CHORDATES LECTURE BRIEF

Sub-Phylum: Vertebrata

In addition to the general characteristics of chordates, vertebrates have;

i. Blocks of muscle (metameric masculature): These are muscle blocks on either side of the

body that surround the notochord and nerve cord.

ii. Triploblastic coelomates: The body structure is made up of three germ layers (layers of

embryonic cells) and a well-developed coelom (body cavity).

iii. Bilateral symmetry: The body of vertebrates is bilaterally symmetrical i.e. if the body is divided

vertically into two halves of left and right, each side is a mirror image of the other.

iv. Ventral heart. The heart of vertebrates is ventrally located with dorsal and ventral blood

vessels and a closed blood system.

v. Limbs: Vertebrates generally have four appendages that are in the forms of legs, arms, wings

or fins.

vi. Endoskeleton: vertebrates have an inner skeleton with a backbone.

vii. Digestive system: vertebrates have a digestive system of stomach and intestines. Food is

taking through the mouth which may have a tongue and teeth. Vertebrates eat plants and

animals.

viii. Nervous system: vertebrates have brain and nervous system. Chordates have the most

developed brains and complex nervous systems of all the animal phyla.

ix. Respiration: vertebrates take in oxygen and get rid of carbon dioxide through lungs or gills.

x. Reproduction: vertebrates reproduce sexually.

xi. Excretion: vertebrates get rid of wastes through kidneys and intestines.

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Class Pisces

CHARACTERISTICS

i. These are the fishes which are all aquatic.

ii. It is a cold-blooded (poikilothermic) animal, i.e. its body temperature equates with that of its
surroundings.
iii. Its body is covered with scales (absent in jawless fishes) and a layer of slime. A cartilaginous fish
has sharp, tooth-like scales that do not overlap, while a bony fish has thin, flat rounded scales
that overlap.
iv. It has fins. The paired fins are adaptations of the fore-and hind limbs.
v. It carries out gaseous exchange by gills. A bony fish has gill covers while a cartilaginous fish does
not.
vi. It has a well-developed sense of smell, and a lateral line system which enables it to detect
movements and changes in water pressure. It only has inner ears.
vii. It has a two-chambered heart.
viii. Fertilization is usually external. The eggs are tiny and may develop directly into a young fish or
pass through a larval stage.
ix. Streamlined body &muscular tail for swimming
Agnathans (Ammocete larvae)

- Gr. a (without); gnathos (jaw)

- They are jawless fishes

- Notochord stops under the middle of the skull

- None functional eyes

- Complex brain with fore, mid and hind brain regions

- Heart is a muscular blood pumping organ

- Gill filaments and gill arches are present

- They have 1 or 2 semi-circular canals

Sub Class: Ostracodermata

- This sub class has the following orders: osteostraci, anaspida, thelodonti, galaespida, pituriaspida.

- The ostracoderms are all extinct during the Paleozoic era (Cambrian to Devonian periods).

- They are all jawless fishes with an external skeleton of bone (bony armour).

- They are the oldest known vertebrates.

Sub Class: CYCLOSTOMATA

- They have circular mouth/ventral suctorial mouth with single nasal sac

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 - They are the only existing agnathans

- There body is slender, eel like, rounded, with soft skin containing mucous gland but no scale

- Median fins with cartilaginous fin rays but no paired appendages

- They have fibrous and cartilaginous skeleton and persistent notochord

- They have two (2) orders:

i. Order: PETROMYZONTIA
a. These are the lampreys
b. They are mostly parasitic with horny, rasping teeth
c. The non parasitic species have arisen from the parasitic forms by degeneration of the
teeth, alimentary canal etc
d. They are mostly marine but freshwater species also exist
e. Examples: Petromyzon marinus, Entosphenus, Lampetra, Ichthyomyzon etc
ii. Order: MYXINOIDEA
a. These are the Hagfishes
b. They are primarily scavengers
c. They are marines and spawn on the ocean floor
d. They differ from lamprey in the following ways:
- The dorsal fin is not divided and may be absent
-Their nostril is near the front of the head that opens into a canal which runs into the roof
of the pharynx
-Their eyes are vestigial
-They have no buccal funnel but have a suctorial mouth, with one large epidermal tooth
-There are six tentacles around the nostril and mouth
-They have a single semi circular canal is found in the ear

Diagram of Hagfish Myxine

Diagram of Lamprey Petromyzon

Sub Class: ACANTHODIA

i. These are the earliest known gnathostomes that appeared during the Silurian period
ii. They are probably related to modern bony fishes
iii. They are small (less than 20cm long) with large eyes
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 iv. They most likely died out because of the rapidly increasing number of ray finned fishes and
shark during the Permian period.

Sub Class: PLACODERMII

i. They are armoured jawed fishes that appeared during the Silurian period
ii. They are probably off the main line of vertebrate evolution
iii. Many had bony dermal shields
iv. Some were probably predators (with large, sharp ‘tooth plates’)

Sub Class: CHONDRICHYTES

i. These are the cartilaginous fishes

ii. The pelvic fins of males are modified as claspers
iii. They have placoid scales
iv. Body is fusiform/spindle shaped with a heterocercal caudal fin
v. They lack operculum and swim bladder
vi. Kidneys of opisthonephros type.
a. Order: ELASMOBRANCHII
i. These are the most common cartilaginous fishes
ii. Order cladoselachi are the primitive sharks, order selachi are the modern sharks
and order batoidea are the rays and skates
iii. They have first pharyngeal slit modified as a spiracle
iv. They have naked gill slits (no operculum)
v. There mouth is located ventrally
b. Order: HOLOCEPHALI
i. They are marine fishes
ii. There gill slits have a fleshy operculum and the spiracle is closed
iii. They have few scales
iv. They have common ancestors with sharks but an independent line

Sub Class: OSTEICHTHYES

i. These are the bony fishes with skeleton partly or chiefly bone
ii. The gill slits are covered by a bony operculum with homocercal tail
iii. The skin has scales with, typically, little bone
iv. Most have swim bladder
v. Mouth terminal with many teeth (some toothless), jaw present
a. Order: ACTINOPTERYGII
i. These are the ray fins
 Sub order: CHONDROSTEI
o These are the most primitive ray fins

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 o They include present day Sturgeon and Paddle fish
 Sub order: NEOPTERYGII (HOLOSTEI)
o Intermediate ray finned fish
 Family: SEMIONOTIFORMES
 They possess ganoid scales
 Example is the Lepidosteus, they are predatory to
include present day gars, Amia which include
present day bowfins (dogfish)
 Sub order: TELEOSTEI
o Climax bony fish – scale either cycloid, ctenoid or scaleless
b. Order: SARCOPTERYGII
i. These are the lobe finned fishes
 Sub Order: CROSSOPTERYGII
i. They resemble early amphibians
ii. There skull is similar to that of early amphibians
iii. They have swim bladder that may have been used as lungs
 Sub Order: DIPNOI
i. These are the lung fishes with three living genera. The African,
Australian and South American lung fishes
ii. African and South American species have inefficient gills and will
drown if held under water

TYPES OF SCALES IN BONY FISHES

a. Ganoid scales: these are platelike bony forms covered externally with enamel. They vary greatly
in variety and form among the various species. In some they are rhombic plates fitted side by
side.
b. Cycloid scales: these are rounded and thicker in the centre, like the boss on a shield. They are
marked by concentric lines and are arranged to overlap.
c. Ctenoid scales: these are also round in shape, but the exposed parts that are not overlapped
bear teeth. Intermediate types are also found between the cycloid and ctenoid varieties. Also the
same fish may bear both cycloid and ctenoid scales dorsally and cycloid scales ventrally.

REPRODUCTION

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 Most fishes have separate sexes, and sexual dimorphism is found in some. The teleosts show many
types of sexual reproduction patterns. Although the hermaphroditic condition may occasionally occur
abnormally in many species, only one or two families (for example Serranidae) are truly hermaphroditic. In
hermaphroditic forms the gonads are each divided into testicular and ovarian zones.

KIDNEYS

The kidney in fish is called an opisthonephros because it is the spatial equivalent of both the
mesonephros and melanephros (which is its classification term) level. The primitive kidney was adapted for
a freshwater existence because it originated in primitive freshwater fish. These early kidneys were designed
mainly to get rid of excess water just like the contractile vacuole of freshwater amoebae. In freshwater fish
the blood and tissues have a salt (sodium chloride) concentration of about 0.6% and there is a tendency for
water from the outside to enter the body through the gills and mouth membrane because of this difference
in osmotic pressure (the outside freshwater having only a negligible amount of salt).

OSMOREGULATION

The cyclostomata are osmoconformers. They adjust calcium, magnesium and sulphate ions to
maintain their body fluid with the surrounding medium. Freshwater teleost gain water osmotically through
the gills, they lose solutes through diffusion by the gills and in the urine. The main problem is that freshwater
teleosts have is the loss of large volume of urine. The urine produced is very dilute as up to 2/3 of solutes are
reabsorbed but even so the water loss is high. As a result the kidney has been adapted to deal with the loss
by increasing the number of nephrons for example. Most important are the gills which can take up solutes
such as sodium chloride by active transport.

The marine teleost have a typical vertebrate profile, gaining sodium chloride by diffusion and losing
water by osmosis. The gills have chloride secreting cells and are therefore important for excretion of sodium
chloride. Sea water is drunk in large quantities and the subsequent gill excretion of salt allows the water
content to remain stable. The kidney produces small volume of urine and regulates Mg, Ca and sulphate
ions. In fresh water elasmobranchs, the kidney is the major organ of control for urine and divalent ions as in
the teleost. The gill is important in the regulation of NaCl. They are hyper osmotic to the surrounding medium
so drunk very little water. The level of solutes in the blood is very low, this lowers the blood concentration
and reduces the osmotic regulation problem. A low urine flow is a consequence of reduced osmotic in flow
and therefore less water to be eliminated by the kidney.

The seawater elasmobranchs have an interesting way of coping with the osmotic problems in sea
water. They are hyper osmoregulators. Sharks, rays and also the unrelated coelacanths maintain salt
concentrations like other vertebrates at 1/3 that of the sea water but their special adaptation is that they can
still achieve constant osmotic equilibrium. This is achieved by:

i. Adding urea, produced by uricase in the liver, and other organic compounds in high quantities to
the body fluids. This retention leads to a raise total osmotic concentration in the blood compared
with seawater.

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 ii. The excretion of excess Na is done mainly by the rectal gland but the kidney and gills also play
important roles.
iii. They do not drink much water because water loss is eliminated by being in osmotic equilibrium
with the sea water and therefore avoiding high sodium intake.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

Sharks have considerable economic importance. Most are highly destructive to fish, lobsters and
crabs. In some localities sharks are used as food by man. Commercially, shark liver oil is extracted and used
in medicine as a source of vitamin A and D and shark skin leather is made into many useful articles. Gold
fish has aesthetic values.

Class: Amphibia

Evolution

Gr. amphi(double) bios (life) - the original superheroes, amphibians lead a double life, first in water,

then on land. They have a head, trunk, legs (front and hind). Some also have tails. They arose from lobe-

fined ancestor called Crossopterygians that fed on plants and insects. The early amphibians

Icthyostegaappeared during late Devonian period. They were characterized by having primitive lungs and

short limb like fins for short periods on land. They also have a tail for swimming.

Modern Amphibians are characterized by;

a. The possession of four limbs with claws on digits (toes)

b. They have three chambered heart (two atria & one ventricle)

c. Double loop blood circulation to lungs & rest of body cells

d. Skin with keratin (protein) to prevent water loss

e. Most with smooth, moist skin to take in dissolved oxygen

f. They are Ectothermal( body temperature changes with environment)

g. Show dormancy or torpor (state of inactivity during unfavorable environmental conditions). Hibernate

in winter and aestivate in summer.

h. They have aquatic larva called tadpole that goes through metamorphosis to adult. The

metamorphosis is controlled by hormone called thyroxine.

i. They practice both internal and external fertilization. Many frogs and toads lay eggs and fertilization

occurs externally. Salamanders and caecilians use internal fertilization.

Classification

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 A. Order Anura (e.g. Frog and Toad): they are known to occupy both terrestrial & freshwater habitats.

They have tadpole with tail, gills, and two-chambered heart. There adults lack a tail but with four

limbs and lungs. Frog has smooth and moist skin for cutaneous respiration, while toad has rough

and warty (poison glands) skin. They have long hind limbs for jumping. They also have long, forked

tongue hinged at front of mouth.

B. Order Urodela (e.g. Salamander and Newt): they have elongated bodies with a tail and four limbs.

They have smooth, moist skin for cutaneous respiration. They are less able to stay on dry land than

anurans. The spotted Salamanders are few centimeters long to 1.5 meters in length. They are

nocturnal when they live in drier areas.

C. Order Apoda (e.g. Caecilian): these are tropica, burrowing, worm like amphibians. They lack legs.

They have small eyes and often blind. They feed on worms and other invertebrates. They have an

average length of 30cm, but can grow up to 1.3 meters. Fertilization is internal where female bear live

young.

D. Order Tachystoma (e.g. Sirens or Mud eels): they are known as "rough mouth" amphibians; found in

eastern U.S. and southern Europe. They have minute forelimbs and lacks hind limbs.

Digestive System

They have a sticky, forked tongue that is hinged at front of mouth which can be extended out to

catch insects. They thereafter pull eyes inward to help swallow their food. They have two; sharp, backward-

pointing vomerine teeth in roof of mouth that help prevent prey from escaping. They have maxillary teeth that

line the edge of the upper jaw. The stomach makes gastric juices to break down food while pyloric sphincter

muscle controls movement of food from stomach into first part of small intestine called duodenum. The liver

makes bile to digest fats; stored in gall bladder. The pancreas makes pancreatic juice to digest food in small

intestine. Wastes are collected in large intestine and then move into cloaca along with eggs, sperm and

urine until they leave body through the anus

Circulatory System

They have 3 chambered heart (right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from body, left atrium

receives oxygenated blood from lungs, and ventricle pumps blood to lungs and rest of the body). They have

double loop blood circulation (pulmonary from heart to lungs and systemic from heart to rest of body) while

Conus arteriosus carries blood from ventricle to body cells.

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Respiratory System

Tadpoles use gills to breathe. Adult frogs breathe through lungs (pulmonary respiration) and moist

skin (cutaneous respiration) as well as bucco-pharyngeal respiration.

Excretory System

Carbon dioxide is excreted through the skin and lungs while the kidneys filters blood and store urine

in urinary bladder until it leaves the cloaca.

Nervous System

They have olfactory lobes at the base of brain that detects smells. They have cerebrum behind

olfactory lobes that controls muscles. They also have optic lobes that detect sight. The presences of

cerebellum controls balance and coordination. Medulla oblongata controls heart rate and breathing. The

cranial nerves connect brain and spinal cord, while spinal nerves branch off the spinal cord to muscles &

sensory receptors.

Class: Reptilia

Reptile is from the Latin word reperewhich implies ‘to creep’. The study of reptiles is known as

herpetology. They represent complete transition from water to land with amniotic egg. They can either be

harmful or harmless. They are heterotherm. The outstanding characteristics of reptiles are:

a. Vertebrae are gastrocentrous.

b. The limbs are of the tetrapodous pentadactyl type.

c. They have intracranial hypoglossal nerve.

d. The heart is divided into two atria and an imperfectly divided ventricle

e. Respiration is effected by lungs, functional gills are entirely absent even during embryonic life

f. They have single median occipital condyle

g. Kidney have no nephrostomes, each kidney has one separate urethra

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 h. Fertilization is internal and is of sphenodon i.e. by means of made copulatory organ

Evolution

Reptiles were the first vertebrates to make a complete transition to life on land (more food & space).

They arose from ancestral reptile group called cotylosaurs (small, lizard like reptile). The Cotylosaurs are

adapted to other environments in Permian period examples are;

a. Pterosaurs - flying reptiles

b. Ichthyosaurs & plesiosaurs - marine reptiles

c. Thecodonts - small, land reptiles that walked on back legs.

The Mesozoic Era (over 160 million years ago) called "age of reptiles i.e. the time when the Dinosaurs

dominated life on land. The Brachiosaurs were the largest dinosaurs. The herbivores species included

Brontosaurus & Diplodocus, while Tyrannosaurus were carnivores. Dinosaurs became extinct at end of

Cretaceous period. Mass extinction of many animal species was possibly due to the impact of huge asteroid

with earth; Asteroid Impact Theory. The modern reptiles evolved during the Mesozoic era.

AmnioteEgg

Amniote (shelled) egg allowed reptiles to live & reproduce on land. The egg has protective

membranes & porous shell enclosing the embryo. It has 4 specialized membranes (amnion, yolk sac,

allantois, & chorion). The Amnion is a thin membrane surrounding a salty fluid in which the embryo "floats".

The Yolk sac encloses the yolk or protein-rich food supply for embryo. The Allantois stores nitrogenous

wastes made by embryo until egg hatches. The Chorion lines the inside of the shell & regulates oxygen &

carbon dioxide exchange.

Terrestrial Adaptations of Reptiles

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 They have dry, watertight skin covered by scales made of a protein called keratin to prevent

desiccation (water loss). Their toes have claws for digging & climbing. The Geckos have toes modified into

suction cups to aid climbing. The Snakes use scales & well developed muscular & skeletal systems to move.

Reptiles uses lungs for respiration, they have double circulation of blood through heart to increase

oxygen to cells. They have partial separation in ventricle to separate oxygenated & deoxygenated blood.

They are Ectothermic - body temperature controlled by environment. They may bask or lie in sun to raise

body temperature or seek shade to lower body temperature; known as thermoregulation. Water conserved is

achieved as nitrogen wastes excreted in dry, paste like form of uric acid crystals.

Modern Reptiles:

Only 4 living orders remain found worldwide except in coldest ecosystems thus;

a. Order Rhyncocephalia (tuatara lizard). Only one living species, Spenodonpunctatus, (tuatara

lizard). They live on islands off the coast of New Zealand. They have spiny crest running down

back. They grow up to 60 cm in length. They have 3rd eye on top of head (parietal eye) that acts

as a thermostat. They are most active when temperatures are low (nocturnal). They often burrow

during the day and feed on insects, worms, & small animals at night.

b. Order Chelonia (turtles & tortoises), they are aquatic, but lay eggs on land. There body is covered

with shell composed of hard plates & tough, leathery skin. They have carapace or dorsal surface

of shell fused with vertebrae & ribs. There plastron is ventral shell surface. The shape of shell

modified for habitat. The dome shaped shell helps to retract head & limbs in tortoises. Water-

dwelling turtles have streamline, disk shaped shell to rapidly move in water. Forelimbs of marine

turtles modified into flippers. River & sea turtles migrate to breeding areas where they hatched to

lay their eggs on land.

c. Order Squamata (lizards & snakes), Snakes probably evolved from lizards during the Cretaceous

period. They have 100-400 vertebrae each with a pair of ribs & attached muscles for movement.

The interaction of bone, muscles, & skin of snakes allows them 3 ways to move (lateral,

rectilinear, & side winding).

The lateral undulation is the most common, where the head moves side to side causing

wave of muscular contractions. Snake uses sides of its body to push off of ground. They move

forward in S-shaped path.

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 In Rectilinear movements there is muscular force applied to belly & not sides of the snake.

The scutes or scales on belly catch on rough surfaces while the body relaxes & then moves

forward slowly.

Sidewinding is used by some desert snakes; sideways movement of body occurs as the

head vigorously flung from side to side and whiplike motion moves body along

Snakes may inject venom or poison:

a. Hemotoxin - poisonous proteins attacking red blood cells (water moccasin & rattlesnake)

b. Neurotoxin - poison that works on nervous system affecting heart rate & breathing (copperhead)

Venomous snakes have 3 types of fangs;

a. Rear-fanged snakes bite prey & use grooved back teeth to guide venom into puncture

(boomslang).

b. Front-fanged snakes inject poison through 2 small front fangs that act like a hypodermic needle

(cobra).

c. Hinged- fang snakes have hinged fangs in roof of mouth that swing forward to inject poison

(rattlesnake, water moccasin, copperhead)

Most snakes locate females by scent. They have internal fertilization with no parental care. They may

be oviparous (eggs hatch outside body) or ovoviviparous (eggs held inside body until hatch)

Lizards have four limbs; they includes iguanas, geckos, skinks, chameleons, etc. they rely on speed,

agility, & camouflage to catch prey. They feed on insects & small worms. Some, such as anole & chameleon,

can change colors for protection.

i. Crocodilia (alligators, caimans, and crocodiles), they are direct descendants of Archosaurs. They are

carnivorous (wait for prey to come near & then aggressively attack). Their eyes are located on top of

head so they can see when submerged. Their nostrils are on top of snout to breathe in water. The

valve in back of mouth prevents water from entering airway when feeding underwater. They lack

parental care of young in most species except Nile crocodile that carry young in their jaws &guards

nest. Crocodiles are tropical or subtropical, usually nocturnal, reptiles found in Africa, Asia, South

America, & southern Florida. Alligators are found in China & the southern United States. Caimans are

native to Central America & resemble alligators. Gavials, living only in India & Burma, are fish eating

reptiles with very slender, long snouts.

Class: Ave

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Evolution

Aves are known to evolve from reptiles. There exist few fossils to prove this due to the lack of

preservation of feathers or thin, hollow bones. The Archaeopteryx was the likely ancestors. This was due to;

a. Possible link between birds & reptiles

b. They lived during the Jurassic period.

c. They had large skull with reptile like teeth

d. The bones were not hollow

e. They had Claws on forelimbs

f. They had long tail

g. They had strong legs & rounded wings for gliding

Archaeopteryx Fossil

The first birds were the Hesperonis:

a. These bird fossils were from Cretaceous period.

b. They were large, flightless bird

c. They had teeth like reptiles

Thereafter, the Ichthyornis evolved thus;

a. Smaller, tern like bird

b. Lived during Cretaceous period

c. Had large flight wings

General Characteristics of Birds:

a. Body covered with feathers made of protein called keratin

b. They have thin, hollow bones

c. Some bones are fused for extra strength

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 d. Forelimbs are modified into wings for flight

e. Two hind limbs with claws to support upright body

f. They have scales on legs

g. They are toothless with horny beak

h. They have additional air sacs with lungs for more oxygen

i. They are endotherms (40 to 41 degrees Celsius body temperature)

j. They have Four chambered heart with single, right aortic arch

k. They have amniote egg with calcium carbonate shell

l. They are oviparious with both parents often caring for eggs

m. Eggs usually incubated within a nest

Unique features of Birds

1. Feathers, function to provide lift for flight & help conserve body heat. Five kinds of feathers are

recorded thus down, contour, flight, filoplume, & bristles.

a. The Down feathers are soft & fluffy; Cover the body of nestlings; Provide an undercoat insulating

adult birds.

b. Contour Feathers; gives streamline shape to body; Provide coloration to adult birds and give

additional insulation to body.

c. Flight Feathers are specialized contour feathers; they are found on wings & tail.

d. Filoplumes: are called pin feathers; they are hairlike feathers under contour feathers on body

2. Preen glands - oil glands located at the base of the tail. Birds shed or molt feathers periodically:

a. Molting usually in late summer between breeding & migration

b. Flight feathers replaced

c. Some birds molt before courtship

3. Beaks and Feet: these are adapted to habitat & feeding. Hawks & eagles have hooked beaks &

talons for tearing meat. Swifts have tiny beaks that open wide to catch insects in midair. Flightless

birds like ostriches have legs & feet modified for running & walking. Penguins have wings modified

into flippers for swimming. Ducks & geese with webbed feet. Legs of some birds such as herons &

egrets turn vivid colors to attract mates; caused by hormones

4. Skeleton and Muscles: there pelvic & pectoral girdles fused for strength. The bones are thin & hollow

that makes them lighter. Furculum or wishbone is a fused collarbone that stabilizes bird in flight.

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 Lighter beak replaces heavy teeth & jaws. Lower vertebrae fused so no heavy ligaments needed.

Enlarged eye sockets reduce skull weight. Keeled sternum for attachment of large flight muscles.

Pygostyle - terminal vertebrae support tail & aids in flight (lift, steering, & braking). Two digits in

forelimbs lost & other three digits fused to form wings. Wings shaped like air foils (thicker in front &

tapering to back) so air moves faster on top causing lift

5. Body Temperature: Metabolism generates body heat (endothermic) which enables birds to survive in

warm & cold environments. They have rapid breathing & increased air sacs in lungs bring in more

oxygen

6. Digestive System: they have fast & efficient digestion. They lack chewing. The crop act for temporary

storage of food. They have two part of stomach: the proventriculus & gizzard. The Proventriculus is

the first chamber where digestive juices added while the gizzard is second part for crushing food.

The small stones & gravel eaten by birds aids grinding in gizzard. The Pyloric sphincter valve at lower

end of gizzard controls food movement into intestines. The duodenum - beginning of small intestine

where bile (digests fats) & pancreatic juice are added & digested food is absorbed

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7. Excretory System: they have paired kidneys that filter nitrogen wastes (uric acid) from blood. They

lack urinary bladder to store liquid wastes. Uric acid travels down ureters to cloaca where intestinal

wastes & reproductive products added. Uric acid secreted in white, semi solid mass. In shorebirds

they have salt secreting glands above the eyes & secrete excess salt through their nostrils.

8. Respiratory System: they fly at high altitudes where there is less oxygen, thereof needs efficient

respiratory system. Because of their high metabolic rate, they requires large amount of oxygen. They

have nine air sacs associated with lungs that increase oxygen level & decrease density. There air

sacs are connected to air spaces in hollow bones. Air enters body through nostrils on beak to

thetrachea (windpipe) to thesyrinx (voice box) to the 2 primary bronchi to the75% of air into two

posterior air sacs and 25% of air into lungs then theair from lungs into other seven air sacs. When

carbon dioxide exhaled, oxygen from posterior air sacs moves into lungs to always keep fresh

oxygen supply.

9. Circulatory System: they have four chambered heart. The right side of heart pumps deoxygenated

blood from body cells to lungs while the left side of heart receives oxygenated blood from lungs &

pumps it to the body cells. They have single aortic arch.

10. Nervous System: they have large brains relative to size of bird. They have the most highly developed

brain areas control flight. The cerebellum coordinates movement; Cerebrum controls navigation,

mating, nest building, & care of young while the Optic lobes receive & interpret visual stimuli

Keen vision: Birds have color vision for locating food. They have large eyes located on side of

head for wide field of vision in most birds. Some birds such as owls with eyes on front of head for
Page 16 of 22
 binocular vision (depth perception). They lack external ears, but have feathers around ear openings

to direct sounds into ear canals. They have tympanic membrane or eardrum for picking up sound

vibrations. Semicircular canals in inner ear regulate balance. They have poorly developed sense of

smell except in ducks & flightless birds. Sense of taste helps avoid bitter tasting or toxic foods

11. Reproductive System: Testes in males produces sperm that travels by the vas deferens to cloaca.

The females have single ovary that makes eggs. The eggs are fertilized in the oviducts. Shell is added

by shell gland. In mating, male presses cloaca to female to transfer sperm (internal fertilization). They

thereafter lay an amniote egg;

a. Embryo suspended in fluid called albumen (white of egg)

b. Chalaza - rope like strands suspending embryo in albumen

c. Chorion is membrane inside of shell

d. Yolk is stored food surrounded by yolk sac

Bird Egg

12. Behavior: Longer parental care allows more complex learning (courtship, nesting, migration, etc.).

They practice territoriality which allows males to establish & defend breeding areas. Courtship

behaviors are used by males to attract mates such as;

a. Brightly colored feathers

b. Flight displays

c. Songs

13. Classification: Class Aves has 27 orders:

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 a. Gaviiformes e.g. loons

b. Pelecaniformes e.g. pelicans & cormorants

c. Ciconiiformes e.g. wading birds like ibises & herons

d. Anseriformes e.g. ducks, geese, & swans

e. Falconiformes e.g. falcons, eagles, hawks, vultures

f. Galliformes e.g. turkey, quail, pheasants

g. Gruiformes e.g. cranes, coots, & rails

h. Charadriiformes e.g. snipes, sandpipers, gulls, terns

i. Columbiformes e.g. pigeons & doves

j. Psittaciformes e.g. parrots, parakeets, & macaws

k. Cucluiformes e.g. cuckoos & roadrunners

l. Strigiformes e.g. owls

m. Caprimulgiformes e.g. whippoorwill & nighthawk

n. Apodiformes e.g. hummingbird & swifts

o. Coraciiformes e.g. kingfishers

p. Piciformes e.g. woodpeckers, sapsuckers, & flickers

q. Passeriformes e.g. perching birds like robins, cardinals, blue jays

14. Food & Habitat Adaptations:

a. Anseriformes (ducks, geese, & swans) have webbed feet for swimming & flattened bills; young

are precocial but need some parental care.

b. Strigiformes (owls) have sharp, hooked beaks & talons (claws) for meat eating, keen hearing &

eyesight, &forward facing eyes.

c. Apodiformes (hummingbirds) are small, fast-flying birds with tiny feet & long tongues for drinking

nectar; found only in western hemisphere.

d. Psittaciformes (parrots, cockatoos, parakeets...) have a strong, hooked beak for seed opening &

two forward & two rear facing toes for perching & climbing.

e. Piciformes (woodpeckers, toucans, & flickers) have two rear facing toes for dwelling in tree

cavities & sharp, chisel like bills for drilling into trees.

f. Falconiformes or raptors ( hawks, eagles, vultures) have hooked beaks & talons & keen vision for

seeing prey.

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 g. Passeriformes or songbirds (blue jays, cardinals, sparrows, robins ...) have enlarged rear facing

toe to grip branches, a syrinx or voice box in males to produce songs, & a variety of beak shapes

to feed on seeds, nectar, fruits, & insects; known as passerines or perching birds.

h. Columbiformes (pigeons & doves) have small heads & bills, a crop that makes "pigeon's milk" for

feeding young, short incubation period (2 weeks).

i. Ciconiiformes (herons, ibises, & egrets) have long legs for wading & sharp pointed bills for

piercing frogs & fish.

j. Galliformes (turkeys, quail, pheasants, & chickens) have plump bodies with limited flying &a large

gizzard for grinding grains.

k. Sphenisciformes (penguins) have wings modified into flippers, an extra layer of body fat for

insulation, & webbed feet for swimming.

l. Struthioniformes (ostrich) are the largest birds that can't fly but have long legs with only two toes

adapted for fast running.

Class: Mammalia

General Characteristics:

1. Endothermy - maintain high, constant body temperature through their metabolism

2. Pelage - hair or fur made of protein called keratin covering all or part of the body for insulation &

camouflage

3. Four chambered heart (two atria & two ventricles) keep oxygenated & deoxygenated blood from

mixing; double circulation

4. Mammary glands in females are modified sweat glands that make milk containing sugars, proteins,

& fats to nourish young.

5. Single jawbone

6. Specialized teeth for biting, cutting, & chewing

7. Highly developed brain (large cerebrum)

8. Diaphragm - muscle below lungs that aid respiration. It is sheet of muscle below lungs that moves

up & down in chest to change air pressure so gas moves into & out of the lungs

9. Most are viviparous (live birth)

10. Uterus in females where young develop

11. Placenta lines uterus & provides nutrients and gas & waste exchange for developing young

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 12. Have sweat glands for cooling & scent glands for attracting mates & marking territories

Evolution

Fossil records show mammals arose from group of reptiles called therapsids at the end of the

Paleozoic era. Therapsids were endotherms with specialized teeth like mammals. Early Mammals: the first

mammalian fossil was found in Mesozoic era (hair, single jawbone, specialized teeth, & endothermic). Early

mammals were small, shrew like, insect eaters that had large eye sockets making them probably nocturnal.

When dinosaurs became extinct, new habitats & food supplies opened up for mammals. "Age of mammals"

occurred during Cenozoic era. Oviparous (egg laying) monotremes evolved first. Viviparous (live birth)

marsupials with incomplete uterine development appeared next & then placental mammals

Classification

a. Order Monotremata: they are Oviparous. Not completely endothermic (lower body temperature & it

fluctuates). Have a cloaca where wastes, eggs, & sperm are emptied. Includes duck-billed platypus &

spiny anteaters or echidna Platypus are characterized by having waterproof fur; webbed feet; flattened

tail for swimming; flat, sensitive, rubbery muzzle used to root for worms & crayfish; Digs a den in bank

of river to lay eggs; Female curls around eggs & incubates them and Newborns lick milk from

nippleless mammary glands. The Echidnas are characterized by their habitat thus terrestrial; they have

Coat of protective spines; Long snout to probe ant hills & termite nests; Incubate eggs in a brood

pouch on female's belly

b. Order Marsupialia: they are dominant animal in Australia due to lack of competition from placental

mammals. Known as pouched animals. Pouch called marsupium. They are viviparous (live birth). Tiny,

immature young must crawl to mother's pouch after birth. Young attach to mammary gland nipple to

nurse until able to survive outside of pouch. Includes opossum, kangaroo, wombat, & koala

c. Order Insectivora: these include moles, hedgehogs, & shrews. They are small with high metabolic rate.

They have long, pointed noses to grub for insects & worms. Teeth adapted to pick up & pierce prey.

They are adapted to live on & underground, in trees, and in water. Shrews feed above ground & have

claws to help sweep invertebrates into their mouths. Moles live underground, have reduced eyes & no

external ears, and have short limbs to dig tunnels

d. Order Rodentia: these are the largest mammal order (40% of all species). They include squirrels,

chipmunks, gophers, rats, mice, & porcupines. Have two instead of four incisors. Teeth continue to

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 grow throughout their life. Feed on hard seeds, twigs, roots, & bark. Gnawing keeps incisors sharp.

High reproductive capacity. Guinea pig & capybaras are two rodents found in South America

e. Order Lagomorpha: includes rabbits, hares, &pikas. Have a double row of upper incisors & two large

front teeth backed up by two smaller teeth. Continuous growing teeth. They are herbivores.

f. Order Edentata: includes anteaters, armadillos, & sloths. Means "without teeth". Only anteaters are

completely toothless. Armadillos & sloths have peg-like teeth without enamel. Have long sticky

tongues & claws on powerful front paws to open ant hills& termite nests. Sloths are herbivores.

Armadillos eat small reptiles, frogs, mollusks, & dead animals

g. Order Chiroptera: these are the only flying mammals. Includes bats found everywhere except polar

regions. Front limb is modified into a wing with a skin membrane stretching from the finger bones to

the hind limb. Clawed thumb, extending from top edge of wing, is used for walking, climbing, &

grasping. Most are nocturnal (night active). Use echolocation (emission of high frequency sounds that

bounce off objects) to navigate and locate food. Have small eyes & large ears. Feed mainly on insects.

Tropical bats don't use echolocation, but have large eyes & keen sense of smell to find fruit to feed on

& nectar

h. Order Cetacea: includes whales, dolphins, & porpoises. Most inhabit oceans, but some dolphins live in

freshwater rivers. Have a fish shaped body Forelimbs modified as flippers. No hind limbs. Broad, flat

tails to propel through water. Breathe through a blowhole on top of the head. Divided into two groups

the toothed whales & baleen whales. The toothed whales includes beaked, sperm, beluga, & killer

whales; narwhals; dolphins; porpoises. They have 1 to more than 100 teeth. They prey on fish, squid,

seals, & other whales. While the baleen whales lack teeth. They include blue, grey, right &

humpbacked whales. They have baleen or thin plates of fingernail like material that hangs from the

roof of the mouth. Baleen strain shrimp & other invertebrates from water as food

i. Order Sirenia: these include manatees & dugongs. They are large herbivores. Inhabit tropical seas,

estuaries, & rivers. Front limbs modified into flippers. No hind limbs. Flattened tail for propulsion

j. Order Carnivora: includes cats, dogs, raccoons, bears, hyenas, & otters. They are meat eaters

(carnivores) mainly. Many feed on both plants & animals (omnivores). Have long canine teeth & strong

jaws. Clawed toes for seizing & holding prey. Keen sense of sight & smell. Long limbs for running fast

k. Order Pinnipedia: these are the aquatic carnivores includes sea lions, seals, & walruses. Streamlined

bodies adapted for swimming. Steer & propel through water using broad, flattened tail called

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 pinnipeds. Return to land to feed & give birth. Spend much of their time in cold water. Large land

carnivores so this helps maintain endothermy. Can remain under water for 5 minutes to an hour for

some species

l. Order Artiodactyla: these are known as ungulates or hoofed mammals. Have an even number of toes.

Includes deer, elk, bison, moose, sheep, cows, caribou, goats, pigs, & camels. They are herbivores.

Have large flat molars for grinding plants. Cloven or split hooves. Fast runners (used for defense). Have

storage chamber called rumen in stomach where bacteria break down cellulose. Stored food called

cud is chewed again & then swallowed to go through digestive system a second time.

m. Order Perissodactyla: these are the odd toed ungulates that include horses, zebras, rhinoceroses, &

tapir. Tapirs are found in Central & South America. Have a large, convoluted caecum or blind sac near

the small intestine where bacteria digest cellulose.

n. Order Proboscidea: they have a boneless trunk or proboscis. Includes the African & Asian elephant.

Wooly mammoth is an extinct member of this order. Largest terrestrial mammal. Weigh more than 6

tons. Feed on plants up to 18 hours a day. Proboscis used to gather leaves from high branches & to

suck water without lowering the head. Modified incisors called tusks help dig for roots & strip bark.

Jagged molars up to 30 cm long grind plants. Have the longest gestation period (20 months for

females & 22 months for males). Females can continue to have calves until they are 70 years old

o. Order Primates: Includes 2 main groups the Prosimians & Anthropoids. Most are omnivores. Have

teeth suitable for a varied diet. Prosimians include lemurs, tarsiers, & lorises. Anthropoids include

monkeys, apes, & humans. Anthropoids have a larger brain; Show more complex behaviors than other

animals. Highly organized social groups. Gorilla is the largest primate. Have 2 forward-facing eyes for

depth perception. Have grasping hands & most with grasping feet. Some have a grasping tail for life in

trees. Live in a variety of habitats

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