Fisika Atmosfer (Atmospheric Physics)

Atmospheric dynamics: The planetary boundary layer

Dr.Techn. Marzuki dan Mutya Vonnisa, M.Sc

Departemen Fisika-FMIPA Universitas Andalas

 Last Week
• The conservation of vorticity (curl of the wind field)
expresses the conservation of angular momentum
• The absolute vorticity (sum of relative vorticity and
coriolis parameter) also considers the rotation of the
Earth
• The vorticity follows a continuity equation (the vorticity
equation) with the curl of the external force field as
source term
• The potential vorticity (PV) is an important concept in
atmospheric dynamics. It connects the continuity
equation with the vorticity equation and is also valid for
vertical movements
• PV is a conserved quantity in a barotropic atmosphere
Ruang lingkup perkuliahan
1. Outline, literature, rule and introduction
2. Vertical structure of the atmosphere
3. Adiabatic processes - Vertical stability
4. Atmospheric radiation: Absorption, scattering, emission
5. Atmospheric radiation: The energy budget of the atmosphere
6. Atmospheric dynamics: Navier-Stokes equation, continuity equation
7. Atmospheric dynamics: Pressure gradients and wind fields, thermal wind
8. Atmospheric dynamics: Vorticity
9. Atmospheric dynamics: The planetary boundary layer
10. Atmospheric circulation: Global circulation patterns, planetary waves
11. Atmospheric circulation: Pressure systems, Hadley cell
12. Diffusion and turbulence: Molecular diffusion, basics of turbulence
13. Diffusion and turbulence: Theorem of Taylor, correlated fluctuations
14. Diffusion and turbulence: Diffusion of scalar tracers
15. Near-surface dynamics: Wind profile, influence of surface friction
16. The Hydrological Cycle
17. Climate Change
18. Strat. Chemistry: Chapman Cycle
19. Strat. Chemistry: Ozone in the atmosphere
20. Aeorosol Physics I: Aeorosol Mechanics
21. Aeorosol Physics II: Particle Formation, Particle Growth
22. Measurement Techniques
23. Modeling the Atmosphere
24. Science trip (Equatorial Atmosphere Radar site-Bukittinggi)
 Characterisation of the
Planetary Boundary Layer (PBL)
• The PBL is the part of the atmosphere which is in direct contact to the
Earth‘s (or ocean) surface
• Here the exchange of scalar tracers (heat, momentum, gases) between
surface and atmosphere occurs
• The lowermost layer (thickness in the order of mm) is governed by
molecular diffusion
-> Molecular- viscous layer
• Above the molecular-viscous layer, turbulence is the dominant transport
process
• Size of eddies increases with altitude
• What is the flux from the surface to the free atmosphere above the PBL?
How does it depend on
– Shear stress
– Temperature profile and vertical stability
– Surface roughness
• General definition of the PBL:
The layer which is influenced by surface friction
In this layer, the shear stress τ = -ρ u* 2 is nearly constant with altitude
Boundary Layer in a Wind Tunnel
Seeds Dispersed in Olive Oil

http://efd.safl.umn.edu/research/wind_tunnel/
 Boundary Layer
on the Wing of an Aircraft
 Boundary Layer on a Ship

Shaded areas:
Vorticity

Contour lines:
Axial velocity

http://www.iihr.uiowa.edu/~shiphydro/cfd_IG_5512_forward_speed_diffraction.htm
Structure of
the PBL

Classification by shear stress:

• Molecular-viscous layer (z ~ mm):

– v(z=0) = 0
– τ = -ρ υ ∂vx/ ∂z ≡const
• Prandtl layer (z ~ 10-100 m):
– τ = -ρ K ∂vx/ ∂z = -ρ u* 2 ≡ const; K = K(z)
• Ekman layer (z ~ 1 km):
– τ linearly decreasing with altitude
• Free atmosphere (z > 1 km):
– τ≈ 0
 Wind Profile in the PBL (1)
• In the free atmosphere (free of friction), low p Fp
the wind is geostrophic (i.e., parallel to
isobars due to the competition between vg
pressure gradient and Coriolis force) high p FC
• At the surface, friction will cause a low p Fp
deviation of the wind direction from vr
geostrophic solution (flow from high to FR
low pressure) vg

high p FC
• Consequences:
– wind speed increases with altitude 165 m 330 m

– wind direction canges with altitude 0 m

500 m

in form of a spiral, the so-called

750 m

Ekman Spiral V g e o s tro p h is c h

950 m
 Vertical Wind Profile in the Boundary Layer
- Stable conditions -
Very close to the surface the wind velocity is determined by molecular friction
(kinematic viscosity υ), the velocity profile is linear:

 xz ≡−ρ u =−ρν dvx =const u*2

2
⇒ v x (z) = z
*
dz ν
Re(z)=
2
vxz −4 m
From z ≈1 mm turbulence sets in: >1000, ν≈1.5⋅10
ν s
In the turbulent regime we set:
dvx
 xz =−ρ K z =−ρ u*2
dz
The “Turbulent Diffusion Constant” K will certainly increase with height,
since close to the surface only small eddies can exist (c.f. Kolmogorow
– theory).
We thus assume: K z =κ u* z with κ ≈0.4 von Kármán constant
Vertical Wind Profile in the Boundary Layer - 2
Vertical wind velocity – profile:

dv x
=
ρ u*2 u*2 u*
= =
dz Kz κ u* z κ z
After integration we obtain vx(z)
under the assumption that
τ = ρ u*2 = const:
z
⎛z ⎞
v x (z) = ∫ dz = ln⎟ ⎟
u * u *

z
κz κ ⎝z0 ⎠
0

with the Roughness Parameter z0

depending on the surface properties.
For aerodynamically smooth surface s,
z0 is given by z0 ≈ υ/9u*
 Vertical Wind Profile in the Boundary
Layer - 3
• Usually the surface wind is driven by the wind in the free
atmosphere
• Assume that the velocity vr(zr) at a refererence altitude zr
is known (e.g., geostrophic wind)
• Thus we have:
u * ⎛z r ⎟
⎞ u * ⎛z ⎞
vr (z r ) = ln⎟ and v x (z) = ln⎟ ⎟
κ ⎝z0 ⎠ κ ⎝z0 ⎠
• With u* = const this yields:

ln (z / z0 )
v(z) =v r
ln (z r / z0 )
 Wind Profiles for Different Surface Roughness
Rough surfaces:
1) Earth surface no longer reference height -> Zero Point displacement d
2) Interpret integration constant as „Roughness Parameter“ z0

u* ⎛z −d ⎞
v (z )= ln ⎟ ⎟
κ ⎝ 0 ⎠
z

Surface z0 /mm
snow 0.1 - 1

grass 1 - 10

cereals 50 - 100

forest 500-1000

city 1000-5000
z0=10-2 mm z0=1 mm z0=100 mm
 Transition of Wind Profiles
Change of vertical wind profile at the
boundary rough -> smooth surface

• An ‚inner boundary
layer‘ forms as a
transition between both
wind profiles
• The upward
propagation of this
inner boundary can be
described by turbulent
diffusion
• Height of boundary
rough smooth given by implicit
equation (see Roedel):
x
ζ (x) =const
ln (ζ (x) z 0 )
 The non-neutral PBL
• For the neutral PBL, measurement of wind
profile is sufficient for a complete description of
dynamics
• This is not valid anymore if the PBL is
– Unstable: increased vertical exchange, larger
diffusion coefficients, smaller gradients
– Stable: reduced vertical exchange, stronger
gradients, eventually (during strong inversions)
complete surpression of turbulent mixing
• In these cases, the buoancy of air parcels in
relation to shear forces needs to be
considered
 The non-neutral PBL
Bouyant forces
• Buoyant forces Fb due to turbulence are caused by
density fluctuations:
ρ =ρ +ρ' and thus Fb =−ρ' g and dW =−g ρ' dz'

• Thus the turbulent power density (per volume) due to

buoancy is:
ε A = dW =−g ρ' dz' =−g ρ'v' z
dt dt
• Density fluctuations are caused by:
– Temperature fluctuations
– Fluctuations in water vapour content
(due to the smaller density of moist air, not due to the release of
latent heat!)
 The non-neutral PBL
Bouyant forces
• Express density fluctuations as fluctuations of the
potential temperature
θ'
• Since ρ = const/θ , we have ρ '=− ρ
θ
• Thus the turbulent power density becomes:

g ρθ'v' z gH
ε A =−g ρ'v' z = =
θ cp θ

with the turbulent heat flux H =ρ c p θ'v' z

 The non-neutral PBL
Shear stress
• Work done due to shear stress per unit area is dW = τ dx
• Thus the power per unit area (= Energy flux) is
dW dx
=τ =τ v x =−ρ u*2 v x
dt dt

• The negative divergence of the energy flux yields the

power (energy production) per volume due to shear
stress:
d 2W 2 dv x
εs =− =ρ u *
dt dz dz
 The non-neutral PBL
Shear stress
• For neutral conditions, we had (logarithmic wind profile)
dv x u*
=
dz κ z
• For the general case of non-neutral conditions,
a correction function Φ(H, u*, z) is introduced:
dv x u*
= Φ(H ,u* , z)
dz κ z
with
current gradient of wind velocity
Φ(H ,u* , z) =
gradient of wind velocity for neutral conditions
• Thus the energy production due to shear stress becomes
2 dv x ρ u*3
ε s = ρ u* = Φ(H ,u* , z)
dz κz
 The non-neutral PBL
Richardson Number and Monin-Obuchow length
• The Flux-Richardson number is defined as the negative ratio of energy
production rates due to thermal forces and due to shear stress:
εA
R f =−
εs
• Sign of Rf:
– Rf > 0 for stable conditions
– Rf = 0 for neutral conditions
– Rf < 0 for labile conditions
• It has been shown empirically that Rf
and Φ only depend on altitiude z and a
scale length called
Monin-Obuchow Length L*:
z
Rf =
L* θ(z / L* )
• L* is (in first approximation) independent Monin-Obuchow length as a
function of 10 m wind speed
from altitude
and turbulent heat flux
 The non-neutral PBL
Richardson Number
• The Flux-Richardson number is difficult to measure (simultaneous
measurement of heat flux and shear stress).
• A quantity more easy to measure (only temperature and wind speed
profile necessary) is the Richardson-Number, given by
g (dθ / dz )
Ri =
θ (dv x / dz )2
• The Richardson-Number is related to the Flux-Richardson number
vial the ratio of turbulent diffusion coefficients for heat and
momentum, Kh and K, respectively:

KH
RF =Ri
K
Labile Stable
 The non-neutral PBL
Richardson Number as a Funciton of z/L*
 The non-neutral PBL
Turbulent Diffusion Coefficient
• The diffusion coefficient for momentum can be obtained from the
definition of shear stress
dv x
τ =−ρ u*2 =−ρ K
dz
and the vertical wind profile:
dv x u*
= Φ(z / L* )
dz κ z
yielding:

κ u* z
K=
Φ(z / L* ) Labile Stable
Characterisation of Vertical Exchange

Stratification

stable neutral labile

Convective Energy Produktion Rate εA - 0 +
Turbulent Heat Flux H - 0 +
Monin-Obuchow-Length L* + ∞ -
Richardson-Number Rf, Ri + 0 -
 Influence of Water Vapour
on Vertical Stability
• So far, we have only considered the release of latent heat on vertical
stability
• Even without condensation water vapour also influences vertical
stability because moist air is less dense than dry air
M air
• Ratio of molar masses of air and water vapour: ≈1.61
Mw

• Density fluctuations under consideration of water vapour with

density ρw:

dρ dρ ρ ⎛ M air ⎞ ρ
ρ' = θ'+ ⎟
ρ' w =− θ'+⎟
1− ⎟
⎟ρ' w =− θ'−0.61 ρ' w
dθ dρw θ ⎝ MW ⎠ θ
 Influence of Water Vapour on Vertical Stability
• The density fluctuations of moist air lead to energy production due to buoyancy
forces:
⎡ρ θ'v' +0.61 ρ' v' ⎤
ε A =−g ρ'v' z =g ⎟ z⎟
⎣θ z w
⎦

• The first term in brackets desribes the flux of sensible heat, for which we had already
inferred
ρ θ'v' = H
θ z
cp θ
• The last term in brackets describes the turbulent flux of latent heat with the
evaporation heat L:
H l =ρ'w v' z L
• Thus the turbulent energy production rate becomes
⎡H Hl ⎤
ε A =g ⎟ θ'v' z +0.61 ⎟
⎟
⎣cp θ L⎟ ⎦

• Over land: Hl ≈ H, contribution of water vapour to production of turbulent energy only

several percent
• Over ocean: Hl ≈ 9H, contribution of water vapour to production of turbulent energy
similar to contribution of thermal convection
 Summary
• The planetary boundary layer is the layer where surface friction has
an impact (τ ≠ 0). It can be subdivided into different regimes:
– Molecular-viscous layer governed by molecular diffusion
– Prandl- layer, where shear stress is constant with altitude
– Ekman- layer, where shear stress decreases with altitude
(until it is zero in the free atmosphere)
• Basic assumption: Turbulent diffusion coefficient is proportional to
altitude -> Logarithmic wind profile
• Stability of boundary layer can be inferred from Richardson Number,
i.e. ratio of energy production rates due to shear stress and due to
thermal forces and shear stress
• Dynamics can be described by the dimensionless parameter z/L*
where L* is a scale parameter called Monin-Obuchow length.
• Water vapour has an impact on vertical stability not only due to the
release of latent heat, but also due to its lower density