CHAPTER 1

Politics, as a subject matter, constitutes a crucial component in understanding contemporary

social existence. It is a multifaceted phenomenon that manifests across various levels of
human engagement. From diplomatic negotiations shaping global affairs to governance
within nation-states and even the dynamics of power relations in local communities, the
study of politics offers invaluable insights into the mechanisms through which societies
function and evolve.
This introductory section serves as a gateway to understanding the importance of political
science, particularly for undergraduate students embarking on their academic journey.
Through the exploration of political science, students are equipped with the
analytical tools necessary to appreciate the complexities of contemporary social life. By
delving into the intricate dynamics of political systems, institutions, behaviours, and
processes, students will gain a deeper understanding of the mechanisms driving societal
change and transformation.
This textbook specifically caters to the Nigerian context, offering a comprehensive overview
of the Nigerian political landscape. As Africa's most populous nation and a key player on the
continent's political stage, Nigeria presents a rich example of political intricacies and
challenges. Throughout this book, readers can expect to embark on a journey that navigates
through the fundamental concepts, theories, and empirical analyses that constitute the field
of political science. From exploring the nature and scope of political science to delving into
key themes such as power, governance, democracy, and citizenship, this textbook provides a
comprehensive foundation for understanding the intricacies of political life.
What is politics?
Aristotle, often regarded as the father of political science, articulated the idea that "man is a
political animal" (Aristotle, 350 B.C.E,), emphasising the intrinsic connection between human
beings and the political realm. This assertion underscores that human
existence is inherently political, with individuals engaging in interactions within
institutionalised structures to resolve conflicts and pursue collective objectives.
Below are some popular scholarly definitions of politics:

*i* "Politics is who gets what, when, and how." Harold Lasswell. This definition highlights the
distribution of power and resources in society and emphasises the process of decision-
making and resource allocation.
*ii* "Politics is the authoritative allocation of values for a society." David Easton. According to
Easton, politics involves the exercise of authority to determine the distribution of societal
values, which can include economic, social, and cultural resources.
*iii* "Politics is the process that determines the authoritative allocation of values in society."
Robert Dahl. Dahl's definition emphasises the process of decision-making and the exercise
of authority to allocate societal values, which can range from tangible resources to intangible
benefits and rights.
iv Aristotle defined politics in his seminal work titled
*iv* "Politics as the study of the "science of the state." He viewed politics not merely as
governance but as the systematic analysis and inquiry into the organisation, functioning, and
purpose of the state.
*V*. "Politics is the striving to share power or to influence the distribution of power, either
among states or among groups within a state." Max Weber's definition highlights the pursuit
of power and influence, both at the international level among states and within a state among
different groups or individuals.
These definitions offer different perspectives on politics, focusing on aspects such as power
distribution, value allocation, decision-making processes, and the relationship between
individuals, groups, and the state. Politics is a complex and multifaceted field that can be
studied from different perspectives. It can be viewed as a means of resolving conflicts and
setting collective goals in institutionalised settings. It is also seen as a process of
competitive claims-making by rival parties to mobilise support to put programmes into
action. Overall, politics is a critical aspect of human society, shaping the way individuals and
groups interact and make decisions within their communities and beyond.
Politics is the science and process of accessing, allocating, sharing, and influencing power
and values among different actors and entities within a society. It encompasses various
aspects of decision-making, conflict resolution, and power dynamics among individuals and
groups. Politics is not limited to governmental activities but is also present in various forms
of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status.
In essence, politics can be conceptualised as the process through which individuals and
groups navigate power relations, negotiate conflicting interests, and collectively determine
the distribution of resources and authority within a given social context. It involves the
exercise of influence, the pursuit of goals, and the allocation of values, often within a
framework of institutionalised norms and procedures.
In the Nigerian context, the significance of politics is particularly pronounced, given the
country's diverse ethnic composition, complex history, and evolving democratic institutions.
Nigeria's political landscape is characterised by cultural diversity, historical legacies, and
contemporary challenges, making it a compelling case study for understanding the
complexities of politics in a developing nation.
The study of politics is indispensable for understanding contemporary social life and
navigating Introduction
the complexities of human association. By exploring the intricacies of political systems,
institutions, behaviours, and processes, students are empowered to become informed
citizens capable of contributing meaningfully to the socio-political discourse of their
communities and beyond.

APPRECIATING THE ESSENCE PF POLITICAL SCIENCE

Political science stands as a pivotal academic discipline concerned with the systematic study
and analysis of politics. Its practitioners, primarily found in institutions of higher education
and governmental bodies, engage in teaching and research activities to unravel the
complexities of political phenomena. At its core, political science delves into the political
behaviour of individuals, groups, and societies, examining the factors and conditions
influencing political actors, events, and institutions.
Over time, the conception of political science's subject matter has evolved, reflecting shifts
in scholarly discourse and societal dynamics. Initially centred on the state and the
prerequisites for its formation and progression, political science gradually expanded its
scope to encompass broader perspectives. Stephen Wasby aptly noted this evolution,
describing political science as "an identifiable field of study with oft-disputed scope and
content" (Wasby, 1970). Historically, political science has predominantly focused on the
state, tracing back to Niccolo Machiavelli's endeavour to formulate a comprehensive doctrine
of governance. However, as political thought progressed, scholars began to perceive the
state not merely as a sum of official norms but as a dynamic system characterised by
competing social groups vying for power (Lasswell, 1950). Consequently, contemporary
political science emphasises the study of power relations as fundamental to understanding
political institutions, movements, and processes.
The recognition of power as a central theme in political science gained prominence in Europe
and later in the United States, shaping the discipline's trajectory. Scholars like George Catlin,
Charles Merriam, V.O. Key, Harold Lasswell, and M.A. Kaplan advocated for viewing politics
as a system of relationships revolving around power dynamics (Catlin & Merriam, 1934; Key,
1942; Lasswell, 1948).
This paradigm shift prompted a departure from traditional state-centric approaches and
paved the way for a more nuanced understanding of political phenomena.
Central to this reorientation was the conceptualization of politics as a mechanism for the
distribution of goods through decision-making processes (Hyneman, 1950). While some
scholars advocated for focusing solely on power relations within the state Or government,
others emphasised the importance of examining power dynamics among both state and non-
state actors (Lasswell & Catlin). This holistic approach underscores the intricate interplay
between formal institutions and societal actors in shaping political
outcomes.
In essence, political science offers a multifaceted lens through which to comprehend the
complexities of human governance and societal organization. By interrogating power
relations, decision-making processes, and the distribution of resources, political science
equips scholars with the analytical tools to navigate the intricacies of political life. Through
this lens, students of political science gain insights into the dynamics of governance, the role
of institutions, and the forces driving political change, thereby fostering informed civic
engagement and critical citizenship.

THE EMERGENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

The origins of political science trace back to ancient times, as humans have long observed,
evaluated, and analysed politics (Isaak, 1985). Aristotle, often regarded as the father of
political science, revered the study of politics as paramount among the arts and sciences.
The formal discipline of political science emerged later, primarily in the United States,
spurred by the expansion of state activities in developed capitalist societies during the late
19th century.
The rapid growth of state powers necessitated a deeper understanding of administrative and
sociopolitical dynamics beyond traditional juridical approaches prevalent in Europe.
Consequently, political science and sociology arose as distinct disciplines, displacing
erstwhile fields such as philosophy and jurisprudence. In the United States, political science
gained autonomy from philosophy and religion by the early 20th century, following in the
footsteps of earlier disciplines.
While political science developed later in Europe, particularly after World War II, it largely
mirrored the trajectory set by American scholars. Despite its recent institutionalisation, the
theoretical and practical study of politics dates back to ancient Greek contributions to law,
jurisprudence, and public administration.
Stoicism, for instance, influenced the philosophy of democracy, emphasising human
rationality, morality, and equality.
During the medieval ages, political philosophy was intertwined with theology, with the church
wielding considerable influence over public policy. Concepts such as world unity, ethical
constraints on political action, and the idea of a higher law originated from this era and
remain integral to modern political thought. Plato and Aristotle, regarded as the fathers of
political philosophy in the West, laid the groundwork for subsequent political science
inquiries.
In the United States, early political science scholars rejected prevailing legal theories,
advocating for a discipline tailored to American realities. They critiqued European doctrines
like the balance and division of powers theory, proposing a focus on governmental
institutions' functioning. This pragmatic approach set the stage for a distinctly American
political science.
Today, political science has matured into a globally recognised field of study, evident in the
establishment of Political Science Associations worldwide. The American Political Science
Association, founded in 1906, paved the way for international bodies like the International
Political Science Association, established in 1942, to promote political science's
development globally.
In Nigeria, the inauguration of the Nigerian Political Science Association in 1973 marked a
milestone in the discipline's local institutionalisation. The University of Nigeria, Nsukka
pioneered political science education in Nigeria, with subsequent institutions like the
University of Ibadan, Ife, Zaria, and Benin following suit. The United Nations Educational,
Scientific, and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) played a pivotal role in political science's
establishment as an autonomous discipline, further fostering its development globally.
Today, political science enjoys autonomous status in many countries, including Nigeria,
where it has become a popular major course in universities, reflecting its growing importance
in understanding and navigating contemporary political landscapes.

THE SUBFIELDS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

Political science as a discipline has several subfields or sub-disciplines. Some of these

subfields are available as undergraduate courses, and others are mostly studied at the
postgraduate level. For example, many tertiary institutions offer International Relations and
Public Administration as undergraduate courses; however, courses like Comparative Politics
and Political Economy are mostly available at the postgraduate level. While there is no
general agreement on the number of subfields, there are some generally acceptable ones
explained below:
1. Comparative Politics: Comparative Politics is a subfield of Political Science that seeks to
understand political phenomina through the comparison of political systems, institutions,
and processes across different countries. This field focuses on understanding the similarities
and differences between political systems globally, analysing how different countries
address common challenges, and exploring the impact of various political arrangements on
society. Comparative Politics examines several areas, including political culture, regime
types, elections, public policy, governance structures, and the impact of historical, social,
and economic contexts on political outcomes. Political culture refers to the shared beliefs,
values, and practices that shape the way people think about and participate in the political
process.
Regime types refer to the different forms of government, such as democracies, authoritarian
regimes, or hybrid systems. Elections and voting behaviour are also crucial areas of study, as
they help to understand the dynamics of political competition and the role of citizens in
shaping political outcomes.
Public policy and governance structures are another key focus, as they help to understand
how governments make and implement decisions that affect society. Additionally,
Comparative Politics examines the impact of historical, social, and economic contexts on
political outcomes, as these factors can shape the development and evolution of political
systems over time. Overall, the purpose of Comparative Politics is to provide a deeper
understanding of the complexities of political systems and the factors that influence their
development and outcomes.
2. International Relations:
International Relations (IR) is a subfield of Political Science that focuses on the interactions
between states, international organisations, non-state actors, and other global entities. This
field covers a wide range of topics, including diplomacy, conflict resolution, international law,
global governance, security studies, international political economy, and the role of
international institutions like the United Nations. The purpose of International Relations is to
explain the behaviour of states in the international arena, analyse the causes of war and
peace, study the dynamics of globalisation, and understand how states cooperate and
compete on the global stage. IR examines various aspects of international relations, such as
diplomacy and the role of diplomats in shaping international relations, conflict resolution and
the strategies used to prevent and resolve conflicts, international law and its impact on
global governance, security studies and the factors that influence international security,
international political economy and the role of economic factors in shaping international
relations, and the role of international institutions in promoting cooperation and resolving
disputes between states. By studying these topics, International Relations aims to provide a
deeper understanding of the complexities of international relations and the factors that
influence the behaviour of states and other global actors in the international domain.
3. Political Theory:
Political Theory is a subfield of Political Science that explores the philosophical foundations
of politics and governance. It examines classical and contemporary political thought,
theories of justice, democracy, power, authority, liberty, equality, and the role of the state in
society. The purpose of Political Theory is to deepen political thinking, analyse political
concepts, and develop normative theories that guide political action and decision-making.
Political theorists seek to understand the fundamental principles and values that underpin
political systems and the role of government in society. They examine the historical
development of political thought, from ancient philosophers to modern theorists, and
analyse the implications of different theories for contemporary political issues. Political
Theory also involves developing normative theories that provide guidelines for political
action and decision-making, such as theories of justice, democracy, and human rights. By
engaging with these theories, Political Theory aims to provide a deeper understanding of the
philosophical foundations of politics and governance and to contribute to the development of
more just, equitable, and effective political systems.
4. Public Administration:
Public Administration is a subfield of Political Science that examines the structures,
processes, and policies of government bureaucracies. This field focuses on understanding
how public services are delivered, how public servants perform their roles, and how
administrative decisions impact society and public policy outcomes. Public Administration
covers a range of topics, including public policy analysis, organisational behaviour, public
budgeting, administrative reforms, the implementation of government programmes, and the
relationship between different branches of government. The purpose of Public
Administration is to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of public services, study the
role of public servants in governance, and analyse the impact of administrative decisions on
society and public policy outcomes. Publie amanistration seeks to understand the
complexities of government bureaucracies and develop strategies for improving their
performance and accountability. It also aims to provide insights into the relationship between
public policy and administrative implementation and to contribute to the development of
more effective and responsive public institutions.
5. Public Policy:
Public Policy is a branch of Political Science that centres on the creation, execution, and
assessment of government policies. This field delves into various sectors like healthcare,
environment, education, and social welfare policies. The primary goal of Public Policy is to
comprehend the process of policy-making, its implementation, and the subsequent
evaluation, along with studying the effects these policies have on society and public welfare.
By focusing on specific policy areas, such as healthcare, environmental protection,
education, and social welfare, Public Policy seeks to analyze the challenges, successes, and
impacts of government interventions in these critical areas.
Through this examination, policymakers and analysts aim to improve the effectiveness and
efficiency of public policies, address societal needs, and enhance the overall well-being of
citizens. Public Policy plays a crucial role in shaping government actions and decisions,
ultimately influencing the quality of life and opportunities available to individuals within a
society.
6. Political Economy:
Political Economy is a field within Political Science that examines how politics and economics
intersect or influence each other. It focuses on analysing how governments impact economic
results, resource distribution, market regulations, and overall economic progress. The
primary goal of Political Economy is to understand how political institutions shape economic
outcomes and how economic factors, in turn, influence political decision-making processes.
By studying the relationship between politics and economics, Political Economy seeks to
uncover how government policies, regulations, and actions affect economic activities and
outcomes and how economic conditions can influence political choices and strategies. This
field plays a crucial role in understanding the complex interplay between political and
economic forces, providing insights into how policies and decisions in one realm can have
significant implications for the other, ultimately shaping the overall functioning and
development of societies.
7. Political Methodology:
Political Methodology is a branch of Political Science that focuses on using both quantitative
and qualitative research methods to study political phenomena. L Tevolves techniques like
statistical analysis, surveys, experiments, and case studies to gather and analyse data. The
main objective of Political Methodology is to enhance the quality of research within Political
Science by developing and applying robust and rigorous research methods and techniques.
By employing a combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches, Political
Methodology aims to provide a deeper understanding of political processes, behaviours, and
outcomes. This field plays a vital role in ensuring that research in Political Science is
methodologically sound, reliable, and capable of generating valuable insights into complex
political issues. Through the application of diverse research methods, Political Methodology
contributes to the advancement of knowledge in Political Science and helps researchers
draw more accurate and meaningful conclusions from their studies.
8. Electoral Studies:
Electoral Studies is a field within Political Science that concentrates on elections and voting
behaviour. It explores various aspects such as electoral systems, party competition, voter
turnout, political campaigns, and the influence of media on public opinion. The primary goal
of Electoral Studies is to comprehend the dynamics of elections and voting behaviour and to
analvze how these elements impact political results. By examining electoral systems, party
dynamics, voter engagement, campaign strategies, and media effects, Electoral Studies
seeks to unravel the complexities of electoral processes and understand how they shape
political outcomes. This field plays a crucial role in shedding light on the mechanisms behind
elections, voter decision-making, and the broader implications for governance and
representation. Through the study of electoral phenomena, Electoral Studies aims to provide
insights into the functioning of democratic processes and the factors that influence political
participation and decision-making.
These subfields represent the diverse and interdisciplinary nature of Political Science,
allowing scholars to specialize in specific areas of interest while also providing a holistic
understanding of politics and governance.
The Role of Political Scientists
A political scientist, in essence, is an individual equipped with the methodologies and
techniques for systematically studying political life, with expertise in One or more areas of
substantive political concern. whether they hold a PhD in politica science or no, Whether
minters is their knowledge and how they apply it.
The Political Scientist as a Teacher: Particularly in developing countries like Nigeria, the role
of political scientists in educating the youth is paramount. While research and writing are
important endeavours, dedicated teaching is equally crucial. Tomorrow's political scientists
deserve robust teaching that instils solid understanding and inspires critical thinking,
Therefore, political scientists in developing countries must devote significant time and
energy to teaching, considering it their highest and noblest function.
The Role of Political Scientists as Researchers:
Political scientists engage in two main types of research: one aimed at enhancing teaching
effectiveness and another focused on advancing knowledge within their specialization.
Conducting research specific to their own countries is vital for political scientists in
developing nations, as relying solely on external perspectives may result in incomplete of
inaccurate understandings of local politics. Balancing heavy teaching loads with research
responsibilities poses challenges, but it is essential for producing rigorous scholarship
grounded in local
contexts. Community and Public Service Role of the Political Scientist: Political scientists are
members of political communities at various levels and may participate in community
activities, serve in appointive or elective roles, or offer expert services. While participation in
politics can enhance the effectiveness and growth of political scientists, assuming partisan
elective office may compromise academic objectivity.
Therefore, public service roles should be secondary to teaching and research functions.
However, citizenship-level participation and temporary expert service appointments are
commonly pursued and should be encouraged.
Political science training is increasingly recognised and valued in Nigeria. Graduates with
degrees in political science are sought after as advisers and career officials in government
and international agencies, highlighting the importance of their multifaceted roles as
educators, researchers, and public servants in shaping the political landscape.

CHAPTER 2

A recurring issue in introductory political science classes is whether politics can be

considered a science or not. Are there laws governing political behaviour or principles that
underlie the functioning of the state? Some political scientists argue that politics is too
complex and involves deeply held personal values, making it impossible to identify exact
patterns. Instead, they believe each political event and idea should be interpreted
subjectively, based on our perspectives. On the other hand, other political scientists
advocate for a more scientific approach. They contend that to explain and predict political
phenomena, we must focus on the underlying processes that different events may share This
means searching for common regularities across a set of events, even if it requires
sacrificing some of the intricate details that characterize each event. These political
scientists draw inspiration from other social scientists, such as economists, who analyze
events as manifestations of general processes, which they study abstractly. Robert Dahl
(1970) suggests that political analysis is both an art and a science. In his view, "To the extent
that many aspects of political analysis are most easily acquired through practices and
training under the guidance of experienced analysts, it is an art.
Political analysis takes a scientific approach whenever students of politics rigorously test
their generalizations and theories against empirical data through meticulous observation,
categorization, and measurement."
What is science?
Einstein (1970) defined science as the endeavour to connect the disorderly variety of our
sensory experience with a logically consistent system of thought. Similarly, Krammer Gerald
(1983) argued that the fundamental aim of scientific inquiry is to comprehend a particular
aspect of the observable world by uncovering the governing principles that dictate its
behaviour and elucidating how they do so.
Although data collection, measurement, and experimentation play vital roles in this process
thera. expeningful only within the framework a meaniehending and explaining them
systematical, compe can be regarded as both a body of knowled. and a method for acquiring
knowledge. As a body o knowledge, it encompasses the laws and facts of various disciplines
such as physics, biology, economics and so on. As a method for obtaining knowledg, science
provides a specific set of principles that guide us in acquiring the aforementioned facts. A
discipline is considered scientific if it adheres to certain assumptions and follows specific
principles. Scientific knowledge is attained by following the scientific
method.
The scientific method involves the following actions, steps, and procedures:
1. Observing and determining if the observation is precise enough to be accepted.
 2. describing and determining if the description is
accurate and adequate.
3. measuring, which is a specific type of observation
and description.
4. Acceping or rejecting observations, descriptions, and measurements as facts or
realities.
5. Making tentative generalisatoes based on accepted
6. Offering tentative explanations for accepted facts or inductively derived
generalisations, focusing on relationships, especially causal ones.
7. Using logical deduction to explicitly state what is implied by inductive generalisations
and hypothetical explanations, relating to possible observations or previously
accepted facts, generalisations, and explanations.
8. Testing the tentative acceptance of observations, measurements, and their results,
as well as the expectations derived from deductive reasoning, through further
observations.
9. Correcting accepted observations, generalisations, explanations, and their results if
they are incompatible with other accepted information, or correcting previous
contributions.
10. Predicting future events or conditions based on past, present, or anticipated events
or conditions, either to test hypotheses or to inform decision-making.
11. Reject statements that have not been obtained or confirmed using the described
method, especially
"a priori" propositions, unless they are inherent in the scientific method or offered as
tentative assumptions or working hypotheses (Arnold Brecht, 1959: 28-29).
OBSTACLES TO THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE :Political science is
often regarded as a social or behavioural science, in contrast to natural sciences like
Zoology, Botany, Chemistry, and Physics, which deal with matter. Leslie Lipson (1976)
points out that the term "science" in "political science" can be misleading. The study
of politics can only be considered scientific to a certain extent, as it strives to uncover
the truth, discover accurate facts, and establish cause. and-effect relationships.
However, the methods commonly used in the physical sciences, such as forming
generalisations based on empirical observations and conducting experiments with
partial control, have limited applicability in the realm of social inquiry. Conducting
laboratory experiments is particularly challenging in political science. Despit these
challenges, political science does possess: scientific nature. Political scientists have
access to! wealth of historical facts and contemporary date which they can observe,
classify, connect, and compar to formulate general principles. The ongoing quest fo
new sources of data, analytical tools, and fres perspectives in political science reflects
both its vitalir and its relatively modest status as a "science Nevertheless, there are
numerous significant obstack to employing the methodologies of pure science in th
study of politics.
 1. The Complexity of Political Phenomena:
Politics is a field with numerous variables and intricate relationships, making it challenging to
identify any order. Due to its complexity, political phenomena do not follow regular patterns.
Political scientists, along with other social scientists, can only present a series of
hypothetical possibilities, each of which may occur under specific conditions. Determining
which of these possibilities will transpire is difficult. In contrast, the physical sciences deal
with less complex phenomena. Chemical elements, for instance, remain consistent
worldwide, with any compositional variations being testable and explainable. However, the
study of human problems cannot be approached in the same manner as problems of
inanimate matter. Social phenomena are constantly evolving and harder to control. The
motives behind human actions, as well as the consequences, are so complex and variable
that accurately determining one or confidently predicting the other is challenging.
2. Human Indeterminacy: The nature of human beings makes it difficult to establish laws
governing human relationships. Humans are the least controlled, verifiable, law-abiding, and
predictable subjects As actors in the political realm, individuals are free to choose their
course of action, Consequently, it is not possible to classify their actions, and formulating
generalizations about their behaviour proves difficult. Human beings, as thinking beings,
possess the capacity to invent new forms of behaviour to achieve their goals. As Kaplan
notes, "human nature implies only a constancy, not a fixity of behaviour, a regularity of
pattern that may embrace a great range and plasticity of responses."
3. The Reaction Problem: In the natural sciences, it is feasible to experiment with matter in a
manner that is impossible in the social sciences. Political science students face difficulty in
exerting control over their subjects since they cannot artificially create uniformity in human
beings. Much of the research in political science relies on studying the reactions of
individuals under observation Unfortunately, when people are aware that they as being
studied, they tend to adjust their behaviou posibly acting our of character. Consequenti, t
data obtained thro cearacter Corescarch dr
than conclusive.
Phancipant observation is at best suggestive, at 4. The Influence of Values: Political science
tackles value-based questions that are not within the purview of the physical sciences.
Polities and values are intrinsically intertwined. It is worth noting that a significant portion of
political science is not strictly science, but rather philosophy.
Philosophical knowledge is more timeless and enduring compared to scientific knowledge,
and as a result, it is less cumulative. However, there is a logical distinction between holding
personal values and studying attitudes and opinions. When fulfilling their professional role,
political scientists can only provide instrumental value judgments.
Environmental Changes: The accumulation of knowledge about political behaviour is
hindered, if not rendered impossible, by the constant changes (technological, economic,
social, etc.) occurring daily in both human and nonhuman realms. These environmental
changes may render previously held beliefs and observed behaviours no longer tenable.
However, without cumulative knowledge, accurate description, explanation, and prediction
become difficult.