PRACTICAL'S

Paper 3 Section A
 1) CALCULATION OF MAGNIFICATION OF DRAWINGS, ACTUAL SIZE OF
STRUCTURES FROM DRAWINGS OR MICROGRAPHS.

•Calculation of Magnification:
To calculate the linear magnification of a drawing or image, the
following equation should be used:
Magnification = Image size (with ruler)
Actual size (according to scale bar)
 1) CALCULATION OF MAGNIFICATION OF DRAWINGS, ACTUAL
SIZE OF STRUCTURES FROM DRAWINGS OR MICROGRAPHS.

•Calculation of Actual Size:

•To calculate the actual size of a magnified specimen, the
equation is simply rearranged:
•Actual Size = Image size (with ruler)
Magnification
 2) ESTIMATION OF OSMOLARITY IN TISSUES

• Osmolarity is a measure of solute concentration Example: Salt or Sugar

• Solutions with a relatively higher osmolarity are categorised as hypertonic

(high solute concentration ⇒ gains water)
• Solutions with a relatively lower osmolarity are categorised as hypotonic
(low solute concentration ⇒ loses water)
• Solutions that have the same osmolarity are categorised as isotonic
(same solute concentration ⇒ no net water flow)
2) ESTIMATION OF OSMOLARITY IN TISSUES
 3) INVESTIGATION OF A FACTOR AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY

•When designing an experiment to test the effect of factors

affecting enzyme activity, the three key decisions to be made
are:
1. Which factor to investigate (i.e. the independent variable)
2. Which enzyme / substrate reaction to use
3. How to measure the enzyme activity (i.e. the dependent
variable)
 3) INVESTIGATION OF A FACTOR AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY

•Choosing the Independent Variable

•The main factors which will affect the activity of an enzyme on a
given substrate are:
1. Temperature (use water baths to minimise fluctuations)
2. pH (acidic or alkaline solutions)
3. Substrate concentration (choose range to avoid saturation)
4. Presence of inhibitor (type of inhibitor will be enzyme-specific)
 3) INVESTIGATION OF A FACTOR AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY

•Selecting an Enzyme and Substrate

•Examples of common enzyme-catalysed reactions include:
 3) INVESTIGATION OF A FACTOR AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY

•Measuring Enzyme Activity

•The method of data collection will depend on the reaction
occurring – typically most reactions are measured according to:
1. The amount / rate of substrate decomposition (e.g. breakdown
of starch)
2. The amount / rate of product formation (e.g. formation of
maltose)
 3) INVESTIGATION OF A FACTOR AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY

Key things to consider

when conducting an
experimental inves
 4) SEPARATION OF PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS BY
CHROMATOGRAPHY

• Chromatography is an experimental technique by which mixtures can

be separated
• A mixture is dissolved in a fluid (called the mobile phase) and passed
through a static material (called the stationary phase)
• The different components of the mixture travel at different speeds,
causing them to separate
• A retardation factor can then be calculated (Rf value = distance
component travels ÷ distance solvent travels)
 4) SEPARATION OF PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS BY
CHROMATOGRAPHY

• Two of the most common techniques for separating photosynthetic

pigments are:

1. Paper chromatography – uses paper (cellulose) as the stationary bed

2. Thin layer chromatography – uses a thin layer of adsorbent (e.g. silica
gel) which runs faster and has better separation
4) SEPARATION OF PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS BY
CHROMATOGRAPHY
4) SEPARATION OF PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS BY
CHROMATOGRAPHY
4) SEPARATION OF PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS BY
CHROMATOGRAPHY
4) SEPARATION OF PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS BY
CHROMATOGRAPHY
4) SEPARATION OF PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS BY
CHROMATOGRAPHY
 5) ATTEMPTING TO CREATE A SEALED MESOCOSM

Selecting the right plants

Ideally, choose plants that are both slow growing and thrive in a bit of humidity (e.g. most
ferns, club moss, etc.)
Inspect the plant thoroughly for any signs of disease or insects before introducing to the
terrarium

Maintaining appropriate conditions

Ensure the terrarium is placed in a location that provides a continuous source of light
Locate the terrarium in a place that does not experience fluctuating temperature
conditions (i.e. avoid direct sunlight)
Do not initially over-water the plants – once the right humidity is established, a terrarium
can go months without watering
Occasional pruning may be required – however, as level of soil nutrients decrease, plant
growth should slow down
 5) ATTEMPTING TO CREATE A SEALED MESOCOSM

Advantage:
can be controlled or combined to separate and understand the underlying
mechanism(s) affecting the growth or survival of species, populations or communities of
interest.
• By manipulating gradients (e.g., climate variables) mesocosm studies can extend
beyond available data helping to build better models of the effects of different
scenarios.
• Can be replicated with different treatment levels.
Disadvantages:
• limited amount of space.
• not adequately imitating the environment, causing the organism to avoid giving off a certain
 6) MONITORING OF VENTILATION AT REST AND AFTER MILD AND
VIGOROUS EXERCISE.

• Ventilation in humans changes in response to levels of physical activity, as the body’s

energy demands are increased ATP production (via cellular respiration) produces carbon
dioxide as a waste product (and may consume oxygen aerobically). Changes in blood CO2
levels are detected by chemosensors in the walls of the arteries which send signals to the
brainstem
• As exercise intensity increases, so does the demand for gas exchange, leading to an
increase in levels of ventilation

Exercise will influence ventilation in two main ways:

• Increase ventilation rate (a greater frequency of breaths allows for a more continuous
exchange of gases)
• Increase tidal volume (increasing the volume of air taken in and out per breath allows for
more air in the lungs to be exchanged)
6) MONITORING OF VENTILATION AT REST AND AFTER MILD AND
VIGOROUS EXERCISE.
 6) MONITORING OF VENTILATION AT REST AND AFTER MILD AND
VIGOROUS EXERCISE.

• Measuring Ventilation
Ventilation in humans can be monitored in a number of ways:
1. Via simple observation (counting number of breaths per minute)
2. Chest belt and pressure meter (recording the rise and fall of the chest)
3. Spirometer (recording the volume of gas expelled per breath)
 6) MONITORING OF VENTILATION AT REST AND AFTER MILD AND
VIGOROUS EXERCISE.

• Spirometry involves measuring the amount (volume) and / or speed (flow) at which air
can be inhaled or exhaled
• A spirometer is a device that detects the changes in ventilation and presents the data
on a digital display
• A more simplistic method involves breathing into a balloon and measuring the volume
of air in a single breath
• The volume of air can be determined by submerging the balloon in water and
measuring the volume displaced (1ml = 1cm3)
6) MONITORING OF VENTILATION AT REST AND AFTER MILD AND
VIGOROUS EXERCISE.
 7) MEASUREMENT OF TRANSPIRATION RATES USING PHOTOMETERS

• A potometer is a device that is used to estimate transpiration rates by measuring the rate
of water loss / uptake
• When a plant is affixed to the potometer, transpiration can be indirectly identified by
the movement of water towards the plant
• This water movement can be assessed as a change in meniscus level or by the
movement of an air bubble towards the plant
• The initial starting position of the meniscus or air bubble can be adjusted by introducing
additional water from a reservoir
• When measuring transpiration rates with a potometer, it is important to remember that
not all water is lost to transpiration
• A small amount of water (~2%) is used in photosynthesis and to maintain the viable
turgidity of plant cells
MEASURING TRANSPIRATION RATE WITH A POTOMETER