching of the surface oxides prior to extrusion.
11 List the similarities and differences between direct
extrusion

and drawing

Similarities:

 Both are plastic deformation processes: Both direct

extrusion and drawing involve forcing a material through a
shaping tool (die) to achieve a desired cross-sectional
profile.
 Work hardening: The material experiences work hardening
as it is forced through the die, increasing its strength but also
reducing its ductility.
 Applications: Both processes are used to create various
shapes and products from a wide range of metals, plastics,
and other materials. Examples include tubes, rods, wires,
and various profiles.

Differences:

Feature Direct Extrusion Drawing

Pre-shaped bar or
Material Form Solid billet rod (often pre-
extruded)
Ram pushes the Material is pulled
Force Application material through the through the die by a
die drawing force
Die is typically Die is typically
Die Location stationary at the end attached to the
of the container moving draw ram
Material flow is
Material flows in the
opposite to the
Metal Flow same direction as
direction of the draw
the ram movement
ram
Reduction Ratio Can achieve Typically achieves
 moderate to high
higher reductions in
reductions in cross-
cross-sectional area
sectional area
Surface finish can
Generally, better
be good, but may
Surface Finish surface finish due to
require additional
compressive forces
processing
Can create a wider Typically limited to
Wall Thickness range of wall creating thinner
thicknesses walls
More versatile for Often used for
creating complex producing wires,
Applications
shapes and hollow rods, tubes, and
profiles simple shapes
12. The extrusion ratio, die geometry, extrusion speed, and
billet

temperature all affect the extrusion pressure. Explain why.

extrusion ratio, R (ratio of the cross-sectional area of the billet to that of

the extruded part, Ao/Af); additional
processing variables are the billet temperature, the speed at which
13. What is the function of a stripper plate in impact extrusion?
A plate (solid or movable) used to strip the workpiece or part from the
punch. It may also guide the stock by holding the workpiece down
during a press operation.
Figure 15.14: Schematic illustration of the impact-extrusion process.
The extruded parts are stripped by the
use of a stripper plate, because they tend to stick to the punch