Drive Axle and Differentials

CHAPTER
DRIVE AXLES
39 AND DIFFERENTIALS
OB JECTIVES
■ Name and describe the components of a front-wheel-drive axle. ■ Describe the operation of a front-
wheel-drive axle. ■ Diagnose problems in CV joints. ■ Perform preventive maintenance on CV
joints. ■ Explain the difference between CV joints and universal joints. ■ Name and describe the
components of a rear-wheel-drive axle. ■ Describe the operation of a rear-wheel-drive axle. ■ Explain
the function and operation of a differential and drive axles. ■ Describe the various differential designs,
including complete, integral carrier, removable carrier, and limited slip. ■ Describe the three common
types of driving axles. ■ Explain the function of the main driving gears, drive pinion gear, and ring
gear. ■ Describe the operation of hunting, nonhunting, and partial nonhunting gears. ■ Describe the
different types of axle shafts and axle shaft bearings.
T he drive axle assembly transmits torque from the

engine and transmission to drive the vehicle’s
wheels. The drive axle changes the direction of the
velocity (CV) joint. These joints are used to transfer
uniform torque at a constant speed, while operating
through a wide range of angles.
power flow, multiplies torque, and allows different On FWD or four-wheel-drive cars, operating
speeds between the two drive wheels. Drive axles are angles of as much as 40 degrees are common (Fig-
used for both front-wheel-drive and rear-wheel-drive ure 39–1). The drive axles must transmit power from
vehicles. the engine to front wheels that must drive, steer, and
cope with the severe angles caused by the up-and-
FRONT-WHEEL-DRIVE (FWD) down movement of the vehicle’s suspension. To
AXLES accomplish this, these cars must have a compact joint
Front-wheel-drive (FWD) axles, also called axle shafts, that ensures the driven shaft is rotated at a constant
typically transfer engine torque from the transaxle’s velocity, regardless of angle. CV joints also allow the
differential to the front wheels. One of the most length of the axle assembly to change as the wheel
important components of FWD axles is the constant travels up and down.
Up to 40°
Passenger side steering angle
drive shaft
Constant velocity
(CV) joints
Driver side drive shaft

Up to 20°
operating angle
Figure 39–1 FWD drive axle shaft angles.
1138
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C H A P T E R 3 9 • D r i v e A x l e s a n d D i f f e r e n t i a l s 1139
TYPES OF CV JOINTS
CV joints come in a variety of styles. The different
types of joints can be referred to by position (inboard
or outboard), by function (fixed or plunge), or by
design (ball-type or tripod). Stub axle Splines to axle shaft
Inboard and Outboard Joints

On FWD vehicles, two CV joints are used on each half
shaft (Figure 39–2). The joint nearer the transaxle is
Outer race
the inner or inboard joint, and the one nearer the
wheel is the outer or outboard joint. In a RWD vehi-
cle with independent rear suspension, the joint Inner race
nearer the differential can also be referred to as the
inboard joint. The one closer to the wheel is the out-
board joint.
Figure 39–3 A Rzeppa ball-type fixed CV joint.
Courtesy of Federal-Mogul Corporation
Fixed and Plunge Joints
CV joints are either a fixed joint (meaning it does not
plunge in and out to compensate for changes in
length) or a plunge joint (one that is capable of in-
a cage to position the balls, and an outer housing
and-out movement).
(Figure 39–3). Tracks machined in the inner race and
In FWD applications, the inboard joint is a plunge
outer housing allow the joint to flex. The inner race
joint. This joint allows for a change in the effective
and outer housing form a ball-and-socket arrange-
length of the axle by allowing it to move in and out on
ment. The six balls serve both as bearings between
its connection to the transaxle’s axle gear. The out-
the races and the means of transferring torque from
board joint is a fixed joint. The outboard joint must
one to the other.
also be able to handle the much greater operating
If viewed from the side, the balls within the joint
angles required for steering (up to 40 degrees).
always bisect the angle formed by the shafts on either
In RWD applications with IRS, one joint on each
side of the joint regardless of the operating angle. This
axle shaft can be fixed and the other a plunge or both
reduces the effective operating angle of the joint by
can be plunge joints. Because the wheels are not used
half and virtually eliminates all vibration problems.
for steering, the operating angles are not as great.
The input speed to the joint is always equal to the out-
Therefore, plunge joints can be used at either or both
put velocity of the joint—thus the description “con-
ends of the axle shafts.
stant velocity.” The cage helps to maintain this
Ball-Type Joints alignment by holding the six balls snugly in its win-
There are two basic varieties of CV joints: the ball- dows. If the cage windows become worn or deformed
type and tripod-type joints. Both types are used as over time, the resulting play between ball and win-
either inboard or outboard joints, and both are avail- dow typically results in a clicking noise when turning.
able in fixed or plunge designs. It is important to note that opposing balls in a Rzeppa
CV joint always work together as a pair. Heavy wear in
Fixed Ball-Type CV Joints The Rzeppa joint, or fixed the tracks of one ball almost always results in identi-
ball-type joint, consists of an inner ball race, six balls, cal wear in the tracks of the opposing ball.
Stub axle
To
differential To
drive
wheel
Inboard Drive axle Outboard

CV joint CV joint
Figure 39–2 A typical FWD drive axle assembly. Courtesy of Perfect Circle/Dana Corporation
1140 S E C T I O N 5 • M a n u a l Tr a n s m i s s i o n s a n d Tr a n s a x l e s
Tripod CV Joints
As with ball-type CV joints, tripod joints come in two
varieties: plunge and fixed.
Tripod Plunging Joints Tripod plunging joints (Fig-

ure 39–6) consist of a central drive part or tripod (also
known as a “spider”). This has three trunnions fitted
with spherical rollers on needle bearings and an outer
housing (sometimes called a “tulip” because of its
three-lobed, flowerlike appearance). On some tripod
Figure 39–4 A double-offset CV joint. joints, the outer housing is closed, meaning the roller
tracks are totally enclosed within it. On others, the
tulip is open and the roller tracks are machined out of
Another ball-type joint is the dish-style CV joint, the housing. Tripod joints are most commonly used
which is used predominantly on Volkswagen as well as FWD inboard plunge joints.
as on many German RWD models. Its design is very
similar to the Rzeppa joint. Fixed Tripod Joints The fixed tripod joint is some-
times used as the outboard joint in FWD applications.
Plunging Ball-Type Joints There are two basic styles In this design, the trunnion is mounted in the outer
of plunging ball-type joints: the double-offset and housing and the three roller bearings turn against an
the cross groove joints. This is a more compact design open tulip on the input shaft. A steel locking spider
with a flat, doughnut-shaped outer housing and holds the joint together.
angled grooves. The fixed tripod joint has a much greater angular
The double-offset joint (Figure 39–4) uses a capability. The only major difference from a service
cylindrical outer housing with straight grooves and is standpoint is that the fixed tripod joint cannot be
typically used in applications that require higher removed from the drive shaft or disassembled
operating angles (up to 25 degrees) and greater plunge because of the way it is manufactured. The complete
depth (up to 2.4 inches [60 mm]). This type of joint joint and shaft assembly must be replaced if the joint
can be found at the inboard position on some FWD goes bad.
half shafts as well as on the propeller shaft of some
FWD shafts.
The cross groove joint (Figure 39–5) has a much
FRONT-WHEEL-DRIVE
flatter design than any other plunge joint. It is used as APPLICATIONS
the inboard joint on FWD half shafts or at either end FWD half shafts can be solid or tubular, of equal (Fig-
of a RWD independent rear suspension axle shaft. ure 39–7) or unequal length (Figure 39–8), and come
The feature that makes this joint unique is its abil- with or without damper weights. Equal-length shafts
ity to handle a fair amount of plunge (up to 1.8 inches are used in some vehicles to help reduce torque steer
[46 mm]) in a relatively short distance. The inner and (the tendency to steer to one side as engine power is
outer races share the plunging motion equally, so less applied). In these applications, an intermediate shaft
overall depth is needed for a given amount of plunge. is used as a link from the transaxle to one of the half
The cross groove can handle operating angles up to shafts. This intermediate shaft can use an ordinary
22 degrees. Cardan universal joint (described later in this chap-
ter) to a yoke at the transaxle. At the outer end is a
support bracket and bearing assembly. Looseness in
the bearing or bracket can create vibrations. These
items should be included in any inspection of the
drivetrain components. The small damper weight,
called a torsional damper, that is sometimes attached
to one half shaft serves to dampen harmonic vibra-
tions in the drivetrain and to stabilize the shaft as it
spins, not to balance the shaft.
Regardless of the application, outer joints typi-
SNAPRING
cally wear faster than inner joints because of the
Figure 39–5 A cross-groove joint. increased range of operating angles to which they are
Tripod retainer
Boot tabs (3) Closed-type
Boot clamp (if used) tulip assembly
Boot
clamp
Cap and spring

Drive shaft assembly (if used)
Cover
Snapring Stop ring O-ring

Cover
groove Tripod (if used) O-ring groove
Boot assembly
lip
groove
Rubber
fastener Boot
clamp Open-type
Tripod retainer tulip assembly
Boot
tabs (if used)
Figure 39–6 Inner tripod plunge-type joints: closed housing and open housing.
Differential
Support
bracket
Half-shaft Intermediate Half-shaft

assembly shaft assembly
Figure 39–7 Equal-length FWD half shafts with an intermediate shaft.
subjected. Inner joint angles may change only 10 to plunge in and out to accommodate the different arcs
20 degrees as the suspension travels through jounce between the drive shafts and suspension. Tripod
and rebound. Outer joints can undergo changes of inner joints tend to develop unique wear patterns on
up to 40 degrees in addition to jounce and rebound each of the three rollers and their respective tracks in
as the wheels are steered. That, combined with more the housing, which can lead to noise and vibration
flexing of the outer boots, is why outer joints have a problems.
higher failure rate. On average, nine outer CV joints
are replaced for every inner CV joint. That does not Other Applications
mean the technician should overlook the inner joints. CV joints are also found on the front axles of many
They wear too. Every time the suspension travels four-wheel-drive vehicles and on vehicles with rear
through jounces and rebound, the inner joints must independent suspension systems (Figure 39–9).
Inner
Inner
joint
joint
Differential
Outer Outer
joint joint
15.6 inches 28.1 inches

(396 mm) (714 mm)
Figure 39–8 Unequal length FWD half shafts.
with grease and installed, it requires no further main-

tenance. A loose or missing boot clamp, or a slit, tear,
or a small puncture in the boot itself allows grease to
leak out and water or dirt to enter. Consequently, the
joint is destroyed.
Although outboard joints tend to wear faster than
the inboard ones, the decision as to whether to replace
both joints when the half shaft is removed depends
on the circumstances. If the vehicle has low miles and
joint failure is the result of a defective boot, there is no
reason to replace both joints. On a high-mileage vehi-
Figure 39–9 A CV joint-equipped rear axle assembly cle where the bad joint has actually just worn itself
for a vehicle with independent rear suspension. Courtesy of out, it might be wise to save the expense and inconve-
Dana Corporation nience of having the half shaft removed twice for CV
joint replacement.
Their use in these designs offers the same benefits as
when they are used for FWD. Diagnosis and Inspection
Any noise in the engine, drive axle, steering, or sus-
pension is a good reason for a thorough inspection of
CV JOINT SERVICE the vehicle. A road test on a smooth surface is a good
With proper service, CV joints can have a long life, place to begin. The test should include driving at
despite having to perform extremely difficult jobs in average highway speeds, some sharp turns, accelera-
hostile environments. They must endure extreme tion, and coasting. Look and listen for the following
heat and cold and survive the shock of hitting pot- signs:
holes at high speeds. Fortunately, high-torque loads
during low-speed turns and many thousands of high- ■ A popping or clicking noise when turning indi-
speed miles normally do not bother the CV joint. It is cates a possible worn or damaged outer joint (Fig-
relatively trouble free unless damage to the boot or ure 39–10). To help identify the exact cause, put
joint goes unnoticed. the vehicle in reverse and back up in a circle. If the
All CV joints are encased in a protective rubber noise gets louder, the outer joints should be
(neoprene, natural, or silicone) or thermoplastic replaced.
(Hycrel) boot. The job of the boot is to retain grease ■ A clunk during accelerating, decelerating, or
and to keep dirt and water out. The importance of the putting an automatic transaxle into drive can be
boot cannot be overemphasized because without its caused by excessive play in the inner joint on
protection the joint does not survive. For all practical FWD vehicles. A clunking noise when putting
purposes, a CV joint is lubed for life. Once packed an automatic transmission into gear or when
outboard joint but more likely it is the inboard

Wear area plunge joint. These vibrations can also be caused
by a bad intermediate shaft bearing on transaxles
with equal-length half shafts. On FWD vehicles
with transverse-mounted engines, this kind of
vibration can also be caused by loose or deterio-
rated engine/transaxle mounts. Be sure to inspect
the rubber bushings in the engine’s upper torque
strap to rule out this possibility. A vibration or
shudder that increases with speed or comes and
goes at a certain speed may be the result of exces-
sive play in an inner or outer joint. A bent axle shaft
can cause the same problem. Note, however, that
some shudder could also be inherent to the
vehicle.
■ A cyclic vibration that comes and goes between 45
and 60 mph (72 and 100 km) may lead the techni-
cian to think there is a wheel that is out of balance.
However, as a rule, an out-of-balance wheel pro-
duces a continuous vibration. A more likely cause
is a bad inner tripod CV joint. The vibration occurs
because one of the three roller tracks has become
dimpled or rough. Every time the tripod roller on
the bad track hits the rough spot, it creates a little
jerk in the driveline, which the driver feels as a
cyclic vibration.
■ If a noise is heard while driving straight ahead
but it ceases while turning, the problem is usually
not a defective outer CV joint but a bad front
wheel bearing. Turning changes the side load on
Wear area
the bearing, which may make it quieter than
before.
Figure 39–10 A worn cage or race can cause a ■ A vibration that increases with speed is rarely due
clicking sound during a turn. Courtesy of Federal-Mogul to CV joint problems or FWD half-shaft imbal-
Corporation
ance. An out-of-balance tire or wheel, an out-of-
round tire or wheel, or a bent rim are the most
likely causes. It is possible that a bent half shaft, as
starting out from a stop usually indicates exces- the result of collision or towing damage, could
sive play in an inner or outer joint. Be warned, cause the vibration. A missing damper weight
though, that the same kind of noise can also be could also be the culprit.
produced by excessive backlash in the differential
Begin CV joint inspection (Figure 39–11) by
gears and transmission. Alternately accelerating
checking the condition of the boots. Splits, cracks,
and decelerating in reverse while driving straight
tears, punctures, or thin spots caused by rubbing call
can reveal worn inner plunge joints. A bad joint
for immediate boot replacement. If the boot appears
clunks or shudders.
rotted, this indicates improper greasing or excessive
■ A humming or growling noise is sometimes due to heat, and it should be replaced. Squeeze all boots. If
inadequate lubrication of either the inner or outer any air escapes, replace the boot.
CV joint. It is more often due to worn or damaged If the inner boot appears to be collapsed or
wheel bearings, a bad intermediate shaft bearing deformed, venting it (allowing air to enter) might
on equal-length half-shaft transaxles, or worn solve the problem. Place a round-tipped rod between
shaft bearings within the transmission. the boot and drive shaft. This equalizes the outside
■ A shudder or vibration when accelerating is often and inside air and allows the boot to return to its nor-
caused by excessive play in either the inboard or mal shape.
CHECK TORSIONAL
DAMPING RING.
Figure 39–11 Inspection points for a FWD vehicle.
Make sure that all boot clamps are tight. Missing high-temperature, high-pressure grease. Substituting
or loose clamps should be replaced. If the boot any other type of grease may lead to premature fail-
appears loose, slide it back and inspect the grease ure of the joint. Be sure to use all the grease supplied
inside for possible contamination. A milky or foamy in the joint or boot kit. The same rule applies to the
appearance indicates water contamination. A gritty clamps. Use only those clamps supplied with the
feeling when rubbed between the fingers indicates replacement boot. Follow the directions for position-
dirt. In most cases, a water- or dirt-contaminated ing and securing them.
joint should be replaced. Old boots should never be reused when replacing
The drive axles should be checked for signs of a CV joint. In most cases, failure of the old joint is
contact or rubbing against the chassis. Rubbing can caused by some deterioration of the old boot. Reus-
be a symptom of a weak or broken spring or engine ing an old boot on a new joint usually leads to the
mount, as well as chassis misalignment. On FWD quick destruction of the joint.
transaxles with equal-length half shafts, inspect the Photo Sequence 37 shows the procedure for
intermediate shaft U-joint, bearing, and support removing a typical drive axle and replacing a CV
bracket for looseness by rocking the wheel back and joint boot. Always refer to the service manual for
forth and watching for any movement. Oil leakage the exact service procedure. The diagnosis and ser-
around the inner CV joints indicates a faulty trans- vice chart shown in Table 39–1 gives an idea of the
axle shaft seal. To replace the seal, the half shaft must types of front-wheel drivetrain problems that can
be removed. occur.
Obtaining CV Repair Parts CV Joint Service Guidelines

To repair a drive axle, a complete shaft should be The following are some guidelines to follow when
installed. Most aftermarket part suppliers offer a com- servicing CV joints:
plete line of original equipment drive shafts for FWD
vehicles. These shafts come fully assembled and ready ■ Never jerk or pull on the axle shaft when removing
for installation. This repair method eliminates the it from a vehicle with tripod inner joints. Doing so
need to tear down and rebuild an old shaft. may pull the joint apart, allowing the needle bear-
If only the CV joints need service, a CV joint service ings to fall out of the roller. Pull on the inner hous-
kit should be installed. Joint service kits typically ing, and support the outer end of the shaft until
include a CV joint, boot, boot clamps and seals, spe- the shaft is completely out.
cial grease for lubrication (various joints require dif- ■ Always install new hub nuts and torque them to
ferent amounts of grease; the correct quantity is specifications. This is absolutely necessary to
packed in each kit), retaining rings, and all other properly preload the wheel bearings. Do not guess.
attachment parts. The specifications can vary from 75 to 235 ft.-lb
Part manufacturers also produce a line of com- (101 to 318 N-m). Most axle hub nuts are staked in
plete boot sets for each application, including new place after they have been tightened (Figure 39–
clamps and the appropriate type and amount 12). Others have a castellated nut that is secured
of grease for the joint. CV joints require a special with a cotter pin.
PHOTO
SEQUENCE Removing and Replacing a CV Joint Boot
37
P37–1 Removing the axle from the P37–2 After the car is raised and P37–3 The brake line holding
car begins with the removal of the wheel the wheel is removed, the hub nut can clamp must be loosened from the
cover and wheel hub cover. The hub nut be unscrewed from the axle shaft. suspension.
should be loosened before raising the
car and removing the wheel.
P37–4 The ball joint must be P37–5 The inboard joint can be
separated from the steering knuckle pulled free from the transaxle. P37–6 A special tool is normally
assembly. To do this, first remove the ball needed to separate the axle shaft
joint retaining bolt. Then pry down on the from the hub allowing the axle to be
control arm until the ball joint is free. removed from the car. Never hit the
end of the axle with a hammer.
P37–7 The axle shaft should be P37–8 Begin boot removal by

mounted in a soft-jawed vise for work cutting and discarding the boot clamps. P37–9 Scribe a mark around the
on the joint. Pieces of wood on either axle to indicate the boot’s position on the
side of the axle work well to secure the shaft. Then move the boot off the joint.
axle without damaging it.
1145
PHOTO
SEQUENCE Removing and Replacing a CV Joint Boot
37 (continued)
P37–10 Remove the circlip and P37–11 Slide the old boot off the P37–12 Clean and inspect the
separate the joint from the shaft. shaft. joint, then wipe the axle shaft clean and
install the new boot onto the shaft.
P37–13 Place the boot into its proper location on the P37–14 Using a new circlip, reinstall the joint on the
shaft and install a new clamp. shaft. Pack joint grease into the joint and boot. The entire
packet of grease that comes with a new boot needs to
be forced into the boot and joint.
P37–15 Pull the boot over the joint and into its proper P37–16 Install the new large boot clamp and reinstall
position. Use a dull screwdriver to lift an edge of the boot up the axle into the car. Torque the hub nut after the wheels have
to equalize the pressure inside the boot with the outside air. been reinstalled and the car is sitting on the ground. Always
follow the correct procedure for the clamp being installed.
1146
TABLE 39–1 PROBLEM DIAGNOSIS AND SERVICE FOR FWD DRIVELINES
Problem Possible Cause Corrective Remedy
Vibrations in steering wheel at Front-wheel balance Front-wheel unbalance is felt in the steering wheel. Front
highway speeds wheels must be balanced.
Vibrations throughout vehicle Worn inner CV joints Worn parts of the inner CV joint are not operating
smoothly.
Vibrations throughout vehicle Bent axle shaft Axle shaft does not operate on the center of the axis;
at low speed thus, vibration develops.
Vibrations during acceleration Worn or damaged outer or inner CV joints are not operating smoothly due to damage or
CV joints wear on parts.
Fatigued front springs Sagged front springs are causing the inner CV joint to
operate at too great an angle, causing vibrations.
Grease dripping on ground or Ripped or torn CV joint boots Front-wheel-drive CV joints are immersed in lubricant. If
sprayed on chassis parts the CV joint boot has a rip or is torn, lubricant leaks out.
The condition must be corrected as soon as possible.
Clicking or snapping noise Worn or damaged outer CV joint Worn parts are clicking and noisy as loading and
heard when turning curves and unloading on the CV joint takes place.
corners Bent axle shaft Irregular rotation of the axle shaft is causing a snapping,
clicking noise.
quarters of a degree due to differences between

the size of the camber bolts and their holes.
CV Shaft and Rubber Boot Care Tips

The rubber boots need special care when you are ser-
vicing the CV joints, engine, or transaxle. The follow-
ing tips might save you trouble later:
■ Always support the control arm when doing on-
the-car balancing of the front wheels to avoid
high-speed operation at a steep half-shaft angle.
Off-the-car balancing might be a wiser choice.
■ Do not use half shafts as lift points for raising a
car.
Figure 39–12 Most axle hub nuts are staked after
they are tightened to lock them in place. Courtesy of Federal-
■ Use a plastic or metal shield over rubber boots to
Mogul Corporation protect them from accidental tool damage when
performing other wheel, brake, suspension, or
■ Never use an impact wrench to loosen or tighten steering system maintenance.
axle hub nuts. Doing so may damage the wheel ■ Clean only with soap and water.
bearings as well as the CV joints. ■ Avoid boot contact with gasoline, oil, or degreaser
■ On vehicles with antilock brakes, use care to pro- compounds.
tect the wheel speed sensor and tone ring on the
outer CV joint housings. If misaligned or damaged REAR-WHEEL DRIVE SHAFTS
during joint replacement, it can cause wheel speed A drive shaft must smoothly transfer torque while
sensor problems. rotating, changing length, and moving up and down.
■ Always recheck the alignment after replacing CV The different designs of drive shafts all attempt to
joints. Marking the camber bolts is not enough, ensure a vibration-free transfer of the engine’s power
because camber can be off as much as three- from the transmission to the differential. This goal is
Bearing
Spider
Snap Rings
Internal
External
Drive shaft
Slip yoke Differential

pinion flange
Universal joint
Figure 39–13 A drive shaft assembly with exploded U-joints.
complicated by the fact that the engine and transmis-

sion are bolted solidly to the frame of the car, whereas
the differential is mounted on springs. As the rear
wheels go over bumps in the road or changes in the
road’s surface, the springs compress or expand,
changing the angle of the drive shaft between the
transmission and the differential, as well as the dis-
tance between the two. To allow for these changes,
the Hotchkiss-type drive shaft is fitted with one or
more U-joints to permit variations in the angle of the
drive, and a slip joint that permits the effective length
of the drive shaft to change. Figure 39–14 A center bearing assembly.
SHOP TALK Cardan joint or a CV U-joint, to help minimize drive-

When a vehicle is intentionally raised or lowered, line vibrations. These vehicles may also have a center
the length of the drive shaft should be changed bearing. The center bearing allows the length of the
to allow for normal travel of the slip yoke on the shaft to be divided in half. When a center bearing is
output shaft. used, the ends of the drive shaft that are going into the
bearing are slip joints.
Starting at the front or transmission end of a RWD Slip Yoke

shaft, there is a slip yoke, a universal joint, a drive shaft A sliding or slip yoke (Figure 39–15) is internally
yoke, and a drive shaft (Figure 39–13). At the rear or splined and its outside diameter is precisely machined
differential end, there is another drive shaft yoke and to fit into the rear seal. The internal splines slip over
a second universal joint connected to the differential the external splines of the output shaft. The slip yoke
pinion flange. rotates at output shaft speed and can slide on the
In addition to these basic components, some splines (hence the name slip yoke). The slip yoke
drivetrains have a drive shaft support bearing (Fig- allows the effective length of the drive shaft to change
ure 39–14). Large vehicles with long drive shafts often with the movement of the rear suspension and drive
use a double U-joint arrangement, called a double axle assembly.
Figure 39–16 A Cardan joint.
teenth century. In 1902, Clarence Spicer modified

Cardan’s invention for the purpose of transmitting
Figure 39–15 A typical slip or sliding yoke. engine torque to an automobile’s rear wheels.
The U-joint is basically a double-hinged joint con-
sisting of two Y-shaped yokes, one on the driving or
input shaft and the other on the driven or output
Drive Shaft and Yokes
shaft, plus a cross-shaped unit called the cross (Fig-
The drive shaft is nothing more than an extension of ure 39–16). A U-joint is used to connect the yokes
the transmission output shaft. The drive shaft, which together. The four arms of the cross are fitted with
is usually made from seamless steel tubing, transfers bearings in the ends of the two shaft yokes. The input
engine torque from the transmission to the rear shaft’s yoke causes the cross to rotate, and the two
driving axle. The yokes, which are either welded or other trunnions of the cross cause the output shaft to
pressed onto the shaft, provide a means of connect- rotate. When the two shafts are at an angle to each
ing two or more shafts together. At the present time, a other, the bearings allow the yokes to swing around
limited number of vehicles are equipped with fiber on their trunnions with each revolution. This action
composite—reinforced fiberglass, graphite, and allows two shafts, at a slight angle to each other, to
aluminum—drive shafts. The advantages of using rotate together.
these materials are weight reduction, torsional U-joints allow the drive shaft to transmit power to
strength, fatigue resistance, easier and better balanc- the rear axle through varying angles that are controlled
ing, and reduced interference from shock loading and by the travel of the rear suspension. Because power is
torsional problems. Some drive shafts are fitted with a transmitted on an angle, U-joints do not rotate at a
torsional damper to reduce torsional vibrations. constant velocity, nor are they vibration free.
The drive shaft, like any other rigid tube, has a nat-
ural vibration frequency. If one end were held tightly, Speed Variations (Fluctuations)
it would vibrate at its own frequency when deflected Although simple in appearance, the universal joint is
and released. It reaches its natural frequency at its more intricate than it seems because its natural action
critical speed. Critical drive shaft speed depends on is to speed up and slow down twice in each revolution
the diameter of the tube and its length. Diameters are while operating at an angle. The amount that the
as large as possible and shafts as short as possible to speed changes varies according to the steepness of
keep the critical speed frequency above the driving the U-joint’s angle.
speed range. It should be remembered that since the U-joint operating angle is determined by taking
drive shaft generally turns three to four times faster the difference between the transmission installation
than the tires, proper drive shaft balance is required angle and the drive shaft installation angle. When the
for vibration-free operation. universal joint is operating at an angle, the driven
yoke speeds up and slows down twice during each
OPERATION OF U-JOINTS drive shaft revolution.
The U-joint allows two rotating shafts to operate at a These four speed changes are not normally visible
slight angle to each other. A French mathematician during rotation, but they may be understood more
named Cardan developed the original joint in the six- easily after examining the action of a U-joint. A
universal joint is a coupling between two shafts not in equals the constant speed of the input yoke during
direct alignment, usually with changing relative posi- the same revolution, it is possible for the two mating
tions. It would be logical to assume that the entire yokes to travel at different speeds. The output yoke is
unit simply rotates. This is true only for the U-joint’s falling behind and catching up constantly. The
input yoke. resulting acceleration and deceleration produces a
The output yoke’s circular path looks like an ellipse fluctuating torque and torsional vibrations charac-
because it can be viewed at an angle instead of straight teristic of all Cardan U-joints. The steeper the U-joint
on. This effect can be obtained when a coin is rotated angle, the greater the fluctuations in speed will be.
by the fingers. The height of the coin stays the same Conversely, the smaller the angle, the speed will
even though the sides seem to get closer together. change less.
This illusion might seem to be a merely visual
effect, but it is more than that. The U-joint rigidly Phasing of Universal Joints
locks the circular action of the input yoke to the ellip- The torsional vibrations set up by the fluctuations in
tical action of the output yoke. The result is similar to velocity are transferred down the drive shaft to the
what would happen when changing a clock face from next U-joint. At this joint similar speed fluctuation
a circle to an ellipse. occurs. Since these speed variations take place at
Like the hands of a clock, the input yoke turns at a equal and opposite angles to the first joint, they can-
constant speed in its true circular path. The output cel out each other. To provide for this canceling effect,
yoke, operating at an angle to the other yoke, com- drive shafts should have at least two U-joints and their
pletes its path in the same amount of time. However, its operating angles must be equal to each other. Speed
speed varies, or is not constant, compared to the input. fluctuations can be canceled if the driven yoke has
Speed fluctuation is more easily visualized when the same point of rotation, or same plane, as the driv-
looking at the travel of the yokes by 90-degree quad- ing yoke. When the yokes are in the same plane, the
rants (Figure 39–17). The input yoke rotates at a joints are said to be “in phase.”
steady or constant speed through the complete On a two-piece drive shaft, you may encounter
360-degree turn. The output yoke quadrants alter- problems if you are not careful. The center driving
nate between shorter and longer distance travel than yoke is splined to the front drive shaft. If the yoke’s
the input yoke quadrants. When one point of the position on the drive shaft is not indicated in some
output yoke covers the shorter distance in the same manner, the yoke could be installed in a position that
amount of time, it must travel at a slower rate. Con- is out of phase. Manufacturers use different methods
versely, when traveling the longer distance (but only of indexing the yoke to the shaft. Some use aligning
90 degrees) in the same amount of time, it must arrows. Others machine a master spline that is wider
move faster. than the others. The yoke and shaft cannot be reas-
Because the average speed of the output yoke sembled until the master spline is aligned properly.
through the four 90-degree quadrants (360 degrees) When there are no indexing marks, you should index
0° 45° 90° 135° 180° 225° 270° 315° 360°
1,300
CONSTANT 1,200
INPUT SHAFT 1,100
SPEED 1,000
900
OUTPUT SHAFT 800
SPEED AT 30° 700
JOINT ANGLE ACCELERATING DECELERATING ACCELERATING DECELERATING
1,100
INPUT 1,000
900
OUTPUT AT 10° RPM
JOINT ANGLE ONE COMPLETE REVOLUTION
INPUT SHAFT OUTPUT SHAFT
Figure 39–17 A graph showing typical drive shaft yoke speed fluctuations.
(A)
MACHINED
GROOVE
–5° IN YOKE
+5°
SPICER
STYLE
SNAP RING
Figure 39–18 When a drive shaft’s joints are in phase
and have canceling angles, inherent vibrations are reduced. SURFACE MACHINED
FLAT (BEARING CUP)
(B)
the yoke to the drive shaft before disassembling the MACHINED
U-joint. This saves time and frustration during SURFACE
reassembly. MECHANICS ON YOKE
OR DETROIT MACHINED
Canceling Angles SNAP RING GROOVE
(BEARING CUP)
Vibrations can be reduced by using canceling angles
Figure 39–19 (A) A Spicer-style U-joint and (B) a
(Figure 39–18). Carefully examine the illustration, Mechanics or Detroit-style U-joint.
and note that the operating angle at the front of the
drive shaft is offset by the one at the rear of the drive
shaft. When the front U-joint accelerates, causing a difference between these designs. The Spicer style
vibration, the rear universal joint decelerates, causing (Figure 39–19A) uses a snapring that fits into a groove
a vibration. The vibrations created by the two joints machined in the outer end of the yoke. The bearing
oppose and dampen the vibrations from one to the cups for this style are machined to accommodate the
other. The use of canceling angles provides a smoother snapring.
drive shaft operation. The Mechanics or Detroit/Saginaw style (Fig-
ure 39–19B) uses an external snapring that fits into
TYPES OF U-JOINTS a groove machined in the bearing cup on the end
There are three common designs of U-joints: single closest to the grease seal. When installed, the snap-
U-joints retained by either an inside or outside snapring rests against the machined inside portion of
ring, coupled U-joints, and U-joints held in the yoke the yoke. On some joints, nylon is injected into the
by U-bolts or lock plates. machined grooves to retain the U-joint. When these
joints are replaced, new retaining rings are included
Single Universal Joints with the joint and the plastic is not reinjected. Make
The single Cardan/Spicer U-joint is also known as the sure that all of the plastic is removed before installing
cross or four-point joint. These two names aptly a new joint.
describe the single Cardan, since the joint itself forms The Cleveland style is an attempt to combine dif-
a cross, with four machined trunnions or points ferent joint styles to have more applications from one
equally spaced around the center of the axis. Needle joint. The bearing cups for this U-joint are machined
bearings used to abate friction and provide smoother to accommodate either Spicer or Mechanics style
operation are set in bearing cups. The trunnions of snaprings. If a replacement U-joint comes with both
the cross fit into the cup assemblies and the cup style clips, use the clips that pertain to your
assemblies fit snugly into the driving and driven application.
U-joint yokes. U-joint movement takes place between
the trunnions, needle bearings, and bearing cups. Double-Cardan Universal Joint
There should be no movement between the bearing A double-Cardan U-joint is used with split drive
cup and its bore in the universal joint yoke. The bear- shafts and consists of two Cardan U-joints closely
ings are normally held in place by snaprings that drop connected by a centering ball socket and a center
into grooves in the yoke’s bearing bores. The bearing yoke, which functions as a ball and socket. The ball
caps allow free movement between the trunnion and and socket splits the angle of the two shafts between
yoke. The needle bearing caps may also be pressed two U-joints (Figure 39–20). Because of the centering
into the yokes, bolted to the yokes, or held in place socket yoke, the total operating angle is divided
with U-bolts or metal straps. equally between the two joints. Since the two joints
There are other styles of single U-joints. The operate at the same angle, the normal fluctuations
method used to retain the bearing caps is the major that result from the use of a single U-joint are
Double Cardan assembly
U-joint assembly
Center yoke
U-joint
Socket
yoke
U-joint
Slip yoke
Companion
flange
Figure 39–20 A double-Cardan joint. Courtesy of Ford Motor Company
canceled out. The acceleration and deceleration of expand the undercar investigation by putting the
one joint is canceled by the equal and opposite action vehicle up on the lift, where it is possible to get a good
of the other. view of what is going on underneath.
The double-Cardan joint is classified as a CV
U-joint. It is most often found in front-engine RWD
luxury-type vehicles.
SHOP TALK
When diagnosing driveline noise, if a chirping
DIAGNOSIS OF DRIVE SHAFT sound that increases with speed is heard, sus-
pect a dry U-joint. The chirping typically occurs
AND U-JOINT PROBLEMS with a frequency two to four times faster than
A failed U-joint or damaged drive shaft can exhibit a the speed of the wheels.
variety of symptoms. A clunk that is heard when the
transmission is shifted into gear is the most obvious.
You can also encounter unusual noise, roughness, or The first problem most likely encountered is an
vibration. undercar fluid leak. If a lot of lube is escaping from the
To help differentiate a potential drivetrain prob- pinion shaft seal, the drivetrain noise could be caused
lem from other common sources of noise or vibra- by a bad pinion bearing. To confirm the problem,
tion, it is important to note the speed and driving start the engine, put the transmission in gear, and lis-
conditions at which the problem occurs. As a general ten at the carrier. If the bearing is noisy, it is necessary
guide, a worn U-joint is most noticeable during accel- to make one of those difficult judgment calls. If the
eration or deceleration and is less speed sensitive bearing sounds fine but the pinion seal is still leaking,
than an unbalanced tire (commonly occurring in the suggest an on-the-car seal replacement.
30 to 60 mph [50 to 100 km/h] range) or a bad wheel On some vehicles, seal replacement is a simple
bearing (more noticeable at higher speeds). Unfortu- procedure that involves removing the pinion flange
nately, it is often very difficult to accurately pinpoint and replacing the seal. Others are a little more com-
drivetrain problems with only a road test. Therefore, plex because the pinion shaft is retained with a nut
bushing puller makes short work of bushing replace-

ment. Before pushing the slip yoke back in after the
new seal is installed, make sure the machined surface
of the bore is free of scratches, nicks, and grooves that
could damage the seal. For that added margin of
safety, a little transmission lube or petroleum jelly on
the lip of the seal helps the parts slide in easily.
If the seals pass the test, continue driveline exami-
nation by inspecting the U-joint’s grease seals for
signs of rust, leakage, or lubrication breakdown. Also,
check for excessive joint movement by firmly grasp-
ing and attempting to rotate the coupling yokes back
and forth in opposite directions. If any perceptible
trunnion-to-bearing movement is felt, the joint
Figure 39–21 The tools required to tighten the should be replaced.
flange nut. The runout of the drive shaft should also be
checked. If there is excessive runout, determine the
that must be removed to gain access to the seal. These cause and make the necessary repairs. If the runout is
units require special tools to loosen and tighten the fine, check the phasing of the joints and their angle.
pinion nut (Figure 39–21), which allows for the To check their operating angle, use an inclinometer.
removal of the flange. Always refer to the service man- This instrument, when attached to the drive shaft,
ual for the correct procedure. On many units there is displays the angle of the drive shaft along any point.
a collapsible spacer behind the pinion nut. Whenever Your finding from this test should be compared to
the nut is loosened, a new spacer should be installed specifications. Normally, if the angles are wrong, the
before torquing the nut. rear axle has moved in its mounting.
If the seal needs to be replaced, check the runout As a final diagnosis inspection point, check the
of the flange at the rear axle (Figure 39–22). A dam- entire length of the drive shaft for excess undercoat-
aged seal can be caused by excessive runout. Also ing, dents, missing weights, or other damage that
inspect the surface of the flange that rides in the seal. could cause an imbalance and result in a vibration. If
During reassembly, make sure the outer surface of the no damage is found, the drive shaft should be removed
flange is lubricated before pushing it into the seal. and its balance checked by a specialty shop.
At the other end of the driveline, inspect the trans- When a U-joint is damaged or excessively worn, it
mission’s extension housing seal the same way. If it is must be replaced. Photo Sequence 38 covers the typi-
leaking, the seal itself can be easily replaced. Check cal procedure for removing a U-joint from a drive
the extension housing bushing. That is the most likely shaft. After a replacement joint is obtained, it needs to
reason the seal went bad in the first place. Once the be installed. Photo Sequence 39 covers the reassem-
yoke is removed, an internal expanding bearing/ bly of a common U-joint.
DIFFERENTIALS AND
DRIVE AXLES
The differential is a geared mechanism located be-
tween the driving axles of a vehicle. It rotates the driv-
ing axles at different speeds when the vehicle is
turning a corner (Figure 39–23). It also allows both
axles to turn at the same speed when the vehicle is
moving in a straight line. The drive axle assembly
directs driveline torque to the vehicle’s drive wheels.
The gear ratio of the drive axle’s ring and pinion gears
is used to increase torque. The differential serves to
establish a state of balance between the forces
between the drive wheels and allows the drive wheels
Figure 39–22 The setup for checking the runout of to turn at different speeds when the vehicle changes
a companion flange. direction.
PHOTO
SEQUENCE Disassembling a Single Universal Joint
38
P38–1 Clamp the slip yoke in a vise P38–2 Remove the lock rings on P38–3 Select a socket that has an
and support the outer end of the drive the tops of the bearing cups. Make index inside diameter large enough for the
shaft. marks in the yoke so that the joint can bearing cup to fit into; usually a 11⁄4-inch
be assembled with the correct phasing. socket works.
P38–4 Select a second socket P38–5 Place the large socket P38–6 Position the other socket to
that can slide into the shaft’s bearing against one vise jaw. Position the drive the center of the bearing cup opposite
cup bore—usually a 9⁄16 -inch socket. shaft yoke so that the socket is around a to the one in line with the large socket.
bearing cup.
P38–7 Carefully tighten the vise to P38–8 Separate the joint by P38–9 Use a drift and hammer to
press the bearing cup out of the yoke turning the shaft over in the vise and drive the joint out of the other yokes.
and into the large socket. driving the cross and remaining bearing
cup down through the yoke with a brass
drift and hammer.
1154
PHOTO
SEQUENCE Reassembling a Single Universal Joint
39
P39–1 Clean any dirt from the yoke P39–2 Carefully remove the P39–3 Place the new spider inside
and the retaining ring grooves. bearing cups from the new U-joint. the yoke and push it to one side.
P39–4 Start one cup into the P39–5 Carefully place the P39–6 Remove the shaft from the
yoke’s ear and over the cross’s trunnion. assembly in a vise or U-joint bearing vise and push the cross toward the
press and press the cup partially other side of the yoke.
through the ear.
P39–7 Start a cup into the yoke’s P39–8 Place the shaft in the vise P39–9 Position the joint’s cross in
ear and over the trunnion. and tighten the jaws to press the bearing the drive shaft yoke and install the two
cup into the ear and over the trunnion. remaining bearing cups.
Then install the snap rings. Make sure
they are seated in their grooves.
1155
Ring
gear
58 feet Drive
(17.7 m) pinion
Differential
pinion gears Side
46 feet gears
(14 m)
Axle
Axle Shaft
Differential
case
Figure 39–24 The components of a typical final
30 feet (9.1 m) drive unit.
Components of Final Drives and

Figure 39–23 Travel of wheels when a vehicle is Differentials
turning a corner. The components of commonly used final drive units
are shown in Figure 39–24. There are several other
basic design arrangements. However, the one most
On a FWD car or truck, the differential is normally commonly used design has pinion/ring gears and a
an integral part of the transaxle assembly located at pinion shaft. In RWD vehicles the gear set is com-
the front of the vehicle. Transaxle design and opera- prised of hypoid gears, whereas FWD units use a
tion depends on whether the engine is mounted planetary gear set or spiral bevel gears. To create a
transversely or longitudinally. With a transversely clear picture of the major components of a differen-
mounted engine, the crankshaft centerline and drive tial assembly and their required service, RWD units
axle are on the same plane. With a longitudinally are the focus of the following discussion.
mounted power plant, the differential must change The pinion shaft is mounted in the front of the car-
the power flow 90 degrees. rier and is supported by two or three bearings. An
On RWD vehicles, the differential is located in the overhung pinion gear is supported by two tapered
rear axle housing or carrier. The drive shaft connects bearings spaced far enough apart to provide the
the transmission with the rear axle gearing. Four- needed leverage to rotate the ring gear and drive axles
wheel-drive vehicles have differentials on both their (Figure 39–25). A straddle-mounted pinion gear rests
front and rear axles. on three bearings: Two tapered bearings on the front
The differential allows the drive wheels to rotate at support the input shaft and one roller bearing is fitted
different speeds when negotiating a turn or curve in over a short shaft extending from the rear end of the
the road and redirects the engine torque from the drive pinion gear.
drive shaft to the rear drive axle shafts. The drive shaft The pinion gear meshes with a ring gear. The ring
turns in a motion perpendicular to the rotation of the gear is made of hardened steel. The ring gear is bolted
drive wheels. The final drive gears redirect the torque to the differential case. When the pinion gear is rotated
so that the drive axle shafts turn in a motion parallel by the drive shaft, the ring gear rotates and turns the
to the rotation of the drive wheels. differential case and axle shafts. Most automotive
The final drive gears in the drive axle assembly are applications have two pinion gears mounted on a
also sized to provide a gear reduction, or a torque straight shaft in the differential case. On heavier
multiplication. Axles with a low (numerically high) trucks, the differential contains four pinion gears
gear ratio allow for fast acceleration and good pulling mounted on a cross-shaped spider in the differential
power. Axles with high gear ratios allow the engine to case. The pinion shafts are mounted in holes in the
run slower at any given speed, resulting in better fuel case (or in matching grooves in the case halves) and
conservation. are secured by a lock bolt or retaining rings.
Opposing tapered
roller bearings
Figure 39–27 The flow of oil in a hypoid gear set as

it spins. Courtesy of Dana Corporation
The sliding effect of two hypoid gears meshing

tends to wipe lubricant from the face of the gears,
resulting in eventual damage (Figure 39–27). Differ-
entials require the use of extreme pressure-type lubri-
cants. The additives in this type of lubricant allow the
lubricant to withstand the wiping action of the gear
teeth without separating from the gear face.
Figure 39–25 The pinion drive is supported by
bearings.
Types of Final Drive Gear Sets Ring and pinion gear
sets are normally classified as hunting, nonhunting,
A differential also contains two side or axle gears. or partial nonhunting gears. These classifications are
The inside bore of these gears is splined and mates based on the number of teeth on the pinion and ring
with splines on the ends of the axles. The differential gears. Knowing the type of gear set is important when
pinion gears and side gears are in constant mesh. The diagnosing and servicing final drive assemblies.
pinion gears are mounted on a pinion gear shaft,
which is mounted in the differential casing. As the case ■ Hunting Gear Set. When one drive pinion gear
turns with the ring gear, the pinion shaft and gears also tooth contacts every ring gear tooth after several
turn. The pinion gears deliver torque to the side gears. revolutions, this is called a hunting gear set. In
other words, the drive pinion hunts out each ring
Hypoid Gear A hypoid gear contacts more than gear tooth. A typical hunting gear set may have
one tooth at a time. The hypoid gear also makes con- nine drive pinion teeth and thirty-seven ring gear
tact with a sliding motion. This sliding action provides teeth. The rear-axle ratio for this combination
smooth and quiet operation. With a hypoid gear set, would be 4.11:1.
the pinion gear is placed lower in the differential. The ■ Nonhunting Gear Set. When one drive pinion
drive pinion meshes with the ring gear at a point gear tooth contacts only certain ring gear teeth,
below its centerline (Figure 39–26). the gear set is a nonhunting gear set. A typical
CL CL
Spiral bevel Hypoid gear set

Figure 39–26 In a hypoid gear set, the drive pinion meshes with the ring gear at a point
below its centerline.
Paint marking
indicates
position
in which gears
were lapped.
Figure 39–28 Index marks on a ring and pinion

gear set. Courtesy of Ford Motor Company
nonhunting gear set may have ten drive pinion

teeth and thirty ring gear teeth. The rear-axle ratio
for this combination would be 3.00:1. For every Figure 39–29 A typical removable-carrier axle
revolution of the ring gear, each drive pinion tooth housing.
would contact the same three teeth of the ring
gear. The drive pinion gear teeth do not hunt out it is often called a banjo housing. The backside of the
all ring gear teeth. Nonhunting gear sets have tim- housing is closed to seal out dirt and contaminants
ing marks that must be aligned (Figure 39–28). and keep in the lubricant. The differential is mounted
These marks allow the gear set to be placed in the in a carrier assembly that can be removed as a unit
same position as they were when the gears were from the axle housing (Figure 39–29). Removable
lapped during the manufacturing process. Return- carrier axle housings are most commonly used today
ing the gears to this position allows for quiet and on trucks and other heavy-duty vehicles.
durable operation. The integral housing is most often found on late-
■ Partial Nonhunting Gear Set. The difference model cars and light trucks (Figure 39–30). A cast-
between nonhunting and partial nonhunting iron carrier forms the center of the axle housing. Steel
gear sets is the number of ring gear teeth that are axle tubes are pressed into both sides of the carrier to
contacted. In a partial nonhunting gear set, one form the housing. The housing and carrier have a
drive pinion tooth contacts six ring gear teeth removable rear cover that allows access to the differ-
instead of three. During the first revolution of the ential assembly. Because the carrier is not removable,
ring gear, one drive pinion tooth contacts three the differential components must be removed and
ring gear teeth. During the second revolution of serviced separately. For many operations, a case
the ring gear, the drive pinion tooth contacts three spreader must be used to remove the components. In
different ring gear teeth. During every other ring addition to providing a mounting place for the differ-
gear revolution, one drive pinion tooth contacts ential, the axle housing also contains brackets for
the same ring gear teeth. A typical partial non- mounting suspension components such as control
hunting gear set may have ten drive pinion teeth arms, leaf springs, and coil springs.
and thirty-five ring gear teeth. The rear-axle ratio Some vehicles have an ABS speed sensor attached
for this combination would be 3.50:1. These gear to the carrier housing for rear-wheel lockup preven-
sets also have timing marks that must be aligned tion during braking.
during service.
Differential Operation
Rear Axle Housing and Casing The amount of power delivered to each driving wheel
The differential and final drive gears in a rear-drive by differential is expressed as a percentage. When the
vehicle are housed in the rear axle housing, or carrier. vehicle moves straight ahead, each driving wheel
The axle housing also contains the two drive axle rotates at 100% of the differential case speed. When
shafts. Two types of axle housings are found on mod- the vehicle is turning, the inside wheel might be get-
ern automobiles: the removable carrier and the inte- ting 90% of the differential case speed. At the same
gral carrier. The removable carrier axle housing is time, the outside wheel might be getting 110% of the
open on the front side. Because it resembles a banjo, differential case speed.
Cover
Differential
Gasket side gear
Differential
case cover
Shaft
retainer
Thrust
washer Differential
Bearing Adjusting lock nut
Bearing Bearing cap Axle
cup housing
Bearing Pinion and

adjusting ring gear
nut Bearing preload
Pinion locating spacer
shims
Seal
Axle shaft Bearing cup
Gasket Bearing
Gasket
Deflector
Axle shaft seal Flange
Wheel bearing
Wheel bearing retainer

Figure 39–30 An exploded view of an integral-carrier axle housing with a hypoid final
drive assembly and semifloating axles.
Power flow through the axle begins at the drive bolted to the differential case, the case must rotate
pinion yoke, or companion flange (Figure 39–31). with the ring gear. The pinion gear shaft mounted in
The companion flange accepts torque from the rear the differential case must also rotate with the case
U-joint. The companion flange is attached to the drive and the ring gear. The pinions turn end over end.
pinion gear, which transfers torque to the ring gear. Gears do not rotate on the pinion shaft when both
As the ring gear turns, it turns the differential case and driving wheels are turning at the same speed. They
the pinion shaft. The differential pinion gears transfer rotate end over end as the differential case rotates.
torque to the side gears to turn the driving axle shafts. Because the pinions are meshed with both side gears,
The differential pinion gears determine how much the side gears rotate and turn the axle shafts. The ring
torque goes to each driving axle, depending on the gear, differential gears, and axle shafts turn together
resistance an axle shaft or wheel has while turning. without variation in speed as long as the vehicle is
The pinion gears can move with the carrier, and they moving in a straight line.
can rotate on the pinion shaft. When a vehicle turns into a curve or negotiates a
When drive shaft torque is applied to the input turn, the wheels on the outside of the curve must
shaft and drive pinion, the shaft rotates in a direction travel a greater distance than the wheels on the inside
that is perpendicular to the vehicle’s drive axles. When of the curve. The outer wheels must then rotate faster
this rotary motion is transferred to the ring gear, the than the inside wheels. This would be impossible if
torque flow changes direction and becomes parallel the axle shafts were locked solidly to the ring gear.
to the axle shafts and wheels. Because the ring gear is However, the differential allows the outer wheels and
(A) Drive pinion side gear to rotate faster than the differential case.
Ring gear
This causes the pinions to rotate and walk around
Differential the slowing down side gear. As the pinions turn to
case allow the left-side gear to increase speed, a reverse
action—known as a reverse walking effect—is pro-
duced on the right-side gear. It slows down an
amount that is inversely proportional to the increase
Axle in the left-side gear.
Pinion gear
Differential
Shaft
side gear LIMITED-SLIP DIFFERENTIALS
Driveline torque is evenly divided between the two
(B) rear drive axle shafts by the differential. As long as the
tires grip the road, providing a resistance to turning,
the drivetrain forces the vehicle forward. When one
tire encounters a slippery spot on the road, it loses
traction, resistance to rotation drops, and the wheel
begins to spin. Because resistance has dropped, the
torque delivered to both drive wheels changes. The
wheel with good traction is no longer driven. If the
80 rpm 120 rpm vehicle is stationary in this situation, only the wheel
over the slippery spot rotates. When this is occurring,
Inside Outside the differential case is driving the differential pinion
axle axle gears around the stationary side gear.
This situation places stress on the differential
gears. When the wheel spins because of traction loss,
(C) the speed of some of the differential gears increases
greatly, while others remain idle. The amount of heat
developed increases rapidly, the lube film breaks
down, metal-to-metal contact occurs, and the parts
are damaged. If spinout is allowed to continue long
enough, the axle could break. The final drive or differ-
100 rpm 100 rpm ential gears can also be damaged from prolonged
spinning of one wheel. This is especially true if the
spinning wheel suddenly has traction. The shock of
the sudden traction can cause severe damage to the
drive axle assembly.
Figure 39–31 (A) Basic differential components; To overcome these problems, differential manu-
(B) differential action while the vehicle is turning left; facturers have developed the limited-slip differential
(C) differential action while the vehicle is moving straight. (LSD). LSDs are manufactured under such names as
sure-grip, no-spin, positraction, or equal-lock. Some
vehicles use a viscous clutch in their limited-slip drive
axle shaft to increase in speed and the inner wheels axles. These units are predominantly used in 4WD
and axle to slow down, thus preventing the skidding vehicles and are discussed in Chapter 43.
and rapid tire wear that would otherwise occur. The
differential action also makes the vehicle much easier Clutch-Based Units
to control while turning. Many LSDs use friction material to transfer the torque
For example, when a car makes a sharp right- applied to a slipping wheel to the one with traction.
hand turn, the left-side wheels, axle shaft, and side Those that use a clutch pack (Figure 39–32) have two
gear must rotate faster than the right-side wheels, sets (one for each side gear) of clutch plates and fric-
axle shaft, and side gear. The left side of the axle must tion discs to prevent normal differential action. The
speed up and the right side must slow down. This is friction discs are steel plates with an abrasive coating
possible because the pinions to which the side gears on both sides. These discs fit over the external splines
are meshed are free to rotate on the pinion shaft. The on the side gears’ hub. The clutch plates are also made
increased speed of the left-side wheels causes the of steel but have no friction material bonded to them.
Patented Equvex©
Right
Ring gear parallel gear design
axle
power input
Left
axle
Figure 39–32 A late-model sophisticated LSD with

friction clutches. Courtesy of Dana Corporation
Figure 39–34 A Torsen torque-sensitive LSD.

Differential Driven wheel Clutch pack Courtesy of JTEKT Torsen North America, Inc.
case locked to case engaged
to axle shaft them, which allows the vehicle to have differential
Clutch pack
engaged action when it is turning a corner.
Differential
Gear-Based Units
Manufacturers are using a wide range of LSD designs
other than the typical clutch type. These designs were
born out of the need to improve vehicle stability and
Differential
case inner Inner wall tire traction. Many are gear-based and are often called
wall Outer side torque-bias or torque-sensing (Torsen) units. The
Outer side gear face basis of these units is a parallel-axis helical gear set
Spinning wheel
gear face locked to case (Figure 39–34). The Torsen differential multiplies the
torque available from the wheel that is starting to spin
Energized clutches cause locked differential. or lose traction and sends it to the slower turning
Figure 39–33 Action of the clutches in a limited- wheel with the better traction. This action is initiated
slip differential. by the resistance between the sets of gears in mesh.
Helical-geared LSDs respond very quickly to
The plates are placed between the friction discs and changes in traction. They also do not bind in turns
fit into internal splines in the differential case. Pres- and do not lose their effectiveness with wear as clutch-
sure is kept on the clutch packs by either an S-shaped based units can.
spring or coil springs.
As long as the friction discs maintain their grip on AXLE SHAFTS
the steel plates, the differential side gears are locked to The purpose of an axle shaft is to transfer driving
the differential case (Figure 39–33), allowing the case torque from the differential assembly to the vehicle’s
and drive axles to rotate at the same speed and prevent- driving wheels. There are two types of axles: dead and
ing one wheel from spinning faster than the other. live or drive. A dead axle does not drive a vehicle. It
A common LSD uses two cone-shaped parts to merely supports the vehicle load and provides a
lock the side gears to the differential case. The cones mounting place for the wheels. The rear axle of a FWD
are located between the side gears and the case and vehicle is a dead axle, as are the axles used on trailers.
are splined to the side gear hubs. The exterior surface A live axle is one that drives the vehicle. Drive axles
of the cones is coated with a friction material that transfer torque from the differential to each driving
grabs the inside surface of the case. Four to six coil wheel. Depending on the design, rear axles can also
springs mounted in thrust plates between the side help carry the weight of the vehicle or even act as part
gears maintain a preload on the cones. When the of the suspension. Three types of driving axles are
cones are forced against the case, the axles rotate with commonly used (Figure 39–35): semifloating, three-
the differential case. quarter floating, and full-floating.
The clutch plates and cones are designed to slip All three use axle shafts that are splined to the dif-
when a predetermined amount of torque is applied to ferential side gears. At the wheel ends, the axles can
inside the housing as in the semifloating axle. The

wheel hubs are bolted to the end of the axle shaft
(A)
and are supported by the bearing. In this arrange-
ment, the axle shaft only supports 25% of the vehi-
cle’s weight. The weight is transferred through the
wheel hub and bearing to the axle housing. Three-
(B) quarter floating axles are found on older vehicles
and some trucks.
Full-Floating Axle Shafts
Most medium- and heavy-duty vehicles use a full-
(C) floating axle shaft. This design is similar to the three-
quarter floating axle except that two bearings rather
Figure 39–35 The types of rear axle shafts:
(A) semifloating; (B) three-quarter floating; and (C) full-floating. than one are used to support the wheel hub. These
are slid over the outside of the axle housing and carry
all of the stresses caused by torque loading and turn-
be attached in any one of a number of ways. This ing. The wheel hubs are bolted to flanges on the outer
attachment defines the type of axle it is and the man- end of each axle shaft.
ner in which the shafts are supported by bearings. In operation, the axle shaft transmits only the driv-
ing torque. The driving torque from the axle shaft
Semifloating Axle Shafts
rotates the axle flange, wheel hub, and rear driving
Semifloating axles help to support the weight of the
wheel. The wheel hub forces its bearings against the
vehicle. Most RWD vehicles have semifloating axles.
axle housing to move the vehicle. The stresses caused
The axles are supported by bearings located in the
by turning, skidding, and bent or wobbling wheels are
axle housing. An axle shaft bearing supports the vehi-
taken by the axle housing through the wheel bearings.
cle’s weight and reduces rotational friction. The inner
If a full-floating axle shaft should break, it can be
ends of the axle shafts are splined to the axle side
removed from the axle housing. Because the rear
gears. The axle shafts transmit only driving torque
wheels rotate around the rear axle housing the dis-
and are not acted upon by other forces. Therefore, the
abled vehicle can be towed to a service area for
axle shafts are said to be floating.
replacement of the axle shaft.
The driving wheels are bolted to the outer ends of
the axle shafts. The outer axle bearings are located Independently Suspended Axles
between the axle shaft and axle housing. This type of In an independently suspended axle system, the driv-
axle has a bearing pressed into the end of the axle ing axles are usually open instead of being enclosed in
housing. This bearing supports the axle shaft. The an axle housing. The two most common suspended
axle shaft is held in place with either a bearing retainer rear driving axles are the DeDion axle system and the
belted to a flange on the end of the axle housing or by swing axle system.
a C-shaped washer that fits into grooves machined in The DeDion axle system resembles a normal
the splined end of the shaft. A flange on the wheel end driveline. The driving axles look like a drive shaft with
of the shaft is used to attach the wheel. U-joints at each end of the axles. A slip joint is attached
When semifloating axles are used to drive the to the innermost U-joint. The outboard U-joint is
vehicle, the axle shafts push on the shaft bearings as connected to the wheel hub, which allows the driving
they rotate. This places a driving force on the axle axle to move up and down as it rotates.
housing, springs, and vehicle chassis, moving the On vehicles that use a swing axle, the driving axle
vehicle forward. The axle shaft faces the bending shafts can be open or enclosed. An axle fits into the
stresses associated with turning corners and curves, differential by way of a ball-and-socket system. The
skidding, and bent or wobbling wheels, as well as the ball-and-socket system allows the axle to pivot up
weight of the vehicle. In the semifloating axle arrange- and down. As the axle pivots, the driving wheel swings
ment with a C-shaped washer-type retainer, if the up and down. This system best describes the drive
axle shaft breaks, the driving wheel comes away from axles of a FWD vehicle.
or out of the axle housing.
Axle Shaft Bearings
Three-Quarter Floating Axle The axle shaft bearing supports the vehicle’s weight
The wheel bearing on a three-quarter floating axle and reduces rotational friction. In an axle mount,
is on the outside of the axle housing instead of radial and thrust loads are always present on the axle
shaft bearing when the vehicle is moving. Radial bear- Axle

ing loads act at 90 degrees to the axle shaft’s center of shaft
axis. Radial loading is always present whether or not
the vehicle is moving.
Thrust loading acts on the axle bearing parallel
with the center of axis. It is present on the driving
wheels, axle shafts, and axle bearings when the vehi-
cle turns corners or curves.
There are three designs of axle shaft bearings used
C-Lock
in semifloating axles: ball-type bearing, straight roller
bearing, and tapered roller bearing. Figure 39–37 The location of C-lock type axle
The bearing load of primary concern is axle shaft shaft retainers.
end thrust. When a vehicle moves around a corner,
centrifugal force acts on the vehicle body, causing it tial, and the differential cover must be removed to
to lean to the outside of the curve. The vehicle’s chas- gain access to it. To remove this type of axle, first
sis does not lean because of the tires’ contact with the remove the wheel, brake drum, and differential cover.
road’s surface. As the body leans outward, a thrust Then remove the differential pinion shaft retaining
load is placed on the axle shaft and axle bearing. Each bolt and differential pinion shaft. Now push the axle
type of axle shaft bearing handles end thrust shaft in and remove the C-shaped washer. The axle
differently. can now be pulled out of the housing.
Normally, the way the axles are held in the hous- Ball bearings are lubricated with grease packed in
ing is quite obvious after the rear wheels and brake the bearing at the factory. An inner seal, designed to
assemblies have been removed. If the axle shaft is keep the gear oil from the bearing, rides on the axle
held in by a retainer and three or four bolts, it is not shaft just in front of the retaining ring. This type of
necessary to remove the differential cover to remove bearing also has an outer seal to prevent grease from
the axle. Most ball and tapered roller bearing sup- spraying onto the rear brakes. Ball-type axle bearings
ported axle shafts are retained in this manner (Fig- are pressed on and off the axle shaft. The retainer ring
ure 39–36). To remove the axle, remove the bolts that is made of soft metal and is pressed onto the shaft
hold the retainer to the backing plate, then pull the against the wheel bearing. Never use a torch to remove
axle out. Normally, the axle shaft slides out without the ring. Rather, drill into it or notch it in several places
the aid of a puller. Sometimes a puller is required. with a cold chisel to break the seal (Figure 39–38).
A straight-roller bearing supported axle shaft does The ring can then be slid off the shaft easily. Heat
not use a retainer to secure it. Rather, a C-shaped should not be used to remove the ring because it can
washer is used to retain the axle shaft (Figure 39–37). take the temper out of the shaft and thereby weaken
This C-shaped washer is located inside the differen-
Sealed
axle shaft
bearing Retaining
ring Retainer
Chisel retainer
but do not mark
the bearing surface
Retainer
ring
Bearing Projected
retainer Bearing
end of race
plate Figure 39–38 Freeing the retainer ring from an
Figure 39–36 The location of an axle bearing retainer. axle shaft.
it. Likewise, a torch should never be used to remove a ■ Coast mode. The throttle is released and the vehi-
bearing from an axle shaft. cle is allowed to coast down from a specific speed.
Roller axle bearings are lubricated by the gear oil ■ Float mode. This is controlled deceleration. The
in the axle housing. Therefore, only a seal to protect throttle is slowly released. It is important that the
the brakes is necessary with these bearings. These brakes be applied during this test mode.
bearings are typically pressed into the axle housing
and not onto the axle. To remove them, the axle must During each of these modes, the stress on the vari-
first be removed and then the bearing pulled out of ous driveline parts changes. The cause of a problem is
the housing. With the axle out, inspect the area where identified by thinking about what is under and not
it rides on the bearing for pits or scores. If pits or score under stress during each mode.
marks are present, replace the axle.
Tapered-roller axle bearings are not lubricated by CAUTION!
gear oil. They are sealed and lubricated with wheel
grease. This type of bearing uses two seals and must Remember that driving safely is always
be pressed on and off the axle shaft using a press. After important! Hard cornering or sudden braking
the bearing is pressed onto the shaft, it must be packed should be avoided. Abusive driving can worsen
with wheel bearing grease. After packing the bearing, a problem or create a new one. Carelessness
install the axle in the housing. Shaft end play must be during the test drive can result in an accident.
checked. Use a dial indicator and adjust the end play Remember, you are responsible for someone
to the specifications given in the service manual. If else’s vehicle.
the end play is not within specifications, change the
size of the bearing shim.
The installation of new axle shaft seals is recom-
mended whenever the axle shafts have been removed. SERVICING THE FINAL
Some axle seals are identified as being either right or DRIVE ASSEMBLY
left side. When installing new seals, make sure to Before removing a final drive unit for service, make
install the correct seal in each side. Check the seals or sure it needs to be serviced. Typically, problems with
markings of right or left or for color coding. the differential and drive axles are first noticed as a
leak or noise. As the problem worsens, vibrations or a
clunking noise might be felt during certain operating
USING SERVICE INFORMATION conditions. Diagnosis of the problem should begin
The driveline can create some especially difficult with a road test in which the vehicle is taken through
diagnostic problems. The driveline easily picks up the different modes of operation.
vibrations and noises from other parts of the vehi-
cle. A test drive is the best way to begin diagno-
Basic Diagnosis
sis. Most service manuals have a road test It is common for the source of a noise to be tires, not
checklist that helps with identifying the cause of a the final drive unit. To make sure the noises are not
noise or vibration. caused by tire tread patterns and/or wear, drive the
car on various types of road surfaces (asphalt, concrete,
and packed dirt). If the noise changes with the road
Diagnosis surfaces, it means the tires are the cause of the noise.
The key to diagnosing a drive axle or differential prob- Another way to isolate tire noises is to coast at
lem is to note what happens during different vehicle speeds less than 30 mph (48 km/h). If the noise is still
speeds and speed changes. Most manufacturers rec- heard, the tires are probably the cause. Drive axle and
ommend that the vehicle be operated in four distinct differential noises are less noticeable at these speeds.
modes during the road test. Accelerate and compare the sounds to those made
while coasting. Drive axle and differential noises
■ Drive mode. The vehicle is accelerated; the throttle change. Tire noise remains constant.
must be depressed enough to apply sufficient Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between
engine torque. axle-bearing noises and noises coming from the differ-
■ Cruise mode. Vehicle speed is held constant. This ential. Differential noises often change with the driving
means that the throttle must be applied at all mode, whereas axle-bearing noises are usually con-
times. The speed must be held at a predetermined stant. The sound of the bearing noise usually increases
rpm on a level road. in speed and loudness as vehicle speed increases.
Operational noises are generally caused by bear- Some ring gear assemblies have an excitor ring,
ings or gears that are worn, loose, or damaged. Bear- used in antilock brake systems. This ring is normally
ing noises might be a whine or a rumble. A whine is a pressed onto the ring gear hub and can be removed
high-pitched, continuous “whee” sound. A rumble after the ring gear is removed. If the ring gear assem-
sounds like distant thunder. bly is equipped with an excitor ring, carefully inspect
Gears can also whine or emit a howl—a very loud, it and replace it if it is damaged.
continuous sound. Howling is often caused by low Prior to disassembling the unit, the drive shaft
lubricant in the drive axle housing. The meshing teeth must be removed. Before disconnecting it from the
scrape metal from each other and can be heard in all pinion’s companion flange, locate the shaft-to-pin-
gear ranges. If topping up the lubrication level does ion alignment marks. If they are not evident, make
not alleviate the howling noise, then the drive pinion new ones. This avoids assembling the unit with the
and ring gear must be replaced. wrong index, which can result in driveline vibration.
During disassembly, keep the right and left shims,
Disassembly cups, and caps separated. If any of these parts are
Although FWD axle final drive units are normally an reused, they must be installed on the same side as
integral part of the transaxle, most of the procedures they were originally located.
for servicing RWD units apply to them. To service a
final drive assembly in removable carrier housing, the Assembly
unit must be removed from the housing. Units in When installing a ring gear onto the differential case,
integral carriers are serviced in the housing. make sure the bolt holes are aligned before pressing
A highly important step in the procedure for disas- the gear in place. While pressing the gear, pressure
sembling any final drive unit is a careful inspection of should be evenly applied to the gear. Likewise, when
each part as it is removed. The bearings should be tightening the bolts, always tighten them in steps and
looked at and felt to determine if there are any defects to the specified torque. These steps reduce the
or evidence of damage. chances of distorting the gear.
After the ring and pinion gears have been inspected Examine the gears to locate any timing marks on
and before they have been removed from the assembly, the gear set that indicate where the gears were lapped
check the side play. Using a screwdriver, attempt to move by the manufacturer. Normally, one tooth of pinion
the differential case assembly laterally. Any movement is gear is grooved and painted, while the ring gear has a
evidence of side play. Side play normally indicates that as notch between two painted teeth. If the paint marks
the result of loose bearing cones on the differential case are not evident, locate the notches. Proper timing of
hubs, the differential case must be replaced. the gears is set by placing the grooved pinion tooth
Prior to disassembling the assembly, measure the between the two marked ring gear teeth. Some gear
runout of the ring gear. Excessive runout can be sets have no timing marks. These gears are hunting
caused by a warped gear, worn differential side bear- gears and do not need to be timed. Nonhunting and
ings, warped differential case, or particles trapped partial nonhunting gears must be timed.
between the gear and case. Runout is checked with a Whenever the ring and pinion gears or the pinion
dial indicator mounted on the carrier assembly. The or differential case bearings are replaced, pinion gear
plunger on the indicator should be set at a right angle depth, pinion bearing preload, and the ring and pinion
to the gear. With the dial indicator in position and its gear tooth patterns and backlash must be checked and
dial set to zero, rotate the ring gear and note the high- adjusted. This holds true for all types of differentials
est and lowest readings. The difference between these except most FWD differentials that use helical-cut
two readings indicates the total runout of the ring gears, and taking tooth patterns is not necessary. Nearly
gear. Normally, the maximum permissible runout is all other final drive units use hypoid gears that must be
0.003 to 0.004 inches (0.0762 to 0.1016 mm). properly adjusted to ensure a quiet operation.
To determine if the runout is caused by a damaged Pinion gear depth is adjusted with shims placed
differential case, remove the ring gear and measure behind the pinion bearing (Figure 39–39) or in the
the runout of the ring gear mounting surface on the housing. The thickness of the drive pinion rear bear-
differential case. Runout should not exceed 0.004 inch ing shim controls the depth of the mesh between the
(0.1016 mm). If runout is greater than that, the case pinion and ring gear. To determine and set pinion
should be replaced. If the runout was within specifi- depth, a special tool is normally used to select the
cations, the ring gear is probably warped and should proper pinion shim (Figure 39–40). Always follow the
be replaced. A ring gear is never replaced without procedures in the service manual when setting up the
replacing its mating pinion gear. tool and determining the proper shim.
A typical procedure for measuring and adjusting

backlash and preload involves rocking the ring gear
and measuring its movement with a dial indicator.
Compare measured backlash with the specifications.
Make the necessary adjustments. Then recheck the
Shim backlash at four points equally spaced around the
Figure 39–39 The typical placement of a pinion ring gear. Normally, backlash should be less than
gear depth shim. 0.004 inch (0.1016 mm).
The pattern of gear teeth determines how quietly
two meshed gears run. The pattern also describes
where on the faces of the teeth the two gears mesh.
The pattern should be checked during teardown for
gear noise diagnosis, after adjusting backlash and
side-bearing preload, or after replacing the drive pin-
ion and setting up the pinion bearing preload. The
terms commonly used to describe the possible pat-
terns on a ring gear and the necessary corrections are
shown in Figure 39–41.
To check the gear tooth pattern, paint several
ring gear teeth with nondrying Prussian blue, ferric
oxide, or red or white lead marking compound (Fig-
ure 39–42). White marking compound is preferred by
many technicians because it tends to be more visible
than the others are. Use the pinion gear yoke or com-
Figure 39–40 A special tool for measuring proper panion flange to rotate the ring gear. This will preload
pinion gear depth.
the ring gear while it is rotating and will simulate vehi-
Pinion bearing preload is set by tightening the cle load. Rotate the ring gear so the painted teeth con-
pinion nut until the desired number of inch-pounds tact the pinion gear. Move it in both directions enough
is required to turn the shaft. Tightening the nut to get a clearly defined pattern. Examine the pattern
crushes the collapsible pinion spacer, which main- on the ring gear and make the necessary corrections.
tains the desired preload. Never overtighten and then Most new gear sets purchased today come with a
loosen the pinion nut to reach the desired torque pattern prerolled on the teeth. This pattern provides
reading. Tightening and loosening the pinion nut the quietest operation for that gear set. Never wipe
damages the collapsible spacer. It must then be this pattern off or cover it up. When checking the pat-
replaced. For the exact procedures and specifications tern on a new gear set, only coat half of the ring gear
for bearing preload, refer to the service manual. Incor-
rect bearing preload can cause differential noise.
Some cases use shims to set pinion bearing preload.
It is recommended that a new pinion seal be installed
whenever the pinion shaft is removed from the differ-
ential. To install a new seal, thoroughly lubricate it and
press it in place with an appropriate seal driver.
Backlash of the gear set is adjusted at the same
time as the side-bearing preload. Side-bearing pre-
load limits the amount the differential is able to move
laterally in the axle housing. Adjusting backlash sets
the depth of the mesh between the ring and pinion
gear teeth. Both of these are adjusted by shim thick-
ness or by the adjustments made by the side-bearing
adjusting nuts. Photo Sequence 40 goes through the
typical procedure for measuring and adjusting back-
lash and side-bearing preload on a gearset that uses
Figure 39–41 Commonly used terms for describing
shims for adjustment. Photo Sequence 41 covers the the possible patterns on a ring gear with the recommended
same steps for a unit that has adjusting nuts. corrections. Courtesy of Ford Motor Company
PHOTO Measuring and Adjusting Backlash and
SEQUENCE Side-Bearing Preload on a Final Drive
40 Assembly with a Shim Pack
P40–3 Install service spacers that

are the same thickness as the original
P40–1 Measure the thickness of P40–2 Install the differential case preload shims between each bearing
the original side bearing preload shims. into the housing. cup and the housing.
P40–5 Mount a dial indicator to the

housing so that the button of the indica-
tor touches the face of the ring gear. Using
two screwdrivers, pry between the shims P40–6 Select two shims with a
and the housing. Pry to one side and set combined thickness to that of the
P40–4 Install the bearing caps and the dial indicator to zero, then pry to the original shims plus the indicator reading,
finger tighten the bolts. opposite side and record the reading. then install them.
P40–9 Check the backlash and

preload of the gear set. Check the back-
lash by holding the input pinion, rocking
the ring gear, and noting the movement
P40–7 Using the proper tool, drive P40–8 Install and tighten the on the dial indicator. Adjust the shim
the shims into position until they are bearing caps to specifications. pack to allow for the specified backlash.
fully seated. Recheck the backlash at four points
equally spaced around the ring gear.
1167
PHOTO Measuring and Adjusting Backlash and
SEQUENCE Side-Bearing Preload on a Final Drive
41 Assembly with Adjusting Nuts
P41–1 Lubricate the differential P41–2 Install the differential case P41–3 Install the bearing cups and
bearings, cups, and adjusters. into the housing. adjusting nuts onto the differential case.
P41–5 Turn each adjuster until

P41–4 Snugly tighten the top bearing free play is eliminated with little P41–6 Seat the bearings by
bearing cup bolts and finger tighten or no backlash present between the ring rotating the pinion several times each
the lower bolts. and pinion gears. time the adjusters are moved.
P41–7 Install a dial indicator and

position the plunger against the drive
side of the ring gear. Set the dial to zero.
Using two screwdrivers, pry between P41–8 Determine how much the P41–9 Check the backlash by
the differential case and the housing. preload needs to be adjusted and set rocking the ring gear and noting the
Observe the reading. the preload by turning the right movement on the dial indicator.
adjusting nut.
P41–10 Adjust the backlash by

turning both adjusting nuts in equal
amounts so that the preload adjustment P41–11 Install the locks on the P41–12 Tighten the bearing cap
remains unchanged. adjusting nuts. bolts to the specified torque.
1168
revolve at high speeds while the opposite wheel

remains stationary.
Another gear noise that is common in differentials
is the chuckle. A chuckle is a low “heh-heh” sound
that occurs when gears are worn to the point where
there is excessive clearance between the pinion gear
and the ring gear. Chuckle sounds occur most often
in the decelerating mode, particularly below 40 mph
(65 km/h). As the vehicle decelerates, the chuckle also
slows and can be heard all the way to a stop.
A knock or clunk is caused by excessive wear or
loose or broken parts. A knock is a repetitious rapping
Figure 39–42 To check gear tooth patterns, several sound that occurs during all phases of driving but is
teeth of the ring gear are coated with a marking compound most noticeable during acceleration and deceleration
and the pinion gear is rotated with the ring gear. The resultant when the gears are loaded.
pattern shown on the teeth determines how the gear set
ought to be adjusted.
A clunk is a sharp, loud noise caused by one part
hitting another. Unlike a knock, a clunk can be felt as
well as heard. Clunks are generally caused by loose
with the marking compound and compare the pat- parts striking each other.
tern with the prerolled pattern. Limited-slip clutch packs or cones that need ser-
vicing might be heard as a chatter or a rapid clicking
Maintenance noise that creates a vibration in the vehicle. Chatter-
Maintenance includes inspecting the level of and ing is usually noticed when rounding a corner. A
changing the gear lubricant, and lubricating the change of differential lubricant and adding friction
U-joints if they are equipped with zerk or grease fit- modifier to the fluid sometimes corrects this prob-
tings. Most modern U-joints are of the extended life lem. After draining the oil, replace it with the manu-
design, meaning they are sealed and require no peri- facturer’s suggested friction modifier and lubricant.
odic lubrication. However, it is wise to inspect the Road test the vehicle again.
joints for hidden grease plugs or fittings. To make sure that the noise heard during the test
Proper lubrication is necessary for drive axle dura- drive is coming from the differential, stop the vehicle
bility. Different applications require different gear and shift the transmission into neutral. Run the
lubes. The American Petroleum Institute (API) has engine at various rpm levels. If the noise is heard dur-
established a rating system for the various gear lubes ing this procedure, it is caused by a problem some-
available. In general, rear axles use either SAE 80- or where other than in the differential.
90-weight gear oil for lubrication, meeting API GL-4
or GL-5 specifications. With limited-slip axles, it is Vibration Problems
very important that the proper gear lube be used. Often the source of vibration is a bent axle or axle
Most often, a special friction modifier fluid should be flange, or improper mounting of the wheel to the
added to the fluid. If the wrong lubricant is used, dam- flange. To check the runout of the flange, position a
age to the clutch packs and grabbing or chattering on dial indicatior against the outer flange surface of the
turns will result. If this condition exists, try draining axle. Apply slight pressure to the center of the axle to
the oil and refilling with the proper gear lube before remove the endplay in the axle, and then zero the
servicing it. indicator. Slowly rotate the axle one complete revolu-
tion and observe the readings on the indicator. The
total amount of indicator movement is the total
DIAGNOSING DIFFERENTIAL amount of axle flange lateral runout. Compare the
NOISES measured runout with specifications.
If a whining is heard when turning corners or round- Inspect the wheel studs in the axle flange. If they
ing curves, the problem might be damaged differen- are broken or bent, they should be replaced. Also
tial pinion gears and pinion shaft. This damage is check the condition of the threads. If they have minor
caused when the inside diameter of the differential distortions, run a die over the stud. If the threads are
pinions and the outside diameter of the differential severely damaged, the stud should be replaced. Studs
pinion shaft are scored and damaged. The damage is are normally pressed in and out of the flange. Make
usually caused by allowing one driving wheel to sure you install the correct size.
CASE STUDY The technician verifies the repair by a test

drive. The replacement joint took care of the
A customer brings his subcompact, front- noise. Before releasing the car back to the
wheel-drive car into the shop complaining of owner, the technician rechecks the position
recurring noise in the front wheels. The noise and tightness of the boot clamps. The cus-
is most noticeable when the car is making tomer is called and is told what had hap-
turns. The owner states he had a similar com- pened. Although the customer is not happy
plaint a few months ago and the shop had about the mistake, he appreciates the hon-
replaced an outer CV joint. This corrected the esty of the technician. Two months later he
problem until recently. The customer sus- returned to the shop for an oil change. He has
pects that the same joint went bad again and been a regular customer ever since.
demands that the shop replace it, free of
charge, because it is obvious that the replace-
ment joint was defective. KEY TERMS
The service writer records the information
from the customer and tells him that he will Ball-type joint Partial nonhunting
be notified as soon as the problem is Collapsible spacer gear set
Cross groove joint Pinion gear
diagnosed. As soon as the customer leaves,
Dead axle Plunge joint
the service writer looks up the customer’s file
Double-Cardan joint Preload
and finds that a CV joint had been replaced Double-offset joint Radial loading
2 months ago. Fixed joint Ring gear
The service writer gives the repair order to Full-floating axle shaft Rzeppa joint
the technician, along with the old repair order. Hunting gear set Semifloating axle
The technician begins the diagnostic proce- Hypoid gear Slip yoke
dure with a test drive to verify the complaint. Inboard joint Three-quarter floating
From the test drive and a visual inspection, Limited-slip differential axle
the technician concludes that the same CV (LSD) Thrust loading
joint is faulty. What could cause the joint to Live axle Torsional damper
fail so soon? Was the replacement joint defec- Nonhunting gear set Tripod-type joint
tive? Was the replacement joint installed Outboard joint
incorrectly? Is some other fault causing the
joints to fail? No matter what the answer, it SUMMARY
seems that the customer will not be charged
for this repair. Also, it is likely that the techni- ■ FWD axles generally transfer engine torque from
the transaxle to the front wheels.
cian will not get paid for the repair.
Upon disassembly of the axle, the technician ■ Constant velocity (CV) joints provide the necessary
finds the joint’s lubricant to be contaminated transfer of uniform torque and a constant speed
while operating through a wide range of angles.
with metal shavings and moisture. A thorough
inspection of the boot reveals no tears or punc- ■ In FWD drivetrains, two CV joints are used on each
tures. While inspecting the boot, it is noticed half shaft. The different types of joints can be
referred to by position (inboard or outboard), by
that the inner end of the boot moves freely on
function (fixed or plunge), or by design (ball-type
the axle shaft. The technician knows then what
or tripod).
had caused the contamination and resulting
■ FWD half shafts can be solid or tubular, of equal or
premature failure of the joint.
unequal length, and with or without damper
When installing the replacement joint and
weights.
boot, the technician failed to properly tighten
■ Most problems with FWD systems are noted by
the inner boot clamp. This allowed lubricant
noise and vibration.
to leak from and water to enter the boot. A
new joint and boot are installed on the axle. ■ Lubricant is the most important key to a long life
for the CV joint.

Drive Axle and Differentials

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Drive Axle and Differentials

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CHAPTER

T he drive axle assembly transmits torque from the

Driver side drive shaft

Inboard and Outboard Joints

Inboard Drive axle Outboard

Tripod Plunging Joints Tripod plunging joints (Fig-

Cap and spring

Snapring Stop ring O-ring

Half-shaft Intermediate Half-shaft

15.6 inches 28.1 inches

with grease and installed, it requires no further main-

outboard joint but more likely it is the inboard

Obtaining CV Repair Parts CV Joint Service Guidelines

P37–7 The axle shaft should be P37–8 Begin boot removal by

TABLE 39–1 PROBLEM DIAGNOSIS AND SERVICE FOR FWD DRIVELINES

Problem Possible Cause Corrective Remedy

quarters of a degree due to differences between

CV Shaft and Rubber Boot Care Tips

Slip yoke Differential

complicated by the fact that the engine and transmis-

SHOP TALK Cardan joint or a CV U-joint, to help minimize drive-

Starting at the front or transmission end of a RWD Slip Yoke

Figure 39–16 A Cardan joint.

teenth century. In 1902, Clarence Spicer modified

0° 45° 90° 135° 180° 225° 270° 315° 360°

INPUT SHAFT OUTPUT SHAFT

Double Cardan assembly

bushing puller makes short work of bushing replace-

Components of Final Drives and

Figure 39–27 The flow of oil in a hypoid gear set as

The sliding effect of two hypoid gears meshing

Spiral bevel Hypoid gear set

Figure 39–28 Index marks on a ring and pinion

nonhunting gear set may have ten drive pinion

Bearing Pinion and

Axle shaft Bearing cup

Wheel bearing retainer

Figure 39–32 A late-model sophisticated LSD with

Figure 39–34 A Torsen torque-sensitive LSD.

inside the housing as in the semifloating axle. The

shaft bearing when the vehicle is moving. Radial bear- Axle

A typical procedure for measuring and adjusting

P40–3 Install service spacers that

P40–5 Mount a dial indicator to the

P40–9 Check the backlash and

P41–5 Turn each adjuster until

P41–7 Install a dial indicator and

P41–10 Adjust the backlash by

revolve at high speeds while the opposite wheel

CASE STUDY The technician verifies the repair by a test

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