0.

Overview
About These Notes
Disclaimer
Just like yall, I'm always learning. That's why I constantly update these notes
to make them better. You're currently reading v1.2.3. Check for the most
updated version here: http://tinyurl.com/TBTnotes
If you're reading this on PDF
Use the Ctrl + F search function to search for a note/content quickly
Viewing on computer might be better
If you're my current student reading this
Please view these notes on Evernote! It's the most updated, and you guys
get bonus study smart pages 😮
If you're Sec 3 in 2023
This is made for the 2023 O level Sec 4s taking Pure Bio. As there are
changes in 2024 O level syllabus, I will reflect those changes at end 2023 to
these notes.
In the meantime, please enjoy using these notes because most of the
content will still be the same!

Topical Notes
Revise efficiently
Textbook and school notes are too thick, making it hard to know what's
important. That's why I made simple, concise notes for my students to cut
through the clutter. The stuff in here is what you need to focus on in your
syllabus, so use this if you want to study efficiently.
Learning outcomes are not word for word as I've made them more
concise/understandable. Rest assured though, content is same as the
syllabus.
Memory Hacks
In here, you'll see: [Memory Shortcut] / [Memory Hack]. These are my
own acronyms/mnemonics/memory hacks, so you can memorise content
faster AND recall easier in exams.
Commonly Asked Questions
I've looked through many papers and assessment books to draw out the
commonly asked questions. You'll find them under each topic's notes.
Following the 80/20 rule, 20% of OEQs will account for 80% of OEQs tested.
These are the 20% most common OEQs examiners always test you on. This is
how you study smart.
Get good at these and instantly score well for 80% of the paper. Enjoy OEQ
success.
Each bullet point in the CAQ answers = 1m!!
DISCLAIMER: Mark allocations in the CAQ notes are conservative.
Meaning, I'm assuming markers are strict and won't give out marks leniently.
However, in exams, you might see questions allocating more marks than you
might expect. (Eg. Describe transpiration instead of only 4m, they allocate
5m. In these scenarios, it is likely that the mark scheme is "nice" and giving
you 5m marks for the exact same 4m answer that I suggest in the CAQ
answers).
Why I give these notes for FREE
I get tons of messages requesting for my notes, so this must be a big need in the
community. A lot of you are needlessly struggling in this subject, and I don't
want you to be one of them.
Maybe you're not getting the quality of teaching and materials you need. It
shouldn't be this way, because bio is an easy subject. You deserve to score well.
I was in your place before, and I wished someone gave me notes like these to
make my life easier. Now I get to make it a reality for you.
Hold up. This sounds too good to be true. What's the catch?
I do this because I'd like to earn your trust, by giving you results in advance.
Many students who aren't even in my tuition class have already told me how
their grades have improved from my free notes.
I want you to know that ThatBioTutor is the realest deal. It's my hope that
those of you who need bio tuition will choose me as your tutor :)
If you want my help, apply for my class here (but warning, we're usually full):
forms.gle/VgcQb75LgW6iLGoQ8
 With the right guidance, bio becomes a very easy subject. Don't take it from
me, hear it from these people: www.thatbiotutor.com/testimonials

Can I share this with my friends?

YES, share this with as many people as you want! They will thank you for it many
times over.
My aim is to get these in the hands of every O level Pure Bio student in
Singapore, so more grades will be transformed.
I want to empower you all to see that bio is a conquerable subject, which you can
do very well in.
If you like these notes, and you believe in what I'm doing, why not leave a review
here: https://tinyurl.com/tbtnotesreview

Want more?
I wrote an eBook on A1 Biology Study Hacks, download it here:
https://tinyurl.com/tbtebook
For more bio and study tips, check out @thatbiotutor on Instagram, TikTok and
YouTube.

Acknowledgements
These notes are the intellectual property of Keefe Fonseka and are not to be sold
for profit. However, you may share them to as many people you want, free of
charge.
1. Cells
Learning Outcomes:
1. Identify and state the functions of plant and animal cell organelles
2. State the relationship between cell structure and function (w.r.t. RBC, xylem, root
hair cell)
3. Compare structures of plant and animal cells
4. Differentiate between cell, tissue, organ, organ system
Keywords:
Cell, tissue, organ, organ system

1. Identifying structures
Component Function Visible under Light
Microscope?
Contains DNA (in the form of
Nucleus chromatin) Y
Controls cell activities
Nuclear Is a double membrane
envelope Separates nucleus from Y
cytoplasm
Nucleolus Aids in protein synthesis N
Rough Studded with ribosomes
Endoplasmic Synthesises proteins (for N
Reticulum transport out of the cell)
Smooth Synthesises lipids, steroids
Endoplasmic Carries out detoxification N
Reticulum
Place where most cell
Cytoplasm activities occur Y
Contains organelles
Site of anaerobic respiration
Animals:
Several small and temporary
vacuoles
Store food and water
Vacuole Plants: Y (plants)
1 large central vacuole, its N (animals)
membrane is called
tonoplast
Stores cell sap (food, water
and mineral salts)
 Golgi Modifies, Sorts and Packages
body/apparatus substances into vesicles for N
secretion out of cell
Site of aerobic respiration,
Mitochondria where glucose is oxidised to N
release energy
Chloroplast Site of photosynthesis Y
(plants only)
Partially permeable/semi-
Cell permeable
surface/plasma Controls movement of Y
membrane substances in and out of the
cell
Cell wall Fully permeable Y
(plants only) Gives cell its shape
Ribosomes Synthesise proteins N
Centrioles Aid in cell division N
(animals only)

[Memory Hacks]
Golgi Body:
When receiving vesicles from ER, says "Majulah SingaPura"
Modifies, Sorts and Packages substances into vesicles for secretion out of
cell
Rough ER:
Proteins --> Meat. When you bite into meat patty, has a rough texture
Rough ER synthesises proteins
Smooth ER:
Lipids --> Oil. Oil is smooth and slippery.
Smooth ER synthesises lipids
2. Linking Structure to Function
*Pro Tip: These are repeated in their later respective topics.
Cell structure How it is adapted to its function
Biconcave, increases surface area to
volume ratio, so oxygen can diffuse in/out
Red Blood Cell of it faster
Lacks a nucleus hence has more space for
more haemoglobin, to transport more
oxygen
Flexible, so it can squeeze through tiny
capillaries
Can become bell-shaped in capillaries,
further increasing surface area to volume
ratio
Xylem vessels
No end walls to allow unobstructed flow of
water
No protoplasm, to allow unobstructed flow
of water
Walls are lignified to prevent collapse of
xyelm vessels
Root hair cell

Has a long, narrow protrusion (root hair),

that increases surface area to volume ratio,
for faster absorption of water and mineral
salts
3. Comparing Plant and Animal Cells
Comparison Animal Cell Plant cell
Chloroplasts No Yes
Cell wall No Yes
Vacuole Small, temporary Large, permanent
Centrioles Yes No
Size Relatively smaller Relatively bigger

4. Differentiate cell, tissue, organ, organ system

Cells < Tissue < Organ < Organ system < Organism
E.g. Epithelial cell < Epithelium < Small intestine < Digestive system < Human
Cell: The most basic unit of life
Tissue: A group of cells working together to perform a specific function
Organ: Several types of tissues working together to perform a specific function
Organ system: Several organs working together for a specific purpose
*Pro Tip: Blood is a tissue!
1. Cells CAQs
RBC vs RHC
Q: The table shows comparisons between a human red blood cell and a root hair cell.
Feature Red Root
number Feature blood
cell hair cell
1 takes in oxygen yes yes
2 cytoplasm present no yes
3 large surface area to volume yes yes
ratio
4 nucleus present no yes
Which comparisons are correct?
A) 1, 2 and 3 only
B) 1, 3 and 4 only
C) 1 and 2 only
D) 3 and 4 only
(B)
1 correct: RBC takes in O2 to transport it around. RHC also needs O2 for
aerobic respiration. O2 diffuses from the air pockets in the soil into RHCs.
2 wrong - Both RBC and RHC have cytoplasm, since they are living cells.
3 correct - RBC has biconcave shape, RHC has an elongated protrusion,
increasing the SA:V for both of them respectively.
4 correct - RBC no nucleus, in order to pack in more haemoglobin. Only RHC
has nucleus.
Organelle Functions
Q: Which organelle produces proteins and which organelle provides the energy for
this process?
organelle produces organelle provides
proteins energy
A 1 4
B 2 3
C 3 2
D 4 1

(D)
Organelle that produces proteins: Proteins are produced by ribosomes, which
are either free ribosomes in the cytoplasm or studded onto the Rough
Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER). Only the RER is labelled as 4 in the diagram.
Organelle that provides energy: Aerobic respiration occurs in mitochondria to
release energy, and a mitochondrion is labelled as 1 in the diagram.
*Pro Tip: These questions often test on which organelles synthesise proteins
(RER and free ribosomes)
Related Questions:
Q: Which part of the living cell is the oxygen concentration lowest? (Using
the same cell diagram as above)
 (1).
O2 is spread out quite equally throughout the cell due to diffusion, except
around mitochondria,
because mitochondria use up O2 for aerobic respiration, so the regions
around mitochondria have less O2.

Pathway Out Of Cell

Q: Describe how proteins made in the cell are released to the outside of the cell. [3]
The proteins are synthesised by the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum, then sent
via vesicles to the Golgi body.
Here, they are modified, sorted and packaged into vesicles that pinch off the
Golgi body.
The secretory vesicles move to and fuse with the plasma membrane to release
the proteins outside the cell.
Many Mitochondria
Q: Suggest why root hair cells [cell type] have many mitochondria. [2]
Root hair cells [cell type] need to pump in mineral salts from the surrounding soil
into their large central vacuoles via active transport [energy-consuming
activity].
Hence they need many mitochondria to generate a lot of energy via aerobic
respiration.
*Pro Tip: This kind of question could be asked about any cell type that has many
mitochondria, e.g. muscle cell, companion cell, etc. You will have to replace [cell type]
and [energy-consuming activity] accordingly.

Cells With High SA:V

Q: What is the advantage of epithelial cells [cell type] having such a shape (having
microvilli)? [2]
An epithelial cell [cell type] has many microvilli, which increases its surface
area to volume ratio,
 for faster diffusion and active transport [type of movement process] of
digested food substances from the lumen of the small intestine into the cell
[substance moved].
*Pro Tip: This kind of question could be asked about any cell that has high SA:V, e.g.
root hair cell, red blood cell, etc. You will have to replace [cell type], [type of
movement process] and [substance moved] accordingly.
2. Movement of Substances
Learning Outcomes:
1. Define Diffusion, Osmosis and Active Transport
2. Movement of substances in nutrient uptake and gas exchange
3. Effects of osmosis on plant and animal tissues
4. Bonus: Factors affecting rate of diffusion.
Keywords:
Diffusion, osmosis, active transport
Water potential
Concentration gradient
Partially permeable/semi-permeable membrane
Crenated, lysed/burst
Plasmolysed, flaccid, turgid
Turgor pressure

1. Definitions
1. Diffusion: The net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration
to a region of lower concentration, down a concentration gradient.
1. Osmosis: The net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water
potential to a region of lower water potential, through a partially permeable
membrane.
1. Active Transport: The movement of particles, using energy, from a region of
lower concentration to a region of higher concentration, against a
concentration gradient, through a partially permeable membrane.
*Pro Tip: When explaining these processes in contexts of questions, replace'
substances' with the molecule in the question, e.g. CO2
 Process Diffusion Osmosis Active
transport
Type of molecule Any Water Any
Partially permeable No Yes Yes
membrane needed?
Energy needed? No No Yes
Direction w.r.t. Down (higher Down (higher Against (lower
Concentration gradient to lower) to lower) to higher)

2. Movement of substances in nutrient uptake and gas exchange

Example How substances are moving

Digested food substances such as glucose,

and amino acids diffuse into epithelial cells
of villi in the small intestine
After diffusion no longer occurs, these
substances are pumped in via active
transport

Mineral salts are pumped from the soil into

root hair cells via active transport, to
maintain a high concentration of mineral
salts in their vacuoles
This creates a region of lower water
potential than the surrounding soil, so that
water flows in by osmosis

O2 dissolves into the thin film of moisture

lining the alveolar air space, then diffuses
into the blood plasma
Conversely, CO2 diffuses from the blood
plasma into the alveoli air space
 O2 diffuses from the intercellular air
spaces of the leaf to the surrounding air,
through the stomata
CO2 diffuses from the surrounding air into
the intercellular air spaces of the leaf,
through the stomata

3. Effects of osmosis on plant and animal tissues

Water potential of High Low Very low
solution
Bursts/lyse Crenated Crenated
d
Effect on Animal cell

Turgid Flaccid Plasmolyse

d
Effect on Plant cell

*Pro Tip: Turgidity in plant cells is important as it allows the plant to remain upright
and reach for sunlight, especially if it has a non-woody stem.
4. Bonus: Factors affecting rate of diffusion
Surface area to volume ratio: The higher the SA:V, the higher the diffusion rate
Temperature: Higher temperature, molecules have more kinetic energy, hence
move faster and diffuse down the concentration gradient faster
Steepness of concentration gradient: The steeper the gradient, the higher the
diffusion rate
Distance: The shorter the distance that molecules need to travel/diffusion
distance, the higher the diffusion rate
2. Movement of Substances CAQs
Important Definitions
Q: Define the term diffusion.
The net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region
of lower concentration, down a concentration gradient.
Q: Define the term osmosis.
The net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential to
a region of lower water potential, through a partially permeable membrane.
Q: Define the term active transport.
The movement of particles, using energy, from a region of lower concentration to
a region of higher concentration, against a concentration gradient, through a
partially permeable membrane.

Plant Cell Osmosis

Q: The diagram shows a plant cell in a 5% glucose solution.
The concentration of the solution in the vacuole is equivalent to a 10% glucose
solution.

Which row states where osmosis occurs and the direction of water movement?
 where osmosis direction of water
occurs movement
A cell wall into the cell
B cell wall out of the cell
C vacuolar membrane into the cell
D vacuolar membrane out of the cell

(C)
Where osmosis occurs: Cannot be the cell wall, as cell wall is fully permeable,
whereas osmosis requires a partially permeable membrane (by definition).
In the diagram, the only places for osmosis to occur would be the plasma
membrane or the vacuole's membrane (vacuolar membrane). Since there only is
an option for vacuolar membrane, has to be C or D.
5% glucose solution has higher water potential than 10% glucose solution, so
water will move into the cell, has to be A or C.
*Pro Tip: For movement of substances questions, knowing the definitions well is
very advantageous.
Which Shows Active Transport
Q: The diagrams show four identical plant cells.
The dots show the concentration of a chemical. The arrows represent the direction of
movement of the chemical.
Which diagram(s) show a cell where active transport is taking place?
A) 1 and 2
B) 2 and 3
C) 2 and 4
D) 3 only
(D)
1 wrong - active transport requires substances to move against the
concentration gradient.
2 wrong - active transport requires a partially permeable membrane.
3 correct - against concentration gradient and through a partially permeable
membrane.
4 wrong - does not show particles moving from low to high concentration.

Applying Definitions
*Pro Tip: For certain questions, you may need to weave in the definition of these
terms into your answer.
Eg. Describe the movement of water into a root hair cell. [1]
Water moves by osmosis from a region of higher water potential in the soil
to a region of lower water potential in the root hair cell, through a partially
permeable membrane.
Strip of Cut Stem Bending
Q: A leek stem was cut into small strips and placed into 0.1% salt solution. After 20
minutes, it looked like this:

Explain the bent appearance of the strip. [4]

0.1% salt solution has a higher water potential than the cell sap of the cells in
the stem.
Hence, water moved into the cells via osmosis, causing them to swell and
become turgid.
The epidermal cells/cells of the outermost layer of the stem are lined with a
waxy, inflexible cuticle which restricts their expansion, so they cannot expand
as much as the inner cortex cells.
The difference in expansion causes the stem to curl further outwards.
3. Biomolecules
Learning Outcomes:
1. The roles of water in living organisms
2. Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins: Their chemical elements, and the smaller
molecules that make them up
3. Food tests for starch, reducing sugars, fats and proteins
Keywords:
Universal solvent, reagent
Monosaccharide, disaccharide, polysaccharide, reducing sugar
Condensation reaction, hydrolysis
Amino acid, peptide, polypeptide
Glycerol, fatty acid, triglyceride, emulsion
Carbohydrate, starch, glycogen, cellulose

1. Roles of water in organisms

Main component of organisms (70% of human mass is water), component of
cell cytoplasm
Universal solvent for reactions to occur, as well as a reagent* (e.g.
photosynthesis) and a product in many chemical reactions (e.g. aerobic
respiration)
Allows dissolved substances to be easily transported (e.g. blood)
Aids in temperature regulation (e.g. sweating, transpiration)
Maintains shape of plant cells and plants
*Pro Tip: reagent = a reactant that participates in a chemical reaction
2. Elements making up carbs, fats and proteins
Type of Carbohydrate Fats Protein
Nutrient
C, H, O, N, (S)
*Pro Tip: Some
proteins have S (the
Atoms C, H, O (1:2:1 ratio) C, H, very few O element Sulfur), but
not all. If a question
tells you the molecule
has Sulfur, it is likely to
be a protein.
Monosaccharides Triglyceride
Basic unit Glucose (glycerol + 3 fatty Amino acid
Fructose acids)
Galactose
Disaccharides
Maltose
(Glucose +
Glucose)
Sucrose
Dimer (2 (Glucose +
units) Fructose) - Dipeptide
Lactose
(Glucose +
Galactose)
*Highlighted =
reducing sugar
 Energy storage
Thermal
insulation
Protects vital
organs
Forms cell
membranes*
Solvent for fat- For the
Energy soluble production of
Function storage vitamins enzymes,
s (not Structural Secreted as oil antibodies and
exhausti molecules, on the skin to some hormones
ve) e.g. cellulose reduce water Synthesis of new
loss muscle fibres
Used to make
*Pro Tip: We new protoplasm
intentionally do not
say cell
surface/plasma
membrane here, as
fats are part of
membranes within
cells too.
Condens
ation
reaction*
*Pro Tip: The reverse of condensation reactions are hydrolysis reactions.
[Memory Hack]
How to remember what the 3 disaccharides are made of?
The 3 disaccharides are all made of glucose + 1 of the 3 monosaccharides
Lactose = Glucose + Galactose (galactose has lactose in the name!)
 Sucrose = Glucose + Fructose (Fructose is found in Fruits, which are from
plants. Plants also convert glucose into sucrose before transporting it in
phloem. Therefore, associate sucrose with fructose as they are both linked
to plants.)
Maltose = Glucose + Glucose (once you know the other 2, glucose is the
only blank option left for maltose)
*Pro Tip: There are 2'c's in -saccharides, be careful when spelling
Reducing sugars
All monosaccharides and disaccharides in our syllabus are reducing sugars,
except sucrose.

Polysaccharides
Polysacchari Structure Function Found in
de
Thousands
of glucose bonded
Cellulose together Structural support Plant cell walls
(FYI: straight
chained)
Thousands of
glucose bonded
Starch together, bonds are Energy storage Leaves/storage orga
different from those (plants) ns
in cellulose
(FYI: Branched)
Glycogen More branched Energy storage Liver/muscle cells
than starch (animals)
3. Food Tests
 Test Procedure Results
Liquid sample:
1. Add 2cm3 of Benedict's reagent to
an equal volume of the sample in a
test tube and shake.
2. Heat water in a beaker until it starts
boiling (bubbles vigorously).
*Pro Tip: The water level in the beaker
Benedict's should be higher than that of the test tube.
test 1. Place the test tube into a beaker of
[Reducing already boiling water. (-) Solution remains
sugars] 2. Observe for colour change. blue
Solid sample: (+) A brick-
1. Add 2cm3 of Benedict's reagent to red/orange/green
a finely cut sample in a test tube and ppt is formed
shake.
2. (Remaining steps are the same as if
sample were liquid.)

Liquid sample:
1. Place a few drops of the sample on a
white tile.
Iodine test 2. Add a few drops of iodine to a
[Starch] sample, observe for colour change. (-) Solution remains
Solid sample: yellow-brown
1. Add a few drops of iodine to a (+) Yellow-brown
sample, observe for colour change. solution turns blue-
black
 Liquid sample:
1. Add 2cm3 of sodium hydroxide
solution to an equal volume of
sample and shake.
2. Add 1% copper (II) sulfate solution,
drop by drop (just a few drops),
shaking after each drop.
3. Allow the mixture to stand for 5
minutes and observe for the colour
Biuret test change.
[Proteins] Solid sample:
1. Add 2cm3 of sodium hydroxide (-) Remains blue
solution to a finely cut sample and (+) Turns
shake. violet/purple
2. (Remaining steps are the same as if
sample were liquid.)
*Pro Tip: Biuret reagent/solution is an
already prepared solution. Adding protein to
it turns it violet.
3. Biomolecules CAQs
Food Tests
Q: Some tests were done on a sample that contains one or more unknown nutrients.
Test Colour at start Colour at end
Benedict's test blue blue
Biuret test blue blue
Iodine solution test brown blue-black
Ethanol emulsion clear cloudy white
test
Which of the nutrients are present in the solution?
A) protein, reducing sugar and starch
B) protein and starch only
C) reducing sugar and fats only
D) starch and fats only
(D)
Benedict’s test: Tests for reducing sugar. (+) Green, yellow, orange or brick red.
(-) blue
Biuret test: Test for protein. (+) violet (-) blue
Iodine solution test: Tests for starch. (+) blue-black. (-) yellow-brown
Starch present
Ethanol emulsion test: Tests for fats. (+) cloudy white (-) clear
Fats present
*Pro Tip: Annotate (+) and (-) beside the columns while doing such questions. It
makes it easier to do, and easier to check later on.
Elements in Various Biomolecules
Q: Which elements are found in all carbohydrates, fats and proteins?
A) carbon and oxygen only
B) carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
C) hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen
D) nitrogen and oxygen only
(B)
Carbs: C, H, O (in 1:2:1 ratio)
Fats: C, H, and very little O
Proteins: C, H, O, N, and sometimes S
All 3 have C, H, O

Roles of Water
Q: Explain why water is important in living organisms. [5]
Water is the main component of organisms, and the main component of
cytoplasm in cells.
It is the universal solvent that allows reactions to occur in living things, as well
as a reagent and product in many chemical reactions such as photosynthesis
and aerobic respiration respectively.
It allows dissolved substances to be easily transported, such as the dissolved
nutrients in blood.
It aids in temperature regulation through sweating in mammals, and
transpiration in plants.
In plants, water maintains the shape of cells when they are turgid, allowing
leaves the be spread for maximum surface area to capture sunlight/allowing
stems of non-woody plants to stay upright.

Functions of Biomolecules
Q: Describe the functions of carbohydrates in living organisms. [3]
Energy storage, such as starch in plants and glycogen in animals. It can be
broken down into glucose when needed to provide energy for cellular
respiration.
As a structural molecule, such as cellulose cell walls of plants, which give cells
their shape and prevents them from bursting.
 As we cannot digest cellulose, it serves as dietary fibre, preventing
constipation.
Q: Describe the functions of fats in living organisms. [6]
Energy storage, as it can be broken down to provide energy for cellular
respiration when needed.
Thermal insulation to prevent excessive heat loss to the environment.
Are a solvent for fat-soluble vitamins to be absorbed by the body.
Are used to form cell membranes.
Protects vital organs from physical injury/mechanical damage.
Secreted as oil on the skin surface to reduce water loss.
Q: Describe the functions of proteins in living organisms. [4]
Synthesis of enzymes, which are needed for many metabolic reactions.
Synthesis of hormones, which are needed for coordinating responses from
target organs.
Synthesis of antibodies, which are made by the immune system to fight off
invading micro-organisms.
Synthesis of new muscle fibres.
(Any valid point, as proteins are so widely used).
4. Enzymes
Learning Outcomes:
1. Explain the mode of action of enzymes using 'lock and key' hypothesis, including
active site, activation energy, enzyme specificity
2. Effect of pH and temperature on enzyme-catalysed reaction
3. Bonus: Benefits of using enzymes
4. Bonus: Enzymes of the digestive system
Keywords:
Biological catalysts, alternative pathway, activation energy, chemically
unchanged
Substrates, active site, specific three-dimensional structure, complementary
Lock and key hypothesis, enzyme-substrate complex, optimum temperature/pH
Kinetic energy, chance of collision
Weak bonds, denature

1. Mode of action
Enzymes: Biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by providing an
alternative pathway of lower activation energy, and remain chemically
unchanged after the reaction.
Activation energy: The energy needed to start a chemical reaction.
Lock and Key hypothesis (Mode of Action)
According to the lock and key hypothesis,
a specific substrate (key) is complementary to and binds to the active site of
the enzyme (lock), and bind,
forming an enzyme-substrate complex.
The enzyme then catalyses the reaction (by breaking/forming the bond in
context)*
After reaction, products are no longer complementary to the active site,
hence they leave the active site.
The enzyme remains chemically unchanged and can accept a new substrate.
*Pro Tip: If the question was on 'explain the mode of action of sucrase', state here that
sucrase catalyses the reaction by breaking the bond between glucose and fructose
[Memory Shortcut]
Mode of action of enzymes [Be Careful Red Light Unchanged]
B: enzyme and substrate Binds
C: forming an enzyme-substrate Complex
R: Reaction is catalysed
L: products Leave active site
U: enzyme remains chemically Unchanged

Characteristics of Enzymes
Protein in nature
Have a specific three-dimensional (3D) structure, only catalyse one type of
reaction
Has an active site that the substrate is complementary to
Has an optimum temperature and optimum pH where rate of activity is highest
*Pro Tip: Each enzyme has its own preferred optimum temperature and pH,
depending on its function.

2. Effect of Temperature and pH

Effect of increasing temperature on enzyme activity
 As temperature increases from low until the optimum temperature, kinetic
energy of enzyme and substrate molecules increases, increasing their chances
of collision.
Enzyme-substrate complexes form faster, and rate of reaction increases until
the optimum temperature, where rate is highest.
As temperature increases beyond optimum temperature, weak bonds within
enzymes are broken, causing the enzyme to lose the shape of its active site and
become denatured.
The substrate can no longer fit into the active site, hence rate of reaction
decreases sharply to 0.
Effect of pH on enzyme activity
 At pH 7, reaction rate is maximum as this is the enzyme's optimum pH.
As pH moves further from pH 7, reaction rate decreases sharply. When pH
moves too far from 7, weak bonds within the enzyme are broken,
the enzyme loses the shape of its active site and becomes denatured.
The substrate can no longer fit into the active site, hence rate decreases
sharply until 0.
3. Bonus: Benefits of using enzymes
As catalysts, they speed up reactions that would otherwise take a long time
(saves time)
Since enzymes remain chemically unchanged after reaction, only a small
amount of them is needed (saves money/resources)
Enzymes can catalyse reactions at lower temperatures than if they were to be
done without enzymes (saves energy)
Enzymes are specific, hence only the intended reaction will occur
*Pro Tip: Each of these are actually linking a characteristic of enzymes to a benefit

4. Bonus: Enzymes of the digestive system

 Enzyme Produced Digests Found in pH of
by Location
Amylase Salivary Starch --> Maltose Saliva 7
(salivary) glands (Mouth)
Pepsin Gastric Proteins --> Short Stomach 2
glands Polypeptides*
Lipase Triglycerides --> 7-9
(pancreatic) Glycerol + Fatty acids
Amylase Pancreas Starch --> Maltose Small
(pancreatic) intestine
Trypsin Proteins --> Short
Polypeptides*
Sucrase Sucrose --> Glucose
+ Fructose
Maltase Maltose --> Glucose
+ Glucose
Peptidases Epithelial Short Polypeptides* Small
(Amino acids cells --> Amino acids intestine 7-9
are products)
Lactase Lactose --> Glucose
+ Galactose
Lipase Triglycerides -->
(Intestinal) Glycerol + Fatty acids
*Pro Tip: Short polypeptides is more accurate than just 'polypeptides', since it
distinguishes between the length of the polypeptide (undigested proteins are folded
polypeptides, giving this even more ambiguity).
4. Enzymes CAQs
Important Definitions
Q: Define the term enzyme.
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by providing
an alternative pathway of lower activation energy, and remain chemically
unchanged after the reaction.
Q: Define the term activation energy.
The energy needed to start a chemical reaction.

Activation Energy
Q: The two curves below show energy levels as a reaction progresses, with and
without an enzyme. Which arrow represents the total activation energy of the reaction
without the enzyme?

(A)
Concept: Enzymes lower the activation energy of a reaction, so the taller
curve is the one without the enzyme.
Activation energy without energy must be A.

Enzyme Mode of Action

Q: Using the lock and key hypothesis, explain the mode of action of an enzyme. [5]
Mode of action of enzymes [Be Careful Red Light Unchanged]
 B: enzyme and substrate Binds
C: forming an enzyme-substrate Complex
R: Reaction is catalysed
L: products Leave active site
U: enzyme remains chemically Unchanged
According to the lock and key hypothesis, a specific substrate which is the
'key', is complementary to the active site of the enzyme, which is the 'lock',
binds to it,
forming an enzyme-substrate complex.
The enzyme then catalyses the reaction.
After the reaction, the products are no longer complementary to the active
site, hence they leave the active site.
The enzyme remains chemically unchanged and can accept a new substrate.
*Pro Tip: For the above question, you are required to make reference to the lock
and key hypothesis.
Related Questions:
Q: Explain the mode of action of sucrase. [5]
*Pro Tip: For questions like the above that specify the enzyme, use the
specific names of the enzymes and substrates in your answer. i.e. For this
case, sucrase and sucrose.

Enzyme Activity and Temperature

Q: Explain how the rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction may be affected by
increasing temperature. [4]
As temperature increases from low until the optimum temperature, kinetic
energy of enzyme and substrate molecules increases, increasing their chances
of collision.
Enzyme-substrate complexes form faster, and reaction rate increases until the
optimum temperature, where rate is the highest.
As temperature increases beyond optimum temperature, weak bonds within
enzymes are broken, causing the enzyme to lose the shape of its active site and
become denatured.
The substrate is no longer complementary to the active site, hence reaction
rate decreases sharply to 0.
 Related Questions:
Q: The temperature of the water bath for an enzyme-catalysed reaction was
maintained carefully at 37°C. Explain why (assuming the enzyme is a human
enzyme). [3]
*Pro Tip: You would answer that this temperature is near the optimum
temperature of this enzyme, and it is not too low (enzyme would be
inactive), neither is it too high (enzyme would denature).

Enzyme Activity and pH

Q: Explain how the rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction may be affected by changes
in pH (assuming the optimum pH of the enzyme in question is 7). [4]
At pH 7, reaction rate is maximum as this is the enzyme's optimum pH.
As pH moves further from pH 7, reaction rate decreases sharply. When pH
moves too far from 7, weak bonds within the enzyme are broken,
the enzyme loses the shape of its active site and becomes denatured.
The substrate is no longer complementary to the active site, hence rate
decreases sharply to 0.
Limiting Factor Questions

Q: Explain why the rate of reaction does not increase after point X, despite the
substrate concentration increasing. [2]
After point X, substrate concentration is no longer the limiting factor, hence
increasing it does not increase reaction rate.
 Instead, enzyme concentration has become the limiting factor, as active
sites of enzymes are saturated with substrates.
Biological Washing Powders
Q: Biological washing powders (detergents) contain one or more enzymes. Suggest
the advantages of using biological washing powders compared to those without
enzymes. [4]
As biological catalysts, they speed up reactions for breaking down stains that
would otherwise take a long time, saving time.
Since enzymes remain chemically unchanged after the reaction, only a small
amount of them is needed, saving money and resources.
Enzymes can catalyse reactions at lower temperatures than if they were to be
done without enzymes, saving energy needed to heat clothes up to higher
temperatures.
Enzymes are specific, hence only the intended reaction of breaking down the
stains will occur, instead of any unintended reactions, such as breaking down of
the dyes of clothes.
5. Nutrition in Humans
Learning Outcomes:
1. Main parts of the alimentary canal, related processes and enzymes involved (see
topic 4 notes for enzymes)
2. Peristalsis
3. Structure and function of villi
4. Liver functions and its associated blood vessels
5. Effects of excessive alcohol consumption
Keywords:
Ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation, egestion
Peristalsis, antagonistic
Bile salts, emulsify, fat globules
Protoplasm, digested food substances
Deamination, detoxification, blood glucose concentration
Addictive, depressant, reaction time, cirrhosis, haemorrhage, social
responsibilities

1. Main parts of the alimentary canal and enzymes involved

Definitions of processes
1. Ingestion: The intake of food through the mouth.
2. Digestion: The physical or chemical breakdown of larger food molecules into
smaller and soluble molecules that can be absorbed by body cells.
3. Absorption: The uptake of digested food substances into body cells.
4. Assimilation: Digested food substances are converted to new protoplasm or
used for energy.
5. Egestion: The removal of undigested food waste from the body.
 Digestiv
Part Function e
pH enzyme
(Processes)
s
Teeth:
Chews food (mechanical
digestion)
Breaks food into smaller pieces,
increasing SA:V for enzymes to
digest it faster
Mouth Salivary
(Ingestion, Salivary glands: 7 amylase
Digestion) Secrete saliva containing salivary
amylase, breaks down starch into
maltose
Tongue:
Rolls food into a bolus to be
swallowed
Mixes saliva with food
Oesophagu Pushes food from mouth into the 7
s stomach -
/Gullet
Gastric glands secrete gastric
juice containing hydrochloric acid
and pepsin
Pepsin breaks down protein into
Stomach short polypeptides
(Digestion) Stomach churns food, breaking up
food (mechanical digestion) and
mixing it with gastric juice
*Pro Tip: Gastric glands actually release
pepsinogen, which is then activated by
H+ ions in the acidic environment into
pepsin. For simplicity, we just say gastric 2 Pepsin
glands secrete pepsin.
Small Intestine
(Digestion, Absorption, Assimilation)
Small intestine
Is very long, giving more time for
digested food substances to be
absorbed
Has many folds, increasing SA:V
Parts of the small intestine [DJI]
Duodenum: Mainly digestion,
some absorption
Jejunum: Some digestion,
some absorption
Ileum: Some digestion, mainly (Epithelia
absorption l,
SMaLL):
[Memory Hack] Sucrase,
"Dwayne Johnson and I" for small
intestine parts 7-9 Maltase,
Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum Peptidas
es
Epithelial cells of the small Intestinal
intestine secrete SMaLL enzymes Lipase,
Sucrase: sucrose -> glucose Lactase
+ fructose
Maltase: maltose -> glucose +
glucose
Peptidases:short
polypeptides -> amino acids
Lactase: lactose -> glucose +
galactose
Intestinal/epithelial Lipase:
fats/triglycerides -> glycerol
+ fatty acids
 Gall bladder
Stores bile (an alkaline yellow-
green liquid)
Bile is secreted into the
duodenum via the bile duct
during digestion
Bile salts in bile emulsify large fat
droplets into smaller ones,
increasing SA:V for lipase to
digest triglycerides into glycerol
and fatty acids (Pancrea
Pancreas s, LAT):
Pancreas secretes pancreatic Pancreati
Small juice (alkaline) containing LAT
Intestine enzymes into duodenum 7-9 cPancreati
Lipase,
Pancreatic Lipase: c
fats/triglycerides -> glycerol Amylase,
+ fatty acids Trypsin
Pancreatic Amylase:starch ->
maltose
Trypsin: proteins -> short
polypeptides
*Pro Tip: Pancreatic juice actually
contains trypsinogen. Once in the small
intestine, enterokinase produced by
epithelial cells activates trypsinogen to
trypsin. For simplicity, we just say
pancreatic juice contains trypsin.
Large Has many folds, increasing SA:V
Intestine/C Large intestine absorbs water and
olon mineral salts 7 -
(Absorption) Undigested food (faeces) are
temporarily stored in the rectum
 Anus Faeces is expelled 7 -
(Egestion)

2. Peristalsis

Definition (in digestion): Rhythmic, wave-like muscular contractions in the wall of

the alimentary canal that moves food forward
Peristalsis propels food forward ensuring it moves in the right direction,
also mixes food with digestive juices
How it works:
At the region before the food mass, circular muscles contract while
longitudinal muscles relax, narrowing the lumen and pushing food forward
At the food mass, circular muscles relax while longitudinal muscles contract,
widening the lumen, allowing food to pass through easily
The above also applies for the region just in front of the food mass
Circular muscles and longitudinal muscles are antagonistic (i.e. when one
contracts, the other relaxes)
*Pro Tip: Peristalsis occurs throughout the alimentary canal, not just in the
oesophagus
3. Structure and function of villi
Where digested substances are absorbed:
Glucose and amino acids diffuse into blood capillaries of villi to be
transported to the liver.
Glycerol and fatty acids diffuse into the epithelial cells of villi, where they
reform into triglycerides, then enter the lacteal as fat globules.
*Pro Tip: Villus is singular, villi is plural.

Adaptations for fast absorption:

Villi are finger-like projections in the small intestine, increasing SA:V
Are lined with a one-cell-thick layer of epithelial cells, minimising distance
digested food substances have to travel
Epithelial cells have microvilli, further increasing SA:V
Absorbed substances that enter the lacteal and blood capillaries are
constantly transported away, maintaining a steep concentration gradient
between the lumen and villi to maximise diffusion rate of digested substances
into villi.
*Pro Tip: After diffusion has reached equilibrium, active transport is needed to further
absorb digested substances

4. The Liver
What happens to absorbed digested food substances:
Hepatic portal vein transports glucose and amino acids from small intestine to
the liver
Glucose is converted to glycogen and stored in the liver and muscles, or
transported around the body for cells to uptake and use for energy
Amino acids are transported around the body and taken up by cells during
assimilation, to build new cell parts/protoplasm
Deamination: The process where amino groups are removed from excess
amino acids and converted into urea, in the liver.
Fats are transported around the body to be stored/used for energy
 Functions of Description
liver
Bile production The liver produces bile, which is stored in the gall bladder.
Haemoglobin from old RBCs are broken down, the iron from
Iron storage which is stored in the liver, to be used for making new red blood
cells.
When blood glucose concentration is too high, liver converts
Blood Glucose glucose to glycogen in response to insulin.
regulation When blood glucose concentration is too low, liver converts
glycogen to glucose in response to glucagon.
Toxins Detoxification is the process where harmful substances (e.g.
(Detoxification) hydrogen peroxide, alcohol) are converted into harmless ones.
Amino acids The process where amino groups are removed from excess
(Deamination) amino acids and converted into urea, in the liver.
Protein The liver produces blood proteins such as prothrombin and
synthesis fibrinogen.

[Memory Shortcut]
BIG TAP for functions of the liver
Bile production
Iron storage
Glucose regulation
DeToxification
Amino acids --> Urea (Deamination)
Protein synthesis
5. Effects of excessive alcohol consumption
Short term effects:
 Alcohol is a depressant, meaning it slows brain functions, increases reaction
time
Reduces self-control, increasing tendency to make irrational decisions
Long term effects:
Addictive, leading to neglect of social responsibilities
Stimulates acid secretion in stomach, increasing risk of stomach ulcers
Liver is overworked, cells start dying, which can lead to liver cirrhosis (formation
of fibrous tissue), haemorrhage (liver bleeding), liver failure
5. Nutrition in Humans CAQs
Important Definitions
Q: Define the term ingestion.
The intake of food through the mouth.
Q: Define the term digestion.
The physical or chemical breakdown of larger food molecules into smaller and
soluble molecules that can be absorbed by body cells.
Q: Define the term absorption.
The uptake of digested food substances into body cells.
Q: Define the term assimilation.
The process whereby digested food substances are converted to new
protoplasm or used for energy.
Q: Define the term egestion.
The removal of undigested food waste from the body.
Q: Define peristalsis. (in the context of digestion)
Rhythmic, wave-like muscular contractions in the wall of the alimentary canal
that moves food forward.
Q: Define deamination.
The process where amino groups are removed from excess amino acids and
converted into urea, in the liver.
Q: Define detoxification.
The process whereby harmful substances are converted into harmless ones.

Peristalsis Muscles
Q: The diagram shows a food bolus moving down the oesophagus.
Which row identifies the muscles and their actions at region W?
muscle X muscle Y
muscle type action muscle type action
A circular contracting longitudinal relaxing
B circular relaxing longitudinal contracting
C longitudinal contracting circular relaxing
D longitudinal relaxing circular contracting

(D)
X = longitudinal muscles (as seen from the horizontal muscle fibres within it)
Y = circular muscles. When circular muscles contract, lumen also narrows, so
Y is contracting.
Since X and Y are antagonistic, X is relaxing.
*Pro Tip: Think in terms of circular muscles. When circular muscles contract, the
lumen also "contracts".
Liver Functions
Q: Some processes that occur in the body are listed. Which processes occur in the
liver?
1 breakdown of red blood cells
2 breakdown of starch
3 formation of urine
4 storage of glycogen
A) 1 and 2
B) 1 and 4
C) 2 and 3
D) 3 and 4
(B)
Refer to the functions of the liver memory shortcut, BIG TAP.
1 & 4 are correct.
2 is wrong as animals don't store starch, we store glycogen.
3 is wrong, formation of urea occurs in liver, but formation of urine occurs in
kidneys.
Alcohol Effects
Q: Which section of the diagram represents the effects of excessive alcohol
consumption on the body?

(C)
Careless mistake: Alcohol reduces reaction time.
Alcohol reduces reaction speed, hence increases reaction time.

Digestion of Various Biomolecules

Q: Describe the digestion of protein in the body. [2]
Protein is broken down into short peptides by pepsin in the stomach, and by
trypsin in the small intestine.
Short peptides are further broken down into amino acids by peptidases in the
small intestine.
Q: Describe the digestion of carbohydrates in the body. [4]
Starch is broken down into maltose by salivary amylase in the mouth, and by
pancreatic amylase in the small intestine.
In the small intestine, maltose is further broken down by maltase into glucose,
Sucrose is broken down by sucrase into glucose and fructose,
and lactose is broken down by lactase into glucose and galactose.
Q: Describe the digestion of fats in the body. [3]
During digestion, bile is secreted from the gall bladder into the duodenum,
through the bile duct.
Bile salts in bile emulsify large fat droplets into smaller ones,
increasing the surface area to volume ratio for pancreatic lipase and
intestinal lipase to digest fats into glycerol and fatty acids.
Related Questions:
Q: Describe how bile aids in fat digestion. [2]
Q: Describe the roles of enzymes in human digestion. Give examples in your
answer. [5]
*Pro Tip: For such a question, use examples of digestion of some
macromolecules, such as protein (pepsin + trypsin + peptidases involved)
and starch (amylase + maltase involved). You don't have to talk about every
single enzyme, just include enough points to hit the mark allocation.
Adaptations of Villi
Q: Villi are found in the digestive system. Describe the structure and function of a
villus.
Villi are finger-like projections in the small intestine, which increase surface
area to volume ratio for faster absorption.
Glucose and amino acids diffuse into blood capillaries of villi to be
transported to the liver.
Glycerol and fatty acids diffuse into the epithelial cells of villi, where they
reform into triglycerides, then enter the lacteal as fat globules.
Are lined with a one-cell-thick layer of epithelial cells, minimising distance
digested food substances have to travel, increasing absorption rate.
 Epithelial cells have microvilli, further increasing surface area to volume ratio
for faster absorption.
Absorbed substances that enter the lacteal and blood capillaries are
constantly transported away, maintaining a steep concentration gradient
between the lumen and villi to maximise diffusion rate of digested substances
into villi.
Related Questions:
Q: Describe how villi are adapted to absorb digested food. [4]
*Pro Tip: For this question, just go straight to describing the
adaptations.
Q: Describe how the small intestine is adapted for absorption of digested
food substances. [4]
It is very long, allowing more time for more digested food substances to
be absorbed as they travel through.
Has many folds to increase surface area to volume ratio for faster
absorption.
*Pro Tip: For the remaining 2 marks, use any 2 points about villi
adaptations.

Functions of Liver
Q: Describe the functions of the liver. [6]
Functions of the liver [BIG TAP]
B: Bile production
I: Iron storage
G: blood Glucose regulation
T: DeToxification
A: Amino acids --> Urea (Deamination)
P: Protein synthesis
The liver produces bile, which is then stored in the gall bladder. Bile aids in fat
digestion.
The liver stores iron from the breakdown of haemoglobin of old red blood
cells, to be used for making new red blood cells.
 The liver aids in blood glucose regulation, converting glucose to glycogen
when blood glucose concentration is too high, and vice versa when glucose
levels are too low.
The liver carries out detoxification, where harmful substances such as alcohol
are converted into harmless ones.
The liver carries out deamination, where amino groups are removed from
excess amino acids and converted into urea.
The liver synthesises blood proteins such as prothrombin and fibrinogen.
Effects of Alcohol
Q: State the short term and long term effects of excessive alcohol consumption. [4]
Short term:
It is a depressant, which slows brain functions and increases reaction time,
increasing chances of driving accidents.
It reduces self-control, increasing the chances a person makes
irrational/reckless decisions.
Long term (Choose 2):
It stimulates excessive acid secretion in the stomach, which could lead to
peptic ulcers.
It could lead to death of liver cells and eventually liver failure/liver cirrhosis.
It could lead to addiction, and thus leading to overspending on alcohol/neglect
of social responsibilities.
Q: Alcohol is a depressant. Explain why it is dangerous to drive under the influence of
alcohol. [3]
While driving, the driver needs to react quickly by pressing the brakes or
steering to safety when a collision is about to occur.
Alcohol is a depressant, which slows brain functions and increases reaction
time.
Someone under the influence of alcohol may not be able to react in time,
increasing the chances of a road accident.
6. Transport in Humans
Learning Outcomes:
1. Main blood vessels in the body
2. The role of blood (transport, defence) and its components
3. Blood groups and their compatibilities
4. Structure and function of arteries, capillaries and veins
5. Transfer of materials between capillaries, tissue fluid and cells
6. Structure and function of heart + types of circulation
7. Cardiac cycle
8. Coronary heart disease
Keywords:
Oxygenated, deoxygenated
Insoluble, coagulation, clot, universal donor, universal recipient
Tissue rejection, antibody, neutralises, antigen, agglutination
Biconcave, bell-shaped
Arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins
Tissue fluid, one-cell-thick, endothelium
Systemic, pulmonary circulation, repressurised, gas exchange tissues
Blood pressure, backflow, semi-lunar valves, systole, diastole
Coronary, atherosclerosis, fatty deposit, lumen, thrombosis

1. Main blood vessels in the body

*Pro Tip: Blood from the stomach and intestines does not go back to the heart directly
through veins, it passes through the liver first.

2. The role of blood (transport, defence) and its components

Component Structure / Function
Appearance
Carries dissolved substances in the blood
Plasma (55%) Made of 95% water such as glucose, amino acids, mineral salts,
O2 and CO2, waste, hormones and plasma
proteins
Biconcave Increases SA:V for O2 to diffuse in/out of
the cell faster
Red Lacks a nucleus More space to pack in more haemoglobin
Blood Cells
To squeeze through tiny capillaries, in
Flexible which, it can become bell-shaped, further
increasing SA:V

White Blood Phagocytosis: The process where

Cells - Can have a phagocytes engulf foreign particles and
Phagocytes lobed destroy them
nucleus
Can have
tendril-like
protrusions
White Blood
Cells -
Lymphocytes
 Produce antibodies, which:
Cause foreign particles to
clump together
Have a large (agglutination),
nucleus promoting phagocytosis
Bind to and neutralises
harmful toxins that
pathogens produce
Tissue rejection: When
lymphocytes produce
antibodies against a
transplanted organ
Promotes blood clotting
(coagulation) at the site of
Platelets Membrane-bound bodies injury, sealing the wound to
(Not considered cells) prevent loss of blood and
preventing the entry ofharmful
microorganisms.

[Memory hack]
How to remember which is coagulation and agglutination
Agglutination: Due to Antibodies in the blood
Coagulation: blood Clotting

How blood clots (Coagulation)

When blood vessels are damaged, damaged tissues and platelets release
Thrombokinase.
Thrombokinase converts Prothrombin to Thrombin, in the presence of
Calcium ions.
Thrombin then converts Fibrinogen into Fibrin, forming long insoluble Fibrin
threads,
[Memory hack]
Blood clotting process:
K: starting point is thromboKinase
F: end point is Fibrin
C: this requires the presence of Calcium ions
3. Blood groups and their compatibilities

How to remember intuitively:

The body will naturally produce antibodies of the other blood types, except
against its own RBC's antigens (or it will kill its own RBCs!)
If you transfer blood into a recipient who does not have antibodies against the
donor's blood type, the transfusion will be safe.
Special blood types:
AB is the universal acceptor - can receive from all, but cannot donate to
any
O is the universal donor - can donate to all, but cannot receive from any

4. Structure and function of arteries, capillaries and veins

 Type of Structure Function
vessel
Carries blood away from the heart
Usually carry oxygenated blood, except for
pulmonary artery
Have thick elastic and muscular walls to
Arteries accommodate/withstand and the high
blood pressure exerted by the heart
Elastic and muscular walls stretch and
recoil to push blood forward in spurts
Arteries branch out into arterioles, then
into capillaries
Are present near almost every cell in the
body
Walls are made of endothelial cells
Endothelium is one-cell-thick, to minimise
Capillaries diffusion distance, increasing diffusion
rate
Capillaries branch repeatedly, increasing
SA:V, hence increasing rate of diffusion of
substances in and out of them

Veins
 Capillaries converge into venules, then into veins
Veins carry blood back to the heart
Usually carry deoxygenated blood, except for pulmonary
vein
Have semi-lunar valves to prevent backflow of blood,
which is likely due to low blood pressure in veins
Larger lumen to reduce resistance to bloodflow
Thin elastic and muscular walls as blood pressure is
lower
Contraction of skeletal muscles exerts pressure on veins,
moving blood along more quickly
*Pro Tip: The innermost layer of all blood vessels is the endothelium, which is the
same tissue that makes up capillary walls.
Graph of Blood pressure against location
The further from the aorta, the lower the blood pressure due to loss of energy
In arteries and arterioles, blood pressure fluctuates as:
Arteries have thick elastic and muscular walls that stretch and recoil, and
are directly connected to the left ventricle.
Hence, blood pressure increases during ventricular systole as left ventricle
contracts, and decreases during ventricular diastole as left ventricle
relaxes.

5. Transfer of materials between capillaries, tissue fluid and cells

 Capillaries bring nutrients and O2, which diffuse from the blood plasma to the
tissue fluid
These then diffuse from tissue fluid into cells
Conversely, waste products and CO2 diffuse out of the cells into the
tissue fluid, then into the blood plasma of capillaries.

6. Structure and function of the heart + types of circulation

[Memory hack]
How to remember bicuspid valve is on the left side of the heart, tricuspid is on
the right
We always read words from Left to Right
Bicuspid valve has 2 flaps (hence "bi-"), tricuspid valve has 3 flaps (hence
"tri-")
 So remember Left --> 2, Right --> 3.
Parts of the heart Function
Atria Have thinner walls then ventricles
Left ventricle has thicker muscular walls as it has to
generate high pressure to pump blood around entire
body
Right ventricle has thinner muscular walls, as it does
Ventricles not need to generate very high pressure to pump
blood to lungs
*Pro Tip: Use ventricular thickness to identify which side of
the diagram is right/left. Usually, diagrams are a mirror
image.
Chordae tendineae Attaches valves to the heart walls
Medium septum Separates left and right sides, so deoxygenated and
oxygenated blood stay separate
Pericardium Is a double membrane that surrounds the heart,
reducing friction when the heart beats
 Type of Single Double
circulation
Blood
Definition passes through Blood passes through heart twice in complete
heart once in circuit
complete circuit
Blood loses Blood is repressurised after passing
through heart the second time, so
Advantages/ pressure blood is pumped to the rest of the
Disadvantage significantly after
passing through body at high pressure, hence blood is
s gas exchange distributed faster
tissues Advantages of pulmonary circulation
(see table below)
Examples Fish Mammals

Stage of Features
circulation
As walls of RV has thinner muscular walls, blood is
pumped at a lower pressure, hence moves at lower
Pulmonary (To speed
the lungs) Lower speed allows more time for blood to get rid of
more CO2 and take in more O2, more efficient gas
exchange
Systemic (To As LV has thicker muscular walls, blood is pumped at
the rest of the high pressure, hence blood moves at higher speed,
body) to be quickly distributed to the rest of the body
7. Cardiac Cycle

(Link for the above GIF to visualise heartbeat:

https://media.tenor.com/dO9JYv5q8xsAAAAC/heart-heart-pumping.gif)

From Graph:
(1) Atrioventricular valves close
(2) Semi-lunar valves open
(3) Semi-lunar valves close
(4) Atrioventricular valves open
Systole = contraction
Diastole = relaxation
RA = Right atrium, LA = Left atrium, RV = Right ventricle, LV = Left ventricle
Atrial systole (+Ventricular diastole)
Both atria contract, pushing blood past the atrioventricular valves into the
ventricles
LA pumps blood past the mitral/bicuspid valve to the LV
RA pumps blood past the tricuspid valve to the RV
*Pro Tip: AV valves were already open before atrial systole, as they opened near
the end of ventricular diastole.

Ventricular systole (+Atrial diastole)

Ventricles contract
Pulmonary semi-lunar valve is forced open, blood moves from RV to the
pulmonary artery, and is sent to the lungs.
Aortic semi-lunar valve is forced open, blood moves from LV to the aorta,
and is sent to the rest of the body.
At the same time, atrioventricular valves close, preventing backflow of blood
from ventricles to the atria.
This causes the first 'lub' sound.
Meanwhile, atria relax,
Blood from pulmonary vein flows into LA
Blood from vena cava flows into RA
Ventricular diastole (+Atrial diastole)
Ventricles relax
Semi-lunar valves close, preventing backflow of blood from the
pulmonary artery and aorta back into the ventricles.
This causes the second 'dub' sound.
Blood fills the relaxed atria and ventricles again
Typical duration of each cardiac cycle: 0.8s = 75 beats per min
*Pro Tip: When the heart pumps faster, such as during exercise, the duration of
each cardiac cycle will be shorter.
8. Coronary artery disease
Atherosclerosis: The disease where fatty deposits accumulate on the inner
walls of arteries, narrowing the lumen.
 Coronary artery: An artery that branches out of the aorta, sending oxygen and
nutrients to the heart muscles.
Coronary artery disease: When atherosclerosis occurs in a coronary artery.
Heart attack
If a fatty deposit ruptures in a coronary artery, a blood clot (thrombosis = a
blood clot in a blood vessel) could form, blocking the artery.
Blood with oxygen and nutrients cannot reach the heart muscles for them to
release energy via aerobic respiration, hence they die, resulting in a heart
attack.
Preventive measures
Adopt a diet low in saturated fats and cholesterol
Not smoking
Carbon monoxide in cigarette smoke damages the endothelium,
increasing rate fatty deposits accumulate.
Nicotine stimulates adrenaline release, increasing blood pressure, which
also increases the rate fatty deposits accumulate
Stress management
Regular exercise
6. Transport in Humans CAQs
Important Definitions
Q: Define the term atherosclerosis.
The disease where fatty deposits accumulate on the inner walls of arteries,
narrowing the lumen.
Tissue Fluid
Q: The diagram shows a capillary and some tissue cells.

Which statement about the movement of substances is correct?

A) Diffusion of substances occurs at W and Y.
B) Diffusion of substances occurs at Y only.
C) Fluid only passes out of the capillary at X.
D) Tissue fluid passes into the capillary at Z.
(A)
A: Diffusion occurs at W, X, Y, Z. This includes both W and Y, although it is
incomplete, it is technically correct.
B: Wrong, see above point.
C: Wrong, fluid can exit along any part of the capillary (W, X, Z).
D: Looking at direction of bloodflow, fluid will exit the capillary at Z to provide
nutrients to cells, and then re-enter at X, removing waste products from cells.
Related Questions:
Q: What is present in the tissue fluid formed from the plasma? (Using the
same diagram as above)
This is testing on which substances can pass through the capillary walls.
 Can pass through (all the small molecules): Glucose, amino acids, water,
mineral salts, urea, O2, CO2
Cannot pass through (large substances): Blood cells, platelets, proteins
(e.g. haemoglobin, fibrin, ADH, insulin)
Circulatory System Diagram
Q: The diagrams represent the circulatory system. Which diagram is correct for an
adult human?

(D)
Diagrams are usually mirror imaged, heart is flipped (left part in this diagram is
the right side of the heart in real life, vice versa).
Blood is pumped from RV to lungs, so B is out as it shows LV to lungs.
Blood then goes from lungs to LA, so C is out.
Between A and D, A is inaccurate as it shows a vein connecting intestines back
to the heart (this does not exist!). Hence D is the answer.

Substance Concentrations Along Circulatory System

Q: The diagram represents part of the human circulatory system.
 Number Lower CO2 Higher CO2
concentration concentration
1 W X
2 Y X
3 X Z
4 V Z
Which comparisons of carbon dioxide concentration are correct?
A) 1, 2, 3 and 4
B) 1, 3 and 4 only
C) 1 and 4 only
D) 2 and 3 only
(B)
The further blood moves from the heart/more tissues it passes through, the
lower the O2 and higher the CO2. So lowest to highest CO2 concentration: V,
W, X, Y, Z.
1 correct, since W < X.
2 likely wrong, since Y has blood that passed through intestines + liver,
probably has more CO2 than X which has only passed through kidneys.
 3 correct since X < Z, since Z is blood just before entering lungs, has highest
CO2.
4 correct since V < Z.
Related Questions:
Which comparisons of urea concentration are correct? (Using the same
diagram as above)
Urea will be highest in Y, as urea is produced via deamination in the liver.
Urea will be lowest in X, as urea is filtered out of the blood by the kidneys.

Cardiac Cycle Valves

Q: The graph shows pressure changes in the left atrium, the left ventricle and the
aorta during one complete cardiac cycle.

At which points does the valve between the left atrium and left ventricle close and
open?
close open
A 1 4
B 2 3
C 3 4
D 4 1
(A)
At 1, pressure in LV jumps, it is contracting -> bicuspid valve needs to close to
prevent backflow of blood from LV to LA
At 4, pressure in LV drops below pressure of LA -> blood moves from LA to LV ->
opens bicuspid valve in the process.
Advantages of Double Circulation
Q: Describe the advantages of having double circulation in mammals. [5]
During pulmonary circulation, the right ventricle which has thinner walls
pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs at lower pressure.
This allows blood to flow through the lungs at lower speed, giving more time for
oxygen to diffuse into the blood and carbon dioxide to diffuse out.
Unlike single circulation, where blood pressure drops greatly after passing
through the gas exchange tissues, blood is re-pressurised by the heart in
double circulation.
The left ventricle, which has thick walls, pumps blood to the rest of the body
at high pressure.
Hence, oxygen and nutrients are quickly distributed to body cells, maintaining
the high metabolic rate of mammals.

Route Taken By Blood

Q: Describe the route taken by the blood from the intestine to the kidney. List the
major blood vessels and organs involved. [4]
Blood travels from the intestine to the liver via the hepatic portal vein, then
exits the liver via the hepatic vein.
It returns to the right atrium of the heart via the vena cava, and is pumped by
the right ventricle to the lungs via the pulmonary artery.
It returns to the left atrium via the pulmonary vein, and is pumped by the left
ventricle, out the aorta to the kidneys.
Finally, it enters the kidney via the renal artery.
Related Questions:
Q: Explain how a drug injected into rats was transported to the heart muscle.
[4]
Blood Vessel Structures
Q: Explain the differences in the structures of arteries and veins, with reference to
their functions. [6]
Arteries have _____(A)______, while veins have _______(B)_______.

A B
Thick elastic and muscular walls, Thin elastic and muscular walls, as
to withstand high blood pressure blood pressure is lower within them
within them
Thick elastic and muscular walls, Thin elastic and muscular walls, as
to stretch and recoil in order to it does not need to stretch and recoil
push blood forward in spurts. to push blood forward.
Smaller lumen, to maintain high Larger lumen, to reduce resistance
blood pressure as blood pressure is low
No semi-lunar valves, as high Have semi-lunar valves, to prevent
blood pressure ensures blood flows backflow of blood, which is likely due
in the right direction to the low blood pressure
Capillary Adaptations
Q: Explain how capillaries are adapted for their function. [4]
Capillaries are made of a one-cell-thick layer of endothelial cells, minimising
the diffusion distance, increasing the rate substances diffuse in and out of
capillaries.
They branch repeatedly, increasing their surface area to volume ratio,
increasing the diffusion rate of substances.
The endothelium is partially permeable, allowing small substances such as
glucose and CO2 to diffuse in and out, while ensuring big ones such as blood
proteins stay within.
They have very large total cross-sectional surface area, lowering blood
pressure and slowing blood down, for substances to have more time to diffuse
in and out.
From Capillaries To Cells
Q: Describe how substances move between capillaries and cells. [3]
Capillaries bring nutrients and oxygen, which diffuse from the blood plasma
to the tissue fluid.
These then diffuse from tissue fluid into cells.
Conversely, waste products and carbon dioxide diffuse out of the cells into
the tissue fluid, then into the blood plasma of capillaries.

Blood Flow in Veins

Q: Blood has near zero pressure when it reaches veins. Explain how blood returns to
the heart from the veins. [2]
Contraction of skeletal muscles exerts pressure on veins, forcing blood to
move along.
Semi-lunar valves in veins prevent backflow of blood, ensuring blood moves to
heart in the right direction.

Red Blood Cells

Q: Explain how red blood cells are adapted to their function. [3]
They have a biconcave shape, increasing their surface area to volume ratio for
faster diffusion of oxygen in and out of them.
They lack a nucleus, for more space to pack in more haemoglobin, increasing
their capacity for oxygen transport.
They are flexible, allowing them to squeeze through tiny capillaries, in which
they may become bell-shaped, further increasing their surface area to volume
ratio.

White Blood Cells

Q: Describe the role of white blood cells in protecting the body from disease. [3]
Phagocytes engulf foreign particles which can cause disease and destroy
them.
Lymphocytes produce antibodies that cause foreign particles to agglutinate,
promoting phagocytosis.
 Antibodies also bind to and neutralise any harmful toxins produced by
pathogens.

Clotting of Blood (Coagulation)

Q: Explain how a blood clot is formed. [4]
Blood clotting process [KFC]
K: starting point is thromboKinase
F: end point is Fibrin
C: this requires the presence of Calcium ions
When blood vessels are damaged, platelets and damaged tissues release
Thrombokinase.
Thrombokinase converts Prothrombin to Thrombin, in the presence of
Calcium ions.
Thrombin then converts Fibrinogen to Fibrin, forming long insoluble Fibrin
threads,
Which trap red blood cells, forming a clot at the site of injury.

Blood Type Incompatibility

Q: What will happen if a patient with blood group O is given a transfusion of blood
type AB? [3]
The red blood cells transfused have A and B antigens on their plasma
membranes.
However, the blood group O patient has anti-A and anti-B antibodies in their
blood plasma,
Which bind to the transfused red blood cells, causing them to clump together
and agglutinate.
(This is dangerous as it could lead to the blockage of arteries.)
Related Questions:
Q: Explain what causes the incompatibility of blood between certain donors
and recipients.
Q: Describe and explain the undesirable consequence to the recipient when
the blood type is not compatible.
Valve Opening/Closing
Q: Explain how the (bicuspid) valve opens. [2]
During ventricular diastole, the blood pressure of the left ventricle falls below
that of the left atrium,
resulting in blood flowing from the atrium to ventricle, forcing open the bicuspid
valve.
Q: Explain how the (aortic semi-lunar) valve closes. [2]
During ventricular diastole, the blood pressure of the left ventricle falls below
that of the aorta,
causing the aortic semi-lunar valve to close and preventing backflow of blood
from aorta into the left ventricle.
*Pro Tip: For questions on explaining how valves open/close, explain in terms of
pressure difference
Related Questions:
Q: State what happens when the pressure in the atrium in higher than the
pressure in the ventricle. [1]
Q: Describe how blood from the lungs is forced through the heart into the
aorta. [3]

Fluctuation of Blood Pressure

Q: Explain why blood pressure fluctuates in arteries. [3]
In arteries and arterioles, blood pressure fluctuates as arteries have thick
elastic and muscular walls that stretch and recoil,
and are directly connected to the aorta, which is connected to the left
ventricle.
Hence, blood pressure increases during ventricular systole as left ventricle
contracts, and decreases during ventricular diastole as left ventricle relaxes.
Coronary Artery Disease
Q: Explain how a heart attack usually occurs. [3]
Fatty deposits accumulate on the inner wall of a coronary artery, narrowing
the lumen, atherosclerosis has occurred.
If the fatty deposit ruptures, a blood clot could form, blocking the artery.
Blood with oxygen and nutrients cannot reach the heart muscles for them to
release energy via aerobic respiration, hence they die, resulting in a heart
attack.
Related Questions:
Q: Sometimes blood clots can form inside a blood vessel and can be carried
in the blood to the brain. The arteries in the brain may become blocked by
the clot. Suggest how this blockage may affect the brain. [2]
*Pro Tip: In the above case, would lead to the death of brain cells --> stroke
7. Nutrition in Plants
Learning Outcomes:
1. Structure of a dicotyledonous leaf
2. Photosynthesis
3. Factors affecting rate of photosynthesis: light intensity, CO2 concentration,
temperature
4. Bonus: Procedure for leaf starch test in experiment
Keywords:
Waxy cuticle, intercellular air spaces, thin film of moisture
Light energy, chlorophyll, chemical energy, byproduct
Photolysis, hydrogen atoms, reduce
Cylindrical, vertically arranged, irregularly shaped
Gaseous exchange, turgid
Light intensity, limiting factor

1. Structure of a dicotyledonous leaf

 Part of leaf Structure and Function
Transparent, allows light to reach mesophyll cells for
Waxy Cuticle photosynthesis to occur
Waterproof, reduces water loss via evaporation from leaf
surfaces
Upper Both layers are made of closely packed epidermal cells
Epidermis/ and produce the waxy cuticle
Lower Upper epidermis does not have any chloroplasts
Epidermis Lower epidermis has chloroplasts only in the guard cells
Tiny openings formed by two guard cells, which allow
gaseous exchange to occur
Stoma size is controlled by guard cells:
Stoma (pl. In the presence of light, guard cells photosynthesise,
Stomata) forming glucose, which is used to release energy.
This energy is used to pump potassium ions into the
cells, lowering their water potential.
Water flows in via osmosis, making the cells turgid
and they change shape, opening the stomata.
Just under upper epidermis, so they can receive the most
sunlight for maximum photosynthesis.
Palisade Mesop Contain many chloroplasts, so more photosynthesis
hyll Layer can be carried out per cell
Long, cylindrical and vertically arranged, so that many
of them can be packed together, increasing the total
amount of light absorbed by their chloroplasts
Spongy Fewer chloroplasts than palisade mesophyll cells
Mesophyll Layer Consists of irregularly shaped cells that have large
intercellular air spaces between cells
Intercellular Air
 Mesophyll cells are coated with a thin film of moisture,
which allows CO2 to dissolve in it before diffusing into
spaces mesophyll cells.
Intercellular air spaces have large SA:V, for carbon
dioxide and oxygen to quickly diffuse in and out of
mesophyll cells
Consists of:
Xylem: Brings water and mineral salts absorbed from the
Vascular bundle soil from the roots to leaves for photosynthesis
Phloem: Translocation of food made by the leaves to the
rest of the plant
Thin and wide lamina increases SA:V of the leaf,
maximising light absorbed for photosynthesis.
Leaf shape Being thin decreases the diffusion distance for gases to
reach all mesophyll cells quickly,
and allows light to easily penetrate through the leaf to
reach all mesophyll cells.

2. Photosynthesis

Definition: The process whereby carbon dioxide and water are converted into glucose
and oxygen, in the presence of light energy and chlorophyll.
Light stage:
Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll, then converted into chemical energy
 Photolysis of water occurs: water is split into hydrogen and oxygen atoms,
forming O2
Dark stage:
Using hydrogen atoms and chemical energy obtained from the light stage,
CO2 is reduced to form glucose
Glucose can be stored as other carbohydrates like starch, or converted to other
molecules like fats and amino acids.
*Pro Tip: Enzymes are involved in both the light and dark stages.
[Memory Hack]
How to remember CO2 is reduced into glucose
Equation for glucose being broken down is: C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> (and so on).
Notice how O2 is being added to glucose, hence it is being oxidised. Since
CO2 to glucose is the reverse reaction, CO2 must be being reduced.
Fate of glucose
Used in aerobic respiration to release energy
Excess glucose stored as starch for energy storage
Converted to sucrose to be transported in the phloem to other parts of the
plant
Converted to amino acids, which are then used to form proteins (to build new
protoplasm)
Converted to fats for energy storage or to build new protoplasm

3. Factors affecting rate of photosynthesis: light intensity, CO2

concentration, temperature
Limiting factor: A factor that directly affects the process if its quantity is increased
Light intensity
As light intensity increases, more light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll and
converted into chemical energy, increasing photosynthesis rate.
 At very high light intensity, further increasing it has no effect on rate. Light
intensity is no longer a limiting factor (some other factor is limiting).

CO2 concentration
As CO2 concentration increases, there is more CO2 available to be reduced into
glucose, increasing photosynthesis rate.
At very high CO2 concentration, increasing it further has no effect on rate. CO2
concentration is no longer a limiting factor (some other factor is limiting).
*Pro Tip: Atmospheric concentration is around 0.03-0.04%, while concentration
where CO2 no longer becomes limiting is 0.13% onwards.
Temperature
Since enzymes are involved in photosynthesis, the photosynthesis-temperature
graph looks the same as an enzyme-temperature graph.
4. Bonus: Procedure for leaf starch test in experiments (useful for
practical)
Place plant in dark room for 2 days, this de-starches the plant
Carry out the experiment (e.g. whether photosynthesis works if leaf is placed in a
sealed bag)
Place the leaf in boiling water for 2min to kill the cells, stopping further
photosynthesis.
Place the leaf in a boiling tube with ethanol into boiling water bath, removing
chlorophyll so that the green colour of chlorophyll does not affect any colour
change later on
Place leaf into boiling water for 1 min to soften the leaf and remove alcohol
Add a few drops of iodine onto the leaf to test for starch
*Pro Tip: Variegated leaves which have a white outer layer will only have starch on the
inside when tested.
7. Nutrition in Plants CAQs
Important Definitions
Q: Define the term photosynthesis.
The process whereby carbon dioxide and water is converted into glucose and
oxygen, in the presence of light and chlorophyll.

Leaf Chloroplast Distribution

Q: The diagram shows a section through a leaf with four layers of cells labelled.

What is the correct comparison between the layers?

layer with many layer with layer with no
chloroplasts in chloroplasts in some chloroplasts in
cells cells cells
A 2 1 4
B 2 3 4
C 3 1 2
D 3 4 1

(D)
1: Upper epidermis, no chloroplasts
2: Palisade mesophyll, has most chloroplasts
 3: Spongy mesophyll, second most chloroplasts
4: Lower epidermis, but guard cells have chloroplast
2, 4, 1 would be the best answer, but D is the best option here.
Photosynthesis Limiting Factors
Q: The graph shows the rate of photosynthesis at two different carbon dioxide
concentrations and at varying light intensities at an optimum temperature of 25°C.

Which factors are limiting at the points indicated?

light intensity carbon dioxide
concentration
A 1 2
B 3 4
C 1 and 2 3 and 4
D 2 and 3 1 and 4

(C)
*Pro Tip: If the reaction rate increases when you increase a certain factor, that
factor must be a limiting factor.
1, 2: Light intensity is limiting since when we increase the light intensity at
these points, photosynthesis rate increases.
3, 4: Light intensity is no longer limiting, since when we increase it, rate stays
the same.
1, 2, 3, 4: CO2 is limiting. From content knowledge, we know that CO2 stops
being limiting at 0.13% and above.
Best answer has to be C.
Uses of Glucose in Plants
Q: When plants carry out photosynthesis they produce a carbohydrate. How might the
plant use this carbohydrate?
converted storedas
used for
making
used to
release
to protein starch cellulose energy
A Y Y Y Y
B Y N Y N
C N Y N Y
D N Y Y N

(A)
Glucose is used to make amino acids by combining with nitrates (which contain
nitrogen) absorbed from the soil. Amino acids are then made into proteins.
Glucose is stored as starch as energy storage in plants.
Glucose is joined together to form cellulose which makes up cell walls.
Glucose is broken down during aerobic respiration to release energy.

Role of Chlorophyll
Q: Describe the role of chlorophyll in photosynthesis. [2]
Chlorophyll absorbs light energy, which is then converted into chemical
energy.
This chemical energy is then used along with hydrogen atoms to reduce
carbon dioxide into glucose.

Process of Photosynthesis
Describe how light energy is converted to chemical energy and stored as
carbohydrates in plants. [3]
 Chlorophyll absorbs light energy, which is then converted into chemical
energy.
Photolysis of water occurs, water is split into hydrogen and oxygen atoms,
forming oxygen as a by-product.
Using hydrogen atoms and chemical energy, carbon dioxide is reduced to
form glucose, which can be converted to starch as a store of energy.
Related Questions:
Q: Describe the process of photosynthesis. [3]

Temperature and Photosynthesis

Q: Describe and explain the effect of temperature on photosynthesis from 0°C to
60°C. [5] (assuming optimum temperature is 25°C)
As temperature increases from 0°C to 25°C, kinetic energy of enzyme and
substrate molecules involved in photosynthesis increases,
increasing their chances of collision. Enzyme-substrate complexes form
faster,
Hence photosynthesis rate increases until 25°C which is the optimum
temperature.
From 25°C to 60°C, weak bonds within enzymes break, enzymes lose the
shape of their active site and become denatured.
Substrates no longer fit into active sites, hence photosynthesis rate decreases
sharply to 0.
*Pro Tip: This answer assumes optimum temperature of the plant in the question
is 25°C.
*Pro Tip: If question gives you data about the rates of photosynthesis at each
temperature, quote the data into your answer, eg. As temperature increases
from 0°C to 25°C, rate of photosynthesis increases from 10 units to 270 units.

Increasing CO2 vs Photosynthesis

Q: Explain how increasing CO2 concentration affects the rate of photosynthesis. [2]
As CO2 concentration increases, more CO2 can be reduced to form glucose,
increasing photosynthesis rate.
 At high enough CO2 concentration (0.13%), increasing it further does not
increase rate as CO2 concentration is no longer a limiting factor (as
chloroplasts are saturated with CO2).

Increasing light intensity vs Photosynthesis

Q: Explain how increasing light intensity affects the rate of photosynthesis. [2]
As light intensity increases, more light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll and
converted into chemical energy, hence rate of photosynthesis increases.
At high enough light intensity, increasing it further does not increase rate as light
intensity is no longer a limiting factor (as chloroplasts are saturated with light).
Related Questions:
Q: Suggest why light is a major factor affecting the growth rate of the trees.
[1]
*Pro Tip: The answer will be about how in nature, light is only available in the
day.
Stomata
Q: The stomata of most plants stay open in daylight. Explain why having stomata open
in daylight is an advantage to plants. [2]
Open stomata allow for gaseous exchange, where carbon dioxide diffuses
into leaves, so it can be reduced to form glucose during photosynthesis.
It also allows oxygen, which is the by-product, to diffuse out.
Stomata size
Q: Describe how guard cells control the movement of substances in and out of the
leaf. [4]
In the presence of light, guard cells photosynthesise, forming glucose, which
is used to release energy.
This energy is used to pump potassium ions into the guard cells, lowering their
water potential.
Water flows in via osmosis, making the guard cells turgid and they change
shape, opening the stomata.
Carbon dioxide enters, while oxygen and water vapour exit the leaf via
stomata.
(In the absence of light, guard cells close stomata, restricting the movement of
these gases.)
8. Transport in Plants
Learning Outcomes:
1. Root hair cells
2. Xylem and phloem: positions throughout plant and their function
3. Outline how water is transported from roots to leaves
4. Effects of temperature, light intensity, humidity and wind of transpiration rate
5. Wilting
6. Bonus: Adaptations to reduce transpiration rate
Keywords:
Water potential, mineral salts
Lignified, pits, collapse, end walls, unobstructed flow, maturity, protoplasm
Translocation, manufactured food substances, sap
Unidirectional, bidirectional, porous
Root pressure, capillary action, transpiration, transpiration pull
Intercellular air spaces, thin film of moisture, evaporates, water vapour
Humidity, air movement, more/less steep concentration gradient
Wilting, leaf surface area

1. Root hair cells

 Feature of root hair Function
cells
Have a long Increases SA:V for faster absorption of
and narrow root hair water and mineral salts
Contain More cellular respiration to meet high
many mitochondria energy demand required for active
transport of mineral salts
Vacuole has
high concentration of Creates a region of low water potential
for water to enter via osmosis
mineral salts

2. Xylem and phloem: positions throughout plant and their

function
Cross-section of stem

*Pro Tip: Cambium differentiates into new phloem and xylem tissues
[Memory Hack]
How to remember position of xylem and phloem in stem
Which is more crucial, food or water? Water. Since xylem carries water, it
needs to be more protected, hence it's on the inside.
Cross-section of root

Cross-section of leaf

[Memory Hack]
How to remember position of xylem and phloem in leaf
Picture the stem's vascular bundle (you know that the xylem is on the
inside), curling outwards to form the leaf's vascular bundle. That's why
xylem would be on top, and phloem below.

Xylem vs phloem - structure and function

 Type of
vascular Xylem Phloem
tissue

Structure
*Pro Tip: Pits allow water to
flow to adjacent xylem vessels

Position in
stem vascula Inner Outer
r bundle
Position in
leaf vascular Top Bottom
bundle
Position in Inner 'cross' Outer 'nodules'
stele of root
Translocation: The
transport of
manufactured food
Water and mineral salts from substances such as
Transports roots to rest of the plant sucrose and amino acids
from leaves to rest of the
plant
Substance within phloem
is called sap
 Yes, deposited in xylem
walls to strengthen it,
Lignified prevents xylem from
walls? collapse. No
Can be deposited in
rings/spiral bands/entire
wall except for pits
Energy No, substances are transported Yes, active transport involved
required? passively
Direction Unidirectional (upwards only) Bidirectional (both up and
of transport down)
Alive or dead Dead, no protoplasm Yes, but sieve tube elements
at maturity? lack nucleus and many
organelles
Have many mitochondria, to
Companion - provide a lot of energy needed
cells for sieve tube elements to
transport manufactured food
substances
End walls None, to allow unobstructed Yes - sieve plates, which are
flow of water porous

3. Outline how water is transported from roots to leaves

Water is transported up the xylem in 3 ways: Root pressure, Capillary action,
Transpiration pull.
Root pressure: The upward pressure generated by constant osmosis of water from
living cells into xylem vessels at the roots, due to the active transport of mineral salts.
Water enters root hair cells via osmosis --> root hair cells have higher water
potential than the inner cortex cells, water moves via osmosis to inner cells
 This process of osmosis repeats until water reaches the xylem vessels
Cortex cells actively transport mineral salts into the xylem at roots,
decreasing water potential of xylem so that water enters by osmosis.

Capillary action: The phenomenon in which water tends to move up narrow tubes
This is due to the cohesive and adhesive forces of water
Capillary action aids in the movement of water up the xylem
Transpiration pull
Transpiration pull is the main force that pulls water from the roots to leaves
Transpiration: The loss of water vapour from the aerial parts of a plant, mainly
through the stomata in its leaves
Transpiration is a consequence of gaseous exchange, in the presence of
light stomata open wider to allow more CO2 to enter for photosynthesis,
however this also increases the rate that water vapour diffuses out
In leaves, water moves out the mesophyll cells, forming a thin film of moisture,
which evaporates into water vapour in the intercellular air spaces
It diffuses out of leaves via stomata, down its concentration gradient.
Water potential of mesophyll cells has decreased, hence water moves from
xylem vessels in leaves to replace water lost in mesophyll cells
This causes a whole column of water to be pulled up xylem vessels from roots
to leaves, by transpiration pull
Transpiration pull: The suction force created due to transpiration that pulls
water and mineral salts up the xylem
[Memory shortcut]
Transpiration process [Fake Vampire Drinks Red Water]
F: thin Film of moisture
V: water Vapour
D: Diffuses out via stomata
R: water in xylem Replaces water lost from mesophyll cells
W: causes Whole column of water to be pulled up

4. Effects of temperature, light intensity, humidity and wind on

transpiration rate
Temperature
As temperature increases, kinetic energy of water molecules increases
Water evaporates faster from the thin film of moisture into intercellular
air spaces, more water vapour diffuses out of stomata, increasing
transpiration rate
Light intensity
As light intensity increases, guard cells become turgid, opening the
stomata
This allows water vapour to diffuse out of the leaf faster, increasing
transpiration rate
Humidity: The amount of water vapour already in the air
 As humidity increases, concentration gradient of water vapour between
intercellular air spaces and surrounding air becomes less steep
Water vapour diffuses out slower, decreasing transpiration rate
Wind/air movement
More wind/air movement blows water vapour away from air around leaves,
decreasing humidity
Concentration gradient of water vapour between intercellular air spaces
and surrounding air becomes steeper
Water vapour diffuses out faster, increasing transpiration rate

5. Wilting
Usually, mesophyll cells of the leaf are turgid
This keeps leaves firm and spread widely for maximum surface area
Turgidity keeps the plant upright to reach for maximum sunlight (especially
plants with non-woody stems)
Wilting occurs when rate of transpiration > rate of water uptake
Due to a net loss of water to the plant, central vacuoles of cells shrink,
mesophyll cells lose turgor pressure and become flaccid
*Pro Tip: Think of turgor pressure as how turgid a plant cell is!
This results in the wilted look of the plant
Causes
Too high light intensity
Too high heat
Too much fertiliser that lowers soil water potential below that of root cells,
resulting in water leaving the roots
Pros and cons of wilting
Pros: Reduced leaf surface area + flaccid guard cells close stomata
reduces transpiration rate, which helps conserve water
Cons: Due to closed stomata, less CO2 enters leaves. Due to reduced leaf
surface area, less light is captured, leading to reduced photosynthesis
rate.
 *Pro Tip: Leaf surface area is reduced, NOT leaf surface area to volume
ratio.

6. Bonus: Adaptations to reduce rate of transpiration

Hairs and a curled/rolled leaf structure traps water vapour around the sunken
stomata
Few leaves/Small leaf surface area/Leaves reduced to spines
Thick cuticle
Succulent/fleshy leaves that store water

^Leaf of Marram grass, adapted to hot and dry locations

8. Transport in Plants CAQs
Important Definitions
Q: Define the term transpiration.
The loss of water vapour from the aerial parts of a plant, mainly through the
stomata in its leaves.
Q: Define the term transpiration pull.
The suction force created due to transpiration that pulls water and mineral salts
up the xylem.
Q: Define the term translocation.
The transport of manufactured food substances such as sucrose and amino
acids in the phloem of plants.

Location of Xylem and Phloem

Q: Diagram 1 shows part of a plant stem in longitudinal section.

Diagram 2 shows a transverse section of a plant stem.

Which part of diagram 2 contains the components shown in diagram 1?

(A)
 Diagram 1: Top row of cells are sieve tube elements (you can tell from the sieve
plates), and the bottom row are companion cells (you can tell from the fact that
they have nuclei).
Diagram 1 is showing the phloem
Diagram 2
A = Phloem, B = Pith, C = Xylem, D = Cortex
*Pro Tip: They love testing you on companion cells!
Water Potential of Cells in Root
Q: The diagram shows a root absorbing water. Where is the water potential highest?

(D)
Water moves from D -> C -> B -> A.
Water moves from higher to lower water potential, so the water potentials from
highest to lowest must be: D > C > B > A.

Root Hair Cell Adaptations

Q: Explain how root hair cells are adapted for their function. [2]
They have a long and narrow protrusion, increasing surface area to volume
ratio, increasing rate of absorption of water and mineral salts.
They have many mitochondria to generate a lot of energy via aerobic
respiration, for the active transport of mineral salts from the surrounding soil
into the cell.

How Root Hair Cells Absorb Water and Mineral Salts

Q: Root hair cells have a high ion concentration. Explain how this is maintained and its
importance. [3]
 Mineral salts are pumped using energy from a region of lower concentration in
the soil, to a region of higher concentration in root hair cells, via active
transport.
This results in root hair cells having lower water potential than the surrounding
soil, so that water flows in passively via osmosis,
Allowing the plant to uptake water, which is used in metabolic processes such
as photosynthesis.

Xylem vs Phloem
Q: State the differences between xylem and phloem. [6]
The xylem _____(A)______, while the phloem _______(B)_______.

A B
Transports manufactured food
Transports water and mineral salts substances such as sucrose and
amino acids during translocation
Transports substances in one Transports substances in both
direction/unidirectionally, from roots directions/bidirectionally, up and
to the leaves down the plant
Does not require energy when Requires energy when transporting
transporting substances substances as active transport is
involved
Cells are dead at maturity Cells are alive at maturity
Has lignified walls to strengthen it so it Does not have lignified walls
does not collapse
Vessel elements have no end walls, Sieve tube elements have perforated
to allow unobstructed flow of water end walls called sieve plates

Related Questions:
 Q: Describe the similarities and differences in the function of xylem tissue
and phloem tissue. [4]
*Pro Tip: For this question, only include differences in function, not in
structure.

Tree Ringing

Q: A ring of bark was removed from a tree. Explain the appearance of the swollen
stem above the ringed area after a few days. [3]
Phloem transports manufactured food substances such as sucrose and
amino acids,
and when these were sent from the leaves to the lower parts of the tree, they
could not continue beyond the ringed area as the phloem vessels were
removed.
Manufactured food substances accumulated there, causing the bulge.

Water Moving From Root Hair Cell to Xylem

Q: Describe how water moves from root hair cells to reach a xylem vessel. [2]
When water enters root hair cells from the soil via osmosis, their water
potential becomes higher than inner cortex cells.
Water moves to the inner cortex cells, causing their water potential to now
increase.
This process of osmosis repeats, until water reaches the xylem vessels.

Transport of Water From Roots To Leaves

Q: Explain how water moves from the roots to leaves. [6]
Transpiration process [Fake Vampire Drinks Red Water]
F: thin Film of moisture
 V: water Vapour
D: Diffuses out via stomata
R: water in xylem Replaces water lost from mesophyll cells
W: causes Whole column of water to be pulled up
Water enters the roots via osmosis, then moves up xylem vessels by root
pressure and capillary action.
At the leaves, water moves out of mesophyll cells by osmosis, forming a thin
film of moisture,
Which evaporates into water vapour in the intercellular air spaces.
Water vapour diffuses out to the surroundings via stomata, down its
concentration gradient.
As water potential of mesophyll cells has decreased, water moves from xylem
vessels into mesophyll cells to replace the water lost.
This causes a whole column of water to be pulled up xylem vessels from roots
to leaves by transpiration pull.
*Pro Tip: For such questions, we mainly focus on explaining transpiration pull.

Process of Transpiration
Q: Describe the process of transpiration. [4]
At the leaves, water moves out of mesophyll cells by osmosis, forming a thin
film of moisture,
Which evaporates into water vapour in the intercellular air spaces.
Water vapour diffuses out to the surroundings via stomata, down its
concentration gradient.
As water potential of mesophyll cells has decreased, water moves from xylem
vessels into mesophyll cells to replace the water lost.
Related Questions:
Q: Explain how water passes from a mesophyll cell to the atmosphere.

Factors Affecting Transpiration Rate

Q: Explain how temperature affects the rate of transpiration. [3]
As temperature increases, kinetic energy of water molecules increases.
 The thin film of moisture lining mesophyll cells evaporates faster into the
intercellular air spaces.
More water vapour diffuses out of stomata, increasing transpiration rate.

Q: Explain how light intensity affects the rate of transpiration. [2]

As light intensity increases, guard cells become turgid and open the stomata.
This allows water vapour to diffuse out of the leaf faster, increasing
transpiration rate.

Q: Explain how humidity affects the rate of transpiration. [2]

As humidity increases, the concentration gradient of water vapour between
the intercellular air spaces and the surrounding air becomes less steep.
Hence water vapour diffuses out of the leaf slower, decreasing transpiration
rate.

Q: Explain how air movement/wind affects the rate of transpiration.

With more air movement/wind, water vapour is blown away and prevented from
accumulating around stomata, thus decreasing the humidity around leaves.
The concentration gradient of water vapour between the intercellular air
spaces and the surrounding air becomes more steep.
Hence water vapour diffuses out of the leaf faster, increasing transpiration rate.

More Stomata on Lower Surface of Leaf

Q: Explain why there are usually more stomata on the lower surface of a leaf. [2]
As the lower surface is not in direct exposed to sunlight, temperature is lower,
hence transpiration is lower.
It allows water vapour to accumulate under leaves, increasing humidity around
stomata, decreasing transpiration rate,
thus preventing the plant from losing too much water.
Process of Wilting
Q: Explain how a plant may wilt on a hot sunny day. [3]
 On a hot sunny day, the high light intensity and heat result in a high
transpiration rate.
If transpiration rate exceeds the rate of water uptake, there is a net loss of
water to the plant.
The central vacuoles of cells shrink, mesophyll cells of leaves become flaccid,
hence the plant wilts.

Advantages of Wilting
Q: Explain how wilting may be beneficial to a plant. [3]
Upon wilting, guard cells become flaccid, closing the stomata.
Wilting also decreases leaf surface area.
These decrease the rate which water vapour diffuses out of leaves, decreasing
transpiration rate and prevents the plant from losing too much water.
Adaptations of Plants in Hot Climates
Describe the possible structural features of a plant that is adapted to survive in hot
and dry conditions. Explain how each feature enables the plant to do so. [4]
Choose 4:
The plant may have stomata that are sunken in pits, and have hairs near the
stomata.
This traps water vapour, increasing humidity around stomata, decreasing
transpiration rate.
It may have a curled/rolled leaf structure, which also increases humidity around
stomata.
Its leaves may be reduced to spines, reducing their surface area, decreasing
diffusion of water vapour out of stomata.
It may have few leaves, reducing the total surface area that water can diffuse
out of.
Its leaves may have a thick cuticle to further reduce water loss via evaporation
through the upper and lower epidermis.
It may have succulent/thick and fleshy leaves that can store water in case of
drought.
9. Respiration
Learning Outcomes:
1. Aerobic and anaerobic respiration
2. Identify parts of the respiratory system and their roles in breathing
3. The alveoli + inspired vs expired air
4. Transport of O2 and CO2
5. Smoking
Keywords:
Aerobic, anaerobic, oxygen debt, oxidise, lactic acid, additional energy
Alveolar air space, one-cell-thick, film of moisture
Inspiration/inhalation, expiration/exhalation, thoracic volume, air pressure
Haemoglobin, oxyhaemoglobin, carbaminohaemoglobin
Carbonic anhydrase, carbonic acid, dissociates, bicarbonate/hydrogen
carbonate ions
Nicotine, addictive, social responsibilities
Carbon monoxide, irreversibly, carboxyhaemoglobin
Tar, carcinogen, chronic bronchitis, partition walls, emphysema

1. Aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Living things need to respire to release energy for cellular activities, such as:
Muscular contractions, cell division, active transport, etc.
Aerobic respiration: The process where food substances are broken down into
carbon dioxide and water, in the presence of oxygen, releasing a large amount of
energy.
Glucose + oxygen --> carbon dioxide + water + large amount of energy
C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O + large amount of energy
 Anaerobic respiration (yeasts): The process where food substances are
broken down into carbon dioxide and ethanol, in the absence of oxygen,
releasing a small amount of energy.
Glucose --> carbon dioxide + ethanol + small amount of energy
This process is also called alcoholic fermentation
Anaerobic respiration (mammals): The process where food substances are
broken down into lactic acid, in the absence of oxygen, releasing a small amount
of energy.
Glucose --> Lactic acid + small amount of energy
The effect of lactic acid in muscles
During vigorous exercise, muscles demand more energy than can be
generated by aerobic respiration
Additional energy is generated by anaerobic respiration, resulting in
accumulation of lactic acid in muscles
An oxygen debt is incurred
This causes fatigue and muscular pain
Converting lactic acid back into glucose
Lactic acid is removed from muscles via the bloodstream and transported
to the liver.
Oxygen debt: The amount of oxygen needed to oxidise lactic acid built up
in the body back into glucose, at the liver.
The conversion of some lactic acid back into glucose releases energy, and
this energy is then used to oxidise the remaining lactic acid to glucose.
Hence immediately after exercise, the person consumes more oxygen
compared to at rest, to repay the oxygen debt.

2. Identify parts of the respiratory system and their roles in

breathing
 Structure Function
Cilia are hair-like structures on ciliated cells
Found on inner walls of trachea, bronchi and larger
bronchioles
Cilia Mucus secreted by mucosal/gland cells traps dust and
foreign particles
Cilia sweeps mucus with the trapped particles up the trachea to
be swallowed, neutralising any pathogens due to the
stomach's acidic pH
C-shaped Structural support: prevents collapse of the trachea
rings Rings are incomplete: allows trachea to collapse partially during
of cartilag swallowing
e

Breathing
 Event Inspiration (Breathing Expiration (Breathing
in) out)
Diaphragm Contracts and flattens Relaxes upwards
downwards
Internal* Relax Contract
Intercosta
l muscles External Contract Relax
*
Ribcage Moves up and out Moves down and in
Thoracic Volume Increases Decreases
Air pressure in lungs Lower than surrounding Higher than surrounding
air, causing air to rush in air, causing air to rush out
*Pro Tip: These muscles are antagonistic
[Memory Shortcut]
Inspiration/expiration process [DIRVA]
D: Diaphragm
I: Intercostal muscles (internal + external)
R: Ribcage
V: thoracic Volume
A: Air pressure in lungs

Adaptations of alveoli
 Feature Function
One-cell-thick Minimises distance O2 and CO2 have to travel,
increasing diffusion rate
Small and numerous Increases their SA:V, increasing diffusion rate
Provides continuous blood supply, oxygenated blood is
Surrounded by network quickly carried away to maintain the concentration
of capillaries gradients* for O2 to diffuse from alveolar air space
into blood and CO2 to diffuse out
Thin film of
moisture lining alveolar Gases dissolve in it before diffusing across
air space
*Pro Tip: Concentration gradients are also maintained by fresh air being breathed in
and old air breathed out

3. Inspired vs expired air

Component of air Inspired air Expired air
Oxygen 21% 16%
Carbon Dioxide 0.03% 4%
Nitrogen 78% 78%
Water Vapour Varies Saturated
Dust Particles Present Almost none
Temperature Varies ~37°C

4. Transport of O2 and CO2

Oxygen
A small percentage (2%) dissolves and is transported by blood plasma
Most O2 (98%) is transported by RBCs
When O2 concentration is high, O2 combines with haemoglobin (forming
oxyhaemoglobin)
When blood passes through oxygen-poor areas, O2 dissociates from
haemoglobin and diffuses into the tissue fluid, then into cells
Carbon dioxide
A small percentage (5%) dissolves in and is transported in blood plasma
Some CO2 (25%) binds to haemoglobin (forming carbaminohaemoglobin) and
is transported by RBCs
Most CO2 (70%) is transported as bicarbonate ions/hydrogen carbonate
ions, HCO3-
Carbonic anhydrase in RBCs combine CO2 and H2O to form H2CO3,
carbonic acid
This then dissociates into H+ and HCO3-
 HCO3- ions diffuse out of RBCs into the plasma, where they are carried to
the lungs
At the lungs, the reverse process occurs, CO2 diffuses out of the capillaries
into alveolar air space and is expelled during exhalation
Breathing Rate
Is controlled by (and directly proportional to) blood CO2 concentration
During exercise, muscle cells undergo more aerobic respiration more, more
CO2 is released by cells into the blood
Breaths become faster and deeper to quickly remove excess CO2

5. Smoking
Health impacts caused by chemicals in tobacco smoke
 Chemical in
Tobacco Negative Effects
smoke
Addictive, resulting in social problems
Stimulates adrenaline secretion, increasing blood
pressure*
Nicotine Increases ease of blood clotting, increasing the risk of
heart attacks
*Pro Tip: This also increases rate of fatty deposits accumulating in
arteries.
Binds irreversibly with haemoglobin such that it cannot
transport O2 anymore, reducing the ability of blood to
Carbon transport O2
Monoxide Damages endothelium of blood vessels, hence increasing
the rate that fatty deposits accumulate in arteries,
increasing the risk of heart attacks
Paralyses cilia, dust particles cannot be expelled, which can
result in:
Chronic bronchitis (where the epithelium lining the
airways are inflamed + persistent coughing)
Tar Persistent and violent coughing can lead to
Emphysema (when partition walls between alveoli
break down, making it hard to breathe)
Tar is a carcinogen*, increases chances of lung cancer
*Pro Tip: Carcinogen = something that causes cancer
9. Respiration CAQs
Important Definitions
Q: Define the term aerobic respiration.
The process where food substances are broken down into carbon dioxide and
water, in the presence of oxygen, releasing a large amount of energy.
Q: Define the term anaerobic respiration (yeasts).
The process where food substances are broken down into carbon dioxide and
ethanol, in the absence of oxygen, releasing a small amount of energy.
Q: Define the term anaerobic respiration (mammals).
The process where food substances are broken down into lactic acid, in the
absence of oxygen, releasing a small amount of energy.

Alveoli Blood Capillaries

Q: Which row shows the differences in composition between the blood at X and the
blood at Y?
 concentration of substance in the blood at
X compared to the blood at Y
carbon glucose oxygen
dioxide
A less more less
B less the same more
C more more less
D more the same less

(C)
Blood at X is from the pulmonary artery, bringing deoxygenated blood to the
lungs (High CO2, low O2).
Blood at Y has been oxygenated by the alveoli (Low CO2, high O2)
CO2: X has more
O2: X has less
Glucose: X has more, since some glucose diffuses into alveoli cells and used
for aerobic respiration.
Air Pressure Graph
Q: The graph shows changes in the air pressure within the lungs during one breathing
cycle.

What causes the change in air pressure during stage X?

A) Contraction of diaphragm muscles
B) Increase in volume of lungs
C) Outflow of air from lungs
D) Relaxation of internal intercostal muscles
(C)
Remember that lung air pressure is always opposite with lung volume. In the
second half of the graph, lung pressure jumped, meaning lung volume fell -> this
is exhalation.
At X, air is rushing out of the lungs, moving from higher to lower pressure
(this evens out the air pressure, that's why air pressure is gradually going
back down to 100kPa).
The only option that fits exhalation is C.
To check your answer, notice that C is the odd one out (the other options are all
inhalation)
A: inhalation
B: inhalation
C: exhalation
D: inhalation
*Pro Tip: The answer is usually the odd one out. By elimination, you can guess
that it is C, since it is the only option that is about exhalation.

Breathing In
Q: Explain how air is made to enter the lungs. [4]
Inspiration/expiration process [DIRVA]
D: Diaphragm
I: Intercostal muscles (internal + external)
R: Ribcage
V: Volume of thoracic cavity
A: Air pressure in lungs
During inspiration/inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and flattens
downwards.
The internal intercostal muscles relax, while external intercostal muscles
contract, moving the ribcage up and out.
As a result, thoracic volume increases,
 and air pressure in lungs falls below that of the surrounding air, causing air to
rush into the lungs.

Breathing Out
Q: Describe the process of expiration/exhalation. [4]
During expiration/exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes upwards.
The internal intercostal muscles contract, while external intercostal muscles
relax, moving the ribcage down and in.
As a result, thoracic volume decreases,
and air pressure in lungs rises above that of the surrounding air, forcing air out
of the lungs.
Adaptations of Alveoli
Q: Describe how alveoli are adapted for the exchanges of gases. [4]
The alveolar wall is one-cell-thick, minimising the distance oxygen (O2) and
carbon dioxide (CO2) have to travel, increasing diffusion rate.
Alveoli are small and numerous, increasing their surface area to volume ratio,
hence increasing the rate of diffusion of gases.
They are also surrounded by a network of capillaries, which provide a
continuous blood supply, so oxygenated blood is quickly carried away to
maintain the concentration gradients for diffusion O2 and CO2.
There is a thin film of moisture lining the alveolar air space, allowing gases to
dissolve in it before diffusing across.
Role of Cilia
Q: Describe the role of cilia in the trachea and bronchi. [2]
They sweep dust particles and pathogens which are trapped in mucus up the
trachea to the pharynx,
where they will be swallowed down the oesophagus into the stomach, where
the acidic pH neutralises any pathogens.
Transport of Carbon Dioxide
Q: Describe how carbon dioxide produced by cells is eventually removed at the lungs.
[6]
Carbon dioxide (CO2) diffuses from cells into the tissue fluid, then into
capillaries.
 When CO2 diffuses into a red blood cell, carbonic anhydrase combines it with
water, forming carbonic acid.
Carbonic acid dissociates into a H+ ion and a bicarbonate ion, which diffuses
out of the cell and is carried in the blood plasma to the lungs.
A small amount of CO2 is carried by directly dissolving in blood plasma, as well
as by haemoglobin in red blood cells.
At the lungs, the reverse process occurs, and bicarbonate ions are converted
back to CO2.
*Pro Tip: Don't need to fully write out the reverse conversion process, since
you already demonstrated your understanding of it.
CO2 diffuses from blood into alveoli air spaces and is exhaled.
Related Questions:
Q: Describe the role of carbonic anhydrase in the excretion of carbon
dioxide. [4]

Oxygen Consumption During Exercise

Q: Explain why the oxygen used increases as the level of exercise increases. [3]
As the level of exercise increases, muscular contractions become more
frequent and intense.
Muscle cells demand more energy, which requires more aerobic respiration,
thus using up more oxygen which is a reactant.
Related Questions:
Q: Explain why the volume of air breathed in during exercise is different from
at rest. [3]

Oxygen Debt
Q: An athlete just finished a race. Explain why the amount of oxygen he uses does not
immediately go back to resting levels, even though exercise has stopped. [4]
While running the race, additional energy was generated via anaerobic
respiration, producing lactic acid as a by-product.
(It is removed from muscles via the bloodstream and transported to the
liver.)
 After the race, the athlete has an oxygen debt, which is the oxygen needed to
oxidise some lactic acid into glucose, to release energy.
This energy is then used to oxidise the remaining lactic acid to glucose.
Hence immediately after the race, the athlete breathes heavier than normal for
awhile, to repay the oxygen debt.
Related Questions:
Q: Explain why the breathing rate after exercise is different from normal
breathing in the person. Give 2 reasons. [2]
*Pro Tip: The first reason is to repay the oxygen debt. The second reason is
to excrete the excess CO2 present in the blood.

Smoking harmful chemicals and effects

Q: Describe the harmful effects of tobacco smoke. [6]
It contains nicotine, which is addictive, and stimulates adrenaline secretion,
which in turn increases blood pressure, as well as the ease of blood clotting,
hence increasing risk of heart attacks.
Carbon monoxide binds irreversibly with haemoglobin such that it cannot
transport oxygen anymore, reducing the ability of blood to transport oxygen.
Carbon monoxide also damages endothelium of blood vessels, increasing the
rate fatty deposits accumulate in arteries, hence increasing chances of heart
attacks.
Tar is a carcinogen, which increases the risk of lung cancer.
Tar also paralyses cilia, so dust particles and pathogens trapped in mucus
cannot be expelled. This can result in chronic bronchitis and emphysema.
Related Questions:
Q: Describe 3 ways in which smoking damages the lungs. [3]
10. Excretion
Learning Outcomes:
1. Importance of excretion
2. Structure of kidneys and nephrons
3. Osmoregulation and ADH
4. Dialysis
Keywords:
Anabolic, catabolic, metabolism, waste/excretory products, urea
Basic functional unit, afferent/efferent arteriole, ultrafiltration, high (hydrostatic)
blood pressure
Selective reabsorption, filtrate, more permeable to water
Osmoregulation, osmoreceptors, osmotic pressure, permeability
Kidney failure, partially permeable, dialysate

1. Importance of excretion
Excretion: The process whereby metabolic waste products and toxic
substances are removed from the body
Importance:They must be excreted as they can harm the body if they
accumulate to high concentrations.
Our metabolism results in metabolic waste products/excretory products
Anabolic = smaller molecules form a larger molecule
Catabolic = large molecule broken down into smaller molecules
[Memory hack]
How to remember anabolic vs catabolic
In the movie Frozen, Anna (Elsa's sister) always wants to build a snowman.
So Anabolic = building, small molecules form a larger molecule.
Catastrophe is when there is a lot of destruction, so Catabolic = breaking.
Examples of excretion in humans
 Unicellular organisms use diffusion for excretion, multicellular organisms need
organs
Lungs excrete CO2 during expiration
Urea (product of deamination) is filtered out by kidneys and excreted in
urine
Excess water excreted by sweating, expiration and in urine
Bile pigment excreted through faeces
2. Structure of kidneys and nephrons
Urinary system

Renal artery brings blood to kidney, renal vein carries blood away
Kidneys act as filters, removing unwanted substances
Ureter carries urine to bladder where it is temporarily stored
Urethra carries urine outside of body
[Memory hack]
How not to mix up ureter and urethra
When you've been holding your pee in for very long and finally go toilet, you
say "aaaaaaa"
Urethraaaa is the one through which urine leaves your body

Parts of a kidney
 Nephrons are found in the Cortex and Medulla and produce urine.
*Pro Tip: Medulla is the inner region of the kidney where the renal pyramids
are found.
Urine produced flows down the renal calyces (plural of calyx) -> renal pelvis ->
ureter

Parts of a nephron
Formation of urine
A nephron is the basic functional unit of the kidney that filters and removes
waste substances from the blood to form urine.
The processes involved that make this possible are ultrafiltration and selective
reabsorption.
Ultrafiltration: The process where most of the blood plasma and dissolved
substances are forced out of the glomerulus into the bowman's capsule byhigh
(hydrostatic) blood pressure.
Blood enters the glomerulus through the afferent arteriole and leaves through
the efferent arteriole
Lumen of efferent arteriole is smaller, generates high (hydrostatic) blood
pressure which forces out most of the blood plasma and its dissolved
substances (glucose, amino acids, mineral salts, urea, toxins, medicine).
These substances enter the Bowman's capsule
Large molecules such as blood cells, platelets and proteins cannot pass through
the basement membrane that lines the glomerular capillaries
Selective reabsorption: The process where certain substances are reabsorbed from
the filtrate back into the blood as they pass through nephrons.
Useful substances are selectively reabsorbed while unwanted substances (or
substances in excess) stay in the filtrate and become urine
Water is reabsorbed* via osmosis
*Pro Tip: Since water is not reabsorbed using energy, do not say it is
"selectively reabsorbed", only "reabsorbed"
Glucose, amino acids, and some mineral salts are reabsorbed via diffusion and
active transport

Part of nephron Reabsorption of substances

Proximal Convolute Some water, some mineral salts, all glucose and all
d Tubule amino acids reabsorbed
Loop of Henle Some water reabsorbed
Distal Some water and some mineral salts reabsorbed
Convoluted Tubule
Collecting Duct Some water reabsorbed

[Memory hack]
Substances reabsorbed along nephron
All parts reabsorb some water
As all the useful substances have been forced out during ultrafiltration, PCT
"panics" to absorb them back, hence some mineral salts, all glucose and all
amino acids.
DCT looks and sounds very similar to the PCT, so the function is similar too.
But since all glucose and amino acids already have been reabsorbed, DCT
only absorbs some water and some mineral salts.

3. Osmoregulation and ADH

Osmoregulation: The process where the amount of water and concentrations of
solutes in blood are controlled to maintain constant water potential in the body.
Osmoreceptors are cells in the hypothalamus that detect changes in blood
water potential
More/less Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)* is secreted by the pituitary gland in
response to a change detected
*Pro Tip: How to remember what ADH does? A diuretic is something that
makes you pee more. Therefore Anti-diuretic means anti-pee, so you pee
less and urine becomes more concentrated.
*Pro Tip: Think of ADH as the "water conservation hormone".
Kidneys are considered osmoregulators as they aid in osmoregulation
Osmoregulation works by negative feedback, and attempts to restore the set-
point of blood water potential/osmotic pressure
*Pro Tip: Osmotic pressure and water potential are inversely related, i.e.
when water potential is high, osmotic pressure is low.
Water Water
Water potential potential decreases/osmotic potential increases/osmotic
pressure rises pressure falls
Osmoreceptors Inthisthe Hypothalamus detect Inthisthe Hypothalamus detect
ADH secretion Pituitary
ADH
gland secretes more Pituitary gland secretes less
ADH
Collecting ducts Cells in the walls of collecting Cells in the walls of collecting
ducts become ducts become
More permeable to water Less permeable to water,
Permeable hence reabsorb more water hence reabsorb less water
from filtrate back into blood from filtrate back into blood
Dilute Becomes less dilute/more Becomes more dilute/less
concentrated concentrated
[Memory shortcut]
ADH explanation [Wealthy Otters Ate Custard Pudding Dessert]
W: Water potential
O: Osmoreceptors
A: ADH secretion
C: Collecting ducts
P: Permeable
D: urine becomes more/less Dilute

4. Dialysis

Procedure
Patients with kidney failure need to use a dialysis machine to filter waste
products out of their blood
~3 times per week, 4h each time
Blood is drawn from the vein in patient's arm into a partially permeable tube
*Pro Tip: Veins are safer as they are closer to the surface unlike arteries
which are deeper in the arm. Veins also have low pressure making it easier
to stop the bleeding after dialysis.
 Tube does not allow large substances such as blood cells and platelets to
pass through, but allows small substances such as waste products to diffuse
out.
Tube enters machine where it is bathed in dialysis fluid/dialysate
Dialysate contains zero waste products, hence waste products from blood
diffuse out down their concentration gradients.
Dialysate has an equal concentration of useful substances (glucose, amino
acids, mineral salts) as healthy blood, so there is no diffusion.
Tubing is long, narrow and coiled, increases SA:V, increasing diffusion
rate.
Dialysate flows opposite direction to blood, maintaining a concentration
gradient along the entire length of the tubing for more waste products to
diffuse out.
Cleaned blood is returned via the vein in patient's forearm.
[Memory shortcut]
Dialysis machine features [ZERO]
Z: Zero waste products in fluid
E: Equal concentration of useful substances in fluid
R: Tubing has high surface area to volume Ratio
O: blood and dialysate flow in Opposite directions
10. Excretion CAQs
Important Definitions
Q: Define the term excretion and state its importance in the functioning of the body.
Excretion is the process whereby metabolic waste products and toxic
substances are removed from the body.
They must be excreted as they can harm the body if they are allowed to
accumulate to high concentrations.
Q: Define the term ultrafiltration.
The process where most of the blood plasma and dissolved substances are
forced out of the glomerulus into the bowman's capsule by high (hydrostatic)
blood pressure.
Q: Define the term selective reabsorption.
The process where certain substances are reabsorbed from the filtrate back into
the blood as they pass through nephrons.
Q: Define the term osmoregulation.
The process where the amount of water and concentrations of solutes in blood
are controlled to maintain constant water potential in the body.

Functions of Nephron Parts

Q: How do the concentrations of glucose and protein at Y compare with their
concentrations at X in a healthy person?
 glucose at Y compared to X protein at Y compared to X
A lower lower
B lower same
C same lower
D same same

(A)
X = Glomerular capillaries, Y = Just after the Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT).
X has glucose, but Y will have none as all were selectively reabsorbed at the
PCT back into the blood.
Glucose: Y < X
X has blood proteins. As these are too large to pass through the basement
membrane, they won't even enter the nephron, Y will have none.
Protein: Y < X
Related Questions:
Q: Which part does ADH act on? (Using a nephron diagram similar to the
above)
Collecting duct
*Pro Tip: Technically, ADH also acts on the DCT, but this is not usually
tested.
Dialysis Machine Urea Concentration
Q: The diagram shows a simplified kidney dialysis machine.

Which row is correct?

Highest urea Lowest urea Type of blood
concentration concentration vessel blood is
drawn from
A C A Artery
B C A Vein
C B D Artery
D B D Vein

(B)
Highest urea concentration is found in the "dirty" blood, C.
Common mistake: thinking that used dialysate has highest urea. Not true,
since diffusion only works until equilibrium is reached, not all urea is
moved from blood to dialysate.
Lowest urea concentration is found in fresh dialysate, A, since that contains 0
urea.
Careless mistake: thinking that "cleaned" blood has lowest urea. As
mentioned above, urea cannot be 100% removed from blood.
Type of blood vessel is vein, since drawing from artery would be dangerous
(due to high blood pressure), and difficult (arteries are buried deeper in the arm
than veins)
Formation of Urine
Q: Describe the formation of urine. [5]
During ultrafiltration, most of the blood plasma and dissolved substances are
forced out of the glomerulus into the bowman's capsule by high (hydrostatic)
blood pressure.
During selective reabsorption, useful substances are absorbed from the
filtrate back into the blood as they pass through nephrons.
At the proximal convoluted tubule, all glucose, amino acids, some water and
some mineral salts are reabsorbed.
Some water is reabsorbed at the Loop of Henle and collecting duct.
At the distal convoluted tubule, some water and mineral salts are reabsorbed.
At the collecting duct, some water is reabsorbed, and the remaining filtrate
becomes urine.
Related Questions:
Q: Describe the function of a nephron. [4]
*Pro Tip: This question is similar to the one above, but we do not need to
state what is absorbed at each part of the nephron (due to the lower mark
allocation).

Absence of Substances in Urine

Q: Explain the absence of protein/blood cells/platelets in urine. [2]
During ultrafiltration, proteins are too large to pass through the partially
permeable basement membrane that wraps around glomerular capillaries,
hence they will not enter the filtrate of nephrons and will not be present in urine.
*Pro Tip: Same answering technique applies for large substances which do not get
pushed out of the glomerulus, like blood cells/platelets
Q: Explain the absence of glucose/amino acids in urine. [2]
Glucose is forced out of the glomerulus into the bowman's capsule during
ultrafiltration by high (hydrostatic) blood pressure,
But all glucose is selectively reabsorbed at the proximal convoluted tubule
back into the blood, hence glucose is absent in urine.
*Pro Tip: Same answering technique applies for small substances which are fully
reabsorbed, like amino acids

Person Drinks Too Little/Too Much Water (ADH)

Q: Explain the effect on urine concentration when a person drinks too little water. [4]
ADH explanation [Wealthy Otters Ate Custard Pudding Dessert]
W: Water potential
O: Osmoreceptors
A: ADH secretion
C: Collecting ducts
P: Permeable
D: urine becomes more/less Dilute
When a person drinks too little water, osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus
detect the decrease in the blood's water potential.
The hypothalamus causes the pituitary gland to secrete more ADH, which
travels via the bloodstream to kidney nephrons,
Causing cells of the walls of collecting ducts to become more permeable to
water.
More water is reabsorbed back into the blood, and urine becomes more
concentrated.
*Pro Tip: If the question asks for urine volume, high concentration = low volume
of urine.
Related Questions:
Q: Briefly explain the negative feedback mechanism when a person drinks
too little water. [4]
*Pro Tip: In this answer, show how the drop in blood water potential is the
stimulus, and how this stimulus is eventually removed.

Q: Explain the effect on urine concentration when a person drinks too much water. [4]
When a person drinks too much water, osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus
detect the increase in the blood's water potential of the blood.
The hypothalamus causes the pituitary gland to secrete less ADH, and less
ADH travels via the bloodstream to kidney nephrons,
 Hence cells of the walls of collecting ducts become less permeable to water.
Less water is reabsorbed back into the blood and urine becomes more
dilute/less concentrated.
*Pro Tip: Be familiar with how to answer the ADH mechanism for both scenarios

Dialysis Treatment
Q: When a person suffers kidney failure they are given dialysis. Describe the
mechanism of kidney dialysis. [6]
Dialysis machine features [ZERO]
Z: Zero waste products in fluid
E: Equal concentration of useful substances in fluid
R: Tubing has high surface area to volume Ratio
O: blood and dialysate flow in Opposite directions
During kidney dialysis, blood is drawn from a vein in the patient's forearm and
passed into a dialysis machine.
It flows through a partially permeable tubing, which is bathed in dialysis
fluid/dialysate
The dialysate contains zero waste products, so the concentration gradient is
as steep as possible, increasing diffusion rate of waste products out of blood.
The dialysate contains the same concentration of useful substances such as
glucose and amino acids as healthy blood, there is no concentration gradient,
hence they do not diffuse out of the blood.
The tubing is long, narrow and coiled, increasing the surface area to volume
ratio for faster diffusion of waste substances out of blood.
Blood flows in the opposite direction as the dialysate, so that a concentration
gradient of waste products is maintained along the entire length of the tube, so
more waste products that diffuse out in one circuit.
Cleaned blood is returned back to the vein in the patient's forearm.
Related Questions:
Q: Explain what makes a dialysis machine efficient in purifying a patient's
blood. [4]
*Pro Tip: The question above is only concerned with features of the
machine, not about how blood is drawn from and returned to the patient.
11. Homeostasis
Learning Outcomes:
1. Homeostasis and negative feedback
2. Parts of skin
3. Temperature regulation
Keywords:
Internal environment, internal temperature, negative feedback
Stimulus, receptor, thermoreceptors,
Control centre, set-point/normal condition, corrective mechanism
Dilate, constrict, arterioles, shunt vessels
Conduction, convection, radiation, latent heat
Poor conductor of heat, metabolic rate, thermoreceptors
1. Homeostasis and negative feedback
Homeostasis: The maintenance of a constant internal environment.
Negative feedback: A type of regulation which counteracts changes in the system to
restore the set-point.
There is a change in internal environment (this is the Stimulus)
A Receptor/sensor detects the change in internal environment
The Control centre receives the information and triggers corrective
mechanisms
Response is a Corrective mechanism that removes the stimulus
Internal environment returns to its Normal condition/set-point
Receptor detects that set-point is reached and Stops corrective mechanism
[Memory Shortcut]
Negative feedback process [Sneaky Rabbit Chews Carrot Non Stop]
S: Stimulus
R: Receptor
C: Control centre
C: Corrective mechanism
 N: Normal condition/set-point restored
S: Stop corrective mechanism once receptor detects set-point restored

Some factors controlled by homeostasis

Temperature
Blood water potential
Blood pressure
Blood pH, blood CO2 concentration
Blood glucose concentration
Water content in urine

2. Parts of skin

Sweat
Contains water, salts (mainly sodium chloride) and small amounts of urea
Hence sweating is a means of excretion
Adipose (fat) tissues
Fat is a poor conductor of heat, reducing heat loss through the skin

3. Temperature regulation
Negative feedback is involved
Changes in internal temperature are the stimulus
Detected by thermoreceptors in hypothalamus, hypothalamus sends nerve
impulses to effectors that carry out corrective mechanisms to counteract the
change in internal temperature
Once set-point is restored, thermoreceptors detect this and send nerve
impulses to hypothalamus to stop the corrective mechanisms

Responses to changes in internal temperature

 Response Too cold Too hot Explanation
Higher rate of aerobic
Metabolic Increases respiration by mitochondria
Rate Decreases releases more heat energy;
shivering (rapid contraction of
skeletal muscles) facilities this
Constriction of arterioles in the
Constric Dilate skin and dilation of shunt
Arterioles t Shunt vessels reduces bloodflow to
in the skin Shunt vessels capillaries at the skin surface,
vessels* constrict decreasing heat loss through
dilate conduction, convection and
radiation
When sweat glands secrete more
Sweat Secrete less Secrete more sweat, more water in sweat
Glands sweat sweat evaporates, hence more latent
heat is lost
When hair erector muscles
Hair contract, hairs stand up,
erector Contract Relax (trapping a layer of air which is a
muscles** poor conductor of heat above
the skin, reducing heat loss)
*Pro Tip: Shunt vessels directly connect arteries to veins, allowing blood to bypass
capillaries
**Pro Tip: Don't write the parts in () for humans, as we have very little hair, so it's not
effective in humans. It is a response that occurs in the skin, but it won't help with heat
loss/gain.
[Memory Shortcut]
Responses to changes in temperature [MASH]
 M: Metabolic rate
A: Arterioles
S: Sweat glands
H: Hair erector muscles
[Memory Hack]
How to remember whether arterioles in skin constrict/dilate
When it is cold, arterioles in skin constrict.
11. Homeostasis CAQs
Important Definitions
Q: Define the term homeostasis.
The maintenance of a constant internal environment.
Q: Define the term negative feedback.
A type of regulation which counteracts changes in the system to restore the set-
point.

Factors Controlled By Homeostasis

Q: Which of the following are controlled by homeostasis?
Blood glucose Water content Temperature in
concentration in urine liver
A Y Y Y
B Y Y N
C Y N Y
D N Y Y

(A)
Blood glucose: Yes, blood glucose monitored by cells of islets of Langerhans
and adjusted by secreting either insulin or glucagon.
Water content in urine: Yes, water content in urine is affected by the body
maintaining the homeostasis of blood water potential.
Temperature in liver: Yes, internal temperature is always maintained at 37°C.
Skin Parts Diagram
Q: On a cold day, which labelled part would be warmest?
(D)
A: Capillaries near skin surface, which are near the cold air outside, so would
be losing heat.
B: This is a nerve, bringing nerve impulses generated by thermoreceptors to the
hypothalamus.
C: Carries blood that has lost heat at the skin back into the body.
D: An arteriole carrying blood from within the body towards the skin. It hasn't
lost as heat yet, so it will be the warmest.
*Pro Tip: They LOVE to reuse this diagram, so be very familiar with all the parts
in it. For a high quality diagram, see our Homeostasis topical notes.

Negative Feedback
Q: Explain why the regulation of body temperature is an example of a negative
feedback system. [2]
It is an example of negative feedback as there is a stimulus, which is a change in
internal body temperature.
This change triggers corrective mechanisms to counteract the change,
restoring internal body temperature to the set-point.
*Pro Tip: The answering technique here is to fit the definition of negative
feedback into the situation.
Responses to Decreased Internal Temperature
Q: Describe the responses that occur when the human body experiences a decrease
in internal temperature. [4]
Responses to changes in temperature [MASH]
M: Metabolic rate
A: Arterioles
S: Sweat glands
H: Hair erector muscles
When internal body temperature decreases, higher rate of aerobic respiration
by mitochondria generates more heat energy. Shivering, the rapid contraction
of skeletal muscles, facilitates this.
Arterioles in the skin constrict, shunt vessels dilate, reducing bloodflow to
capillaries near the skin surface, decreasing heat loss through conduction,
convection and radiation.
Sweat glands secrete less sweat, less water in sweat evaporates, hence less
latent heat is lost.
Hair erector muscles contract, causing hairs to stand up.
*Pro Tip: This question only needs you to describe the responses that occur.

Responses to Increased Internal Temperature

Q: Describe the changes that occur when there is an increase in internal temperature.
[4]
Responses to changes in temperature [MASH]
M: Metabolic rate
A: Arterioles
S: Sweat glands
H: Hair erector muscles
Mitochondria decrease their rate of aerobic respiration, generating less heat
energy.
Arterioles in the skin dilate, shunt vessels constrict, increasing bloodflow to
capillaries at the skin surface, increasing heat loss through conduction,
convection and radiation.
Sweat glands secrete more sweat, more water in sweat evaporates, hence
more latent heat is lost.
 *Pro Tip: This question only needs you to describe the responses that occur.
Sweat glands in temperature regulation
Q: Describe the role of sweat glands in body temperature regulation. [3]
*Pro Tip: The answer will talk about (1) What sweat glands do when temperature
is too cold, (2) What sweat glands do when temperature is too hot.
Explaining parts of negative feedback cycle
Q: Describe how the hypothalamus coordinates the maintenance of a constant body
temperature. [3]
Aspects of negative feedback process [Sneaky Rabbit Chews Carrot Non Stop]
S: Stimulus
R: Receptor
C: Control centre
C: Corrective mechanism
N: Normal condition/set-point restored
S: Stop corrective mechanism once receptor detects set-point restored
Changes in internal temperature are the stimulus, detected by
thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus, which is the control centre.
It sends nerve impulses to effectors such as hair erector muscles, sweat
glands and arterioles in the skin, to carry out corrective mechanisms to
counteract the change.
Once temperature set-point is restored, thermoreceptors in the
hypothalamus detect this, hypothalamus then stops the corrective
mechanisms.
*Pro Tip: This question wants you to focus on how the hypothalamus
coordinates responses, not on the details of MASH.
Related Questions:
Q: Explain how the skin is involved in returning the body temperature to
normal when the body overheats. [4]
*Pro Tip: This question involves some of SRCCNS, as well as the skin's
responses. Since it's only the skin, remove the Metabolic rate point. Remove
the Hair erector muscles point too, since it is not effective in humans, it
does not help "in returning the body temperature to normal".
12. Coordination and Response
Learning Outcomes:
1. Central and Peripheral nervous system
2. Neurones
3. Reflex actions
4. The human eye
5. Hormones
6. Diabetes mellitus
7. Bonus: Nervous system vs Endocrine system
Keywords:
Central/peripheral nervous system, cranial/spinal nerves, sense organs
Nerve impulses, stimulus, receptor, effector, transmitted across a synapse
Sensory, relay, motor, white/grey matter
Motor end plate, muscle fibres
Reflex arc, involuntary, conscious control, reflex centre,
Internal reflection of light, refract
Taut, slacken, convex, focal length, sharply focussed
Endocrine, target organs, blood glucose concentration, permeability to glucose
Fight-or-flight response, emotions

1. Central and Peripheral nervous system

Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of Brain and Spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) consists of:
Cranial nerves (from the brain)
Spinal nerves (from spinal cord)
Sense organs (eyes, nose, tongue, ears, skin)
2. Neurones
 Neurone Function
Part
Dendrites The endings of dendrons. Transmit nerve impulses towards the
cell body
Dendron Transmits nerve impulses towards cell body
Cell body Contains the nucleus and other organelles
Axon Transmits nerve impulses away from cell body
Axon The endings of axons
terminals
A fatty substance that insulates nerve fibres, which helps speed
Myelin sheath up transmission of nerve impulses. They may not be present on
shorter neurones.
The junction between an axon terminal of one neurone and a
Synapse dendrite of another neurone. Chemicals/neurotransmitters are
released and diffuse across, transmitting nerve impulses across
the synapse.
Motor
end plate/ The junction between axon terminals and muscle fibres, where
Neuromuscul axon terminals will release chemicals to stimulate muscle fibres to
ar junction contract.

Sensory, relay and motor neurones

 Neurone Type Transmits nerve Transmits to
impulses from
Sensory Receptor Relay neurone
(Centre)
Relay (Left) Sensory neurone Motor neurone
Motor (Right) Relay neurone Effector

White vs Grey matter (in brain/spinal cord)

 Grey matter consists of mainly cell bodies
White matter consists of mainly nerve fibres
3. Reflex actions
Reflex action: An immediate response to a specific stimulus without conscious
control.
Involves a reflex centre (either brain or spinal cord).
Spinal reflexes use spinal cord as reflex centre, e.g. knee jerk reflex,
withdrawal reflex when touching a hot object
Cranial reflexes use the brain as reflex centre, e.g. blink reflex,
accommodation reflex, pupil reflex, sneezing, coughing
Reflex arc: The shortest pathway for nerve impulses to travel from receptor to
effector during a reflex action.
Examples of reflex actions: Knee jerk reflex*, pupil reflex, touching hot/sharp
object, blink reflex, grasp reflex, cough reflex, sneeze reflex, production of
gastric juice, production of saliva, secretion of adrenaline
*Pro Tip: For the knee jerk reflex, this is a stretch reflex. When there is a tap
on the tendon below the knee, stretch receptors detect this and result in the
contraction of the quadriceps muscle (to prevent the muscle from
overstretching and being injured)
Receptors you should be familiar with in syllabus:
Pain receptors
Thermoreceptors
Stretch receptors
Photoreceptors

Pathway of nerve impulses questions:

When __________________________________ (incident), ____________
(receptors) detect this, nerve impulses are generated and travel along a
sensory neurone.
They are transmitted across a synapse to a relay neurone, in the
____________ (either brain/spinal cord), which is the reflex centre.
 Nerve impulses are then transmitted across another synapse to a motor
neurone.
They travel along it until they reach its axon terminals,
chemicals/neurotransmitters are released across the motor end
plate/neuromuscular junction (synapse)*,
*Pro Tip: Motor end plate is a special synapse, where the effector is a
muscle
Triggering the __________ (thing that does the action) which is the effector to
_______________________________ (response triggered), so that
____________________ (where possible, the purpose for the reflex action).
[Memory shortcut]
Pathway of nerve impulses during reflex action [IRS RC MAN'S ERP, IRS agents
storm into an RC to collect a MAN'S ERP]
I: Incident
R: Receptor
S: Sensory neurone
R: Relay neurone
C: Centre (reflex centre)
M: Motor neurone
A: Axon terminals
N: Neurotransmitters
S: Synapse (Motor end plate if effector is muscle)
E: Effector
R: Response
P: Purpose

4. The human eye

 Part of eye Function
Sclera Protects eyeball from mechanical damage
Rich in blood vessels, bringing O2 and nutrients to
Choroid eyeball
Pigmented black to prevent internal reflection of
light
Contains photoreceptors that detect light and generates
nerve impulses, which are sent to the brain.
Rods see in black and white
Cones see in colour (red, green and blue)
Retina
[Memory hack]
How to remember whether it is rods or cones that see in
colour:
Cones see in Colour
An area of the retina with a high concentration of
cones (but no rods)
Light is mainly focussed here as the image that is
produced here is the sharpest.
Yellow
spot/fovea [Memory hack]
How to remember whether fovea contains high
concentration of rods or cones:
Fovea means "tiny pit". If you see a hole/pit in the
road, there are usually cones placed around it to warn
people not to fall inside.
Blind spot An area of the retina right above the optic nerve, where
there are no photoreceptors
Cornea Refracts light into the eye
 Protects eye from microbes
Lubricates eye by secreting
mucus
A watery substance found in the
aqueous chamber, gives the
Aqueous humour eyeball its shape
Refracts light into pupil
Nourishes cornea
Focusses light onto the retina
Lens Is flexible to focus on objects at
varying distances
A jelly-like substance found in the
Vitreous humour vitreous chamber, gives the
eyeball its shape
Refracts light onto retina
Rectus muscles Controls eye movement

How light enters the eye

Light is refracted by the cornea into the eye
The aqueous humour refracts light into the pupil (a hole)
The lens refracts light towards the retina
The vitreous humour refracts light onto the retina

Focussing/Accommodation reflex
 Object Near Far
Ciliary muscles Contract* Relax
Suspensory ligaments Slacken Taut
Lens shape Thicker and Thinner and
more convex less convex
Focal length Decreases Increases
*Pro Tip: Think of ciliary muscles contracting towards lens, hence suspensory
ligaments slacken
*Pro Tip: Do not say lens becomes more concave, you must say less convex.
[Memory Shortcut]
Accommodation reflex [Cats Scratch Leather Furniture]
C: Ciliary muscles
S: Suspensory ligaments
L: Lens shape
F: Focal length
[Memory hack]
How to remember whether ciliary muscles contract or relax
When you focus on a near object, you are 'straining' your eyes, so ciliary
muscles contract to focus on near objects.
 When you focus on a far object, you are 'relaxing' your eyes, so ciliary muscles
relax to focus on far objects.
[Memory hack]
How to remember whether to write focal length increases/decreases
When you focus on a near object, near = short distance so write focal length
decreases
When you focus on a far object, far = long distance so write focal length
increases

Pupil reflex

Light conditions Bright Dim

Radial muscles Relax Contract
Circular muscles Contract Relax
Pupil Constricts Dilates
Effect on eye Allows less light in, Allows more light in to
prevents damage to retina see better
*Pro Tip: Iris contains circular and radial muscles (antagonistic), which control size of
the pupil
[Memory Shortcut]
Pupil reflex [Really Cool Pupil Effect]
 R: Radial muscles
C: Circular muscles
P: Pupil
E: Effect on eye
[Memory hack]
How to remember what radial muscles are doing:
Radial muscles are "afraid of the dark", so when it's dark they tense up in fear,
hence they contract.
When you're in a bright place, they relax

5. Hormones
Endocrine gland: A ductless gland that secretes products, hormones directly
into bloodstream.
Hormone: A chemical substance produced by an endocrine gland, and is carried
in the bloodstream. It causes responses in one or more target organs, and is
destroyed by the liver.
Blood glucose regulation
 Hormone Insulin Glucagon
Stimulus High blood glucose level Low blood glucose level
Detected Cells* in islets of Langerhans Cells* in islets of Langerhans
by
Secreted Cells* in islets of Langerhans Cells* in islets of Langerhans
by
Target Liver and muscles Liver only
organs
Glycogen is converted to
glucose in liver (but not in
Increases permeability of muscles), and glucose is
liver and muscle cells to released into the
glucose, glucose diffuses bloodstream
Response in, decreasing blood [Memory hack]
s to glucose levels How to remember that glucagon
insulin Glucose is converted into does notMuscles target muscle cells:
glycogen in liver and are "selfish", they
muscles only take in glucose but
don't want to release
glucose to the
bloodstream
Overall Decreases blood glucose level Increases blood glucose level until
effect until set-point set-point
*FYI: There are actually 2 different types of cells of the islets of Langerhans that
secrete insulin and glucagon respectively.
Adrenaline
Stimulated by emotions of fear, anger, excitement, stress
Prepares the body for a fight-or-flight response (since it is likely a dangerous
situation)
 *Pro Tip: However, adrenaline can be secreted in non-lethal situations, e.g.
during a particularly stressful exam, as the body can't differentiate that this is a
non-lethal situation.
Detected by hypothalamus, which sends nerve impulses to effectors
Effectors are the adrenal glands, located above the kidneys
Effects of adrenaline
Effect Purpose
Stimulates conversion of glycogen More glucose is readily available for muscles to
to glucose in the liver, increasing use to release energy for muscular
blood glucose concentration contractions
Increases heart rate and blood Blood is pumped faster around the body to
pressure quickly deliver nutrients and O2 to muscles
Increases breathing rate and Increases available O2 in the blood for muscles
volume/depth to use during aerobic respiration, and
increases the rate CO is removed at the lungs
2
Increases ease of blood clotting Prevents excessive blood loss in case of injury
during the fight-or-flight event
Constriction of arterioles to
alimentary canal and skin, dilation Decreases blood flow to non-essential systems
while increasing blood flow to muscles
of arterioles to muscles
Pupils dilate Allows more light into eyes for better vision
(More applicable for hairy animals) Hairs stand
Hair erector muscles contract up, making animal appear larger to
intimidate enemies

6. Diabetes mellitus
Diabetes mellitus: The condition where the body is unable to maintain blood glucose
level within normal range.
Type 1
Pancreas cannot produce insulin/enough insulin
Develops at a young age
Type 2
Target organs (liver and muscles) lose sensitivity to insulin
Develops at an older age, linked to unhealthy lifestyle
Symptoms
Persistent high blood glucose
Glucose found in urine
Frequent urination
Frequently feeling dizzy, fatigue
Unexpected weight loss
Wounds take longer to heal
Treatment
There is currently no cure for diabetes
Type 1: Insulin injections
Type 2: Control blood glucose level
Diet lower in carbohydrates
Exercise regularly
If condition worsens, have to inject insulin/take medication to improve body's
sensitivity to insulin

7. Bonus: Nervous system vs Endocrine system

 System Endocrine Nervous
Signal Hormones Nerve impulses
Mode of transmission Bloodstream Neurones
Speed Relatively slower Relatively faster
Duration of responses Longer-lasting Short-lived
Voluntary? Involuntary Either
Affected areas Usually more than one Usually localised
target organ
12. Coordination and Response CAQs
Definitions
Q: Define the term reflex action.
An immediate response to a specific stimulus without conscious control.
Q: Define the term reflex arc.
The shortest pathway for nerve impulses to travel from receptor to effector
during a reflex action.
Q: Define the term endocrine gland.
A ductless gland that secretes its products, hormones, directly into bloodstream.
Q: Define the term hormone.
A chemical substance produced by an endocrine gland, and is carried in the
bloodstream. It causes responses in one or more target organs, and is destroyed
by the liver.
Q: Define the term diabetes mellitus.
The condition where the body is unable to maintain blood glucose level within
normal range.

Nerve Damaged
Q: A man had an anaesthetic block applied at one of the sites shown, A, B, C and D.
The block prevents nerve impulses travelling along neurones.
He can feel a pinprick on his leg and can move his leg. Where was the anaesthetic
block administered?
(B)
The person can feel the pinprick: Nerve impulses can travel from leg -> D -> A -
> brain to be perceived as pain.
The person can move the leg (voluntary action): Nerve impulses can travel from
brain -> A -> C -> leg muscles.
A, C, D cannot be blocked, so the only option is B.
*Pro Tip: Use your finger to trace the path, see if the path would get disrupted
by the block/damage.
Function of Eye Parts
Q: The diagram shows a section through the eye.

What is the role of the labelled parts in producing a focused image of a near object?
 1 2
A reflection contraction
B reflection relaxation
C refraction contraction
D refraction relaxation

(C)
1 = Cornea, which refracts light. Refracts = bending light rights, Reflects = light
rays bounce off in opposite direction.
So A and B are out.
2 = Ciliary muscles. Near objects -> ciliary muscle contracts and the
suspensory ligaments slackens
Since this is about looking near, D is out. Has to be C.
*Pro Tip: How to remember whether ciliary muscles contract or relax
When you focus on a near object, you are 'straining' your eyes, so ciliary
muscles contract to focus on near objects.
When you focus on a far object, you are 'relaxing' your eyes, so ciliary
muscles relax to focus on far objects.
Related Questions:
Q: Which part is responsible for the movement of the eyeball?
Rectus muscles.
*Pro Tip: They can ask about any part of the eye, so be familiar with this
diagram.
Accommodation and Pupil Reflex
Q: The diagrams show two sections through the eye of the same person
What happens to achieve the changes from the eye in diagram 1 to the eye in diagram
2 under the different conditions?
Ciliary Iris radial Iris circular
muscles muscles muscles
A contract contract relax
B contract relax contract
C relax contract relax
D relax relax contract

(C)
Ciliary muscles: Diagram 2 is about looking far = ciliary muscles relax.
Has to be C and D.
Iris radial muscles: Diagram 2 is about dim light. Remember that radial muscles
are "afraid of the dark", so when it's dimmer they tense up in fear, hence they
contract.
Must br A or C.
Iris circular muscles: Since these are antagonistic with radial muscles, must be
relaxing.
Must be A or C.
Nervous system Questions
Q: Describe the similarities and differences between a voluntary action and a reflex
action. [4]
Similarities (Choose 2):
Both coordinate actions using nerve impulses, which are transmitted through
neurones.
Both involve motor neurones activating the effector to cause the action.
They involve nerve impulses travelling through both the central and peripheral
nervous systems.
Differences (Choose 2):
A reflex action is faster than a voluntary action, as it does not require conscious
processing before carrying out the action.
Reflex action occurs automatically without conscious control while voluntary
action is done consciously.
A specific stimulus is required to trigger a reflex action while voluntary actions
can be done without a stimulus.
Nerve impulses in a reflex action travel along a reflex arc, which is the shortest
pathway from receptor to effector, while that of a voluntary action do not.
Q: Describe the pathway of nerve impulses in a named reflex action. [6]
Pathway of nerve impulses during reflex action [IRS RC MAN'S ERP, think “IRS
agents storm into an RC to collect a MAN'S ERP”]
I: Incident
R: Receptor
S: Sensory neurone
R: Relay neurone
C: Centre (reflex centre)
M: Motor neurone
A: Axon terminals
N: Neurotransmitters
S: Synapse (Motor end plate if effector is muscle)
E: Effector
R: Response
P: Purpose
Template for answering such questions:
 When __________________________________ (incident), ____________
(receptors) detect this, nerve impulses are generated and travel along a
sensory neurone.
They are transmitted across a synapse to a relay neurone, in the
____________ (either brain/spinal cord), which is the reflex centre.
Nerve impulses are then transmitted across another synapse to a motor
neurone.
They travel along it until they reach its axon terminals,
chemicals/neurotransmitters are released across the motor end
plate/neuromuscular junction (synapse)*,
*Pro Tip: Motor end plate is a special synapse, where the effector is a
muscle
Triggering the __________ (thing that does the action) which is the effector to
_______________________________ (response triggered), so that
____________________ (where possible, the purpose for the reflex action).
Example:
When the tendon under the kneecap is sharply knocked (incident), stretch
receptors in the quadriceps/upper thigh muscle (receptors) detect this,
generating nerve impulses which travel along a sensory neurone.
Note: if you do not know the receptors, you can replace it with "receptors in
the leg detect this..."
They are transmitted across a synapse to a relay neurone, in the spinal cord
(either brain/spinal cord), which is the reflex centre.
Nerve impulses are then transmitted across another synapse to a motor
neurone.
They travel along it until they reach its axon terminals,
chemicals/neurotransmitters are released across the motor end plate (special
synapse where effector is a muscle),
Triggering the quadriceps/upper thigh muscle (thing that does the action) which
is the effector to contract, causing the lower leg to kick out (response
triggered), preventing potential injury to the muscle by over-stretching (where
possible, the purpose for the reflex action).
 *Pro Tip: This is known as a stretch reflex. The purpose for such a reflex
action is to prevent over-stretching of the muscle in question, to prevent any
injury to it.

Synapses Questions
Q: Describe how the nerve impulses are transferred from the sensory neurone to the
next neurone in the nervous system. [3]
Nerve impulses reach the axon terminals of the sensory neurone,
chemicals/neurotransmitters are released,
which diffuse across the synapse, reaching the (dendrites of the) next neurone
which is a relay neurone
This causes nerve impulses to be generated in and travel down the relay
neurone.
Q: Explain how nerve impulses travel from a sensory neurone to a motor neurone. [2]
Nerve impulses are transmitted across a synapse from the sensory neurone to
a relay neurone.
They travel along the relay neurone until they are transmitted across another
synapse to a motor neurone.
*Pro Tip: This question has a wider scope (sensory --> relay --> motor), yet the
mark allocation is lower than the question above. The depth for this question is
not deep, so we don't need to explain exactly how nerve impulses are
transmitted at synapses (the release of chemicals/neurotransmitters).

Pupil Reflex
Q: Describe and explain how the pupil of the eye responds to an increase in light
intensity. [4]
Pupil reflex [Really Cool Pupil Effect]
R: Radial muscles
C: Circular muscles
P: Pupil size
E: Effect on eye
The increased light intensity is detected by photoreceptors in the retina,
generating nerve impulses which are carried by sensory neurones in the optic
nerve.
 Nerve impulses are transmitted across a synapse to relay neurones in the
brain, then across another synapse to motor neurones which carry them to the
iris.
They trigger the radial muscles in the iris to relax, and the circular muscles in
the iris to contract.
Thus the pupil constricts, allowing less light in to prevent damage to the retina.
*Pro Tip: This question demands greater depth because it asks "describe and
explain", and has a 4m allocation. Therefore we talk about how nerve impulses
are involved in this response.
Related Questions:
Q: Describe the changes that occur in the eye when walking into a dim room.
[2]
*Pro Tip: The answer will only be about Really Cool Pupil Effect, no need to
talk about nerve impulses.

Accommodation Reflex
Q: Describe how the eye focusses on a near object. [3]
Accommodation reflex [Cats Scratch Leather Furniture]
C: Ciliary muscles
S: Suspensory ligaments
L: Lens shapec
F: Focal length
Ciliary muscles in the eye contract, causing suspensory ligaments to
slacken.
They release their pull on the lens, the lens becomes thicker and more convex.
The focal length of the lens decreases, so that light rays from the near object
are sharply focussed on the retina.
Q: Explain how the eye brings a far object, initially out of focus, into focus. [5]
When light rays from the far object are not focussed sharply on the retina,
photoreceptors generate nerve impulses which are carried by sensory
neurones in the optic nerve to the brain.
The brain interprets the image as blurred, then transmits nerve impulses
across a synapse to motor neurones which carry them to the ciliary muscles.
 Ciliary muscles in the eye relax, causing suspensory ligaments to become
taut.
They tighten their pull on the lens, the lens becomes thinner and less convex.
The focal length of the lens increases, allowing light rays from the far object to
be sharply focussed on the retina, producing a clear image.

Endocrine vs Nervous System

Q: Describe the differences between endocrine and nervous control. [6]
The endocrine system ______(A)______, while the nervous system
______(B)______.

A B
Uses hormones as the means of Uses nerve impulses as the means of
signalling signalling
Uses the bloodstream as the mode of Uses neurones as the mode of
transmission transmission
Is relatively slower to cause responses Is relatively faster to cause responses
Results in relatively longer-lasting Results in short-lived responses
responses
Is never used voluntarily Can be used to carry out voluntary
actions
Usually causes responses in more than Usually causes a response in a localised
one target organs region

Q: Explain why hormonal responses are generally slower than reflex actions. [2]
Hormones are carried via the bloodstream before reaching target organs to
cause responses, so the speed depends on the rate of blood flow.
This is slower than reflex actions which are triggered by nerve impulses that
travel very quickly through neurones to reach the effectors.
Adrenaline Secretion
Q: Suggest and explain why blood adrenaline concentration increases during a fight.
[3]
During a fight [stressful event], emotions of fear/anger/excitement/stress are
aroused which is detected by the hypothalamus.
It sends nerve impulses to the adrenal glands, causing them to secrete
adrenaline into the bloodstream, preparing the body for a fight-or-flight
response.
Heart rate increases and blood glucose levels increase, supplying oxygen and
nutrients to muscles faster, so the person can defend themselves better [the
likely action to take in the context of the question].
*Pro Tip: Don't list all the effects of adrenaline, just the ones most relevant to the
context.
Blood Glucose Regulation
Q: Describe how the homeostatic control of glucose occurs in the human body. [6]
Insulin:
When blood glucose rises above the norm, cells in the islets of Langerhans in
the pancreas detect this, and secrete more insulin into the bloodstream.
Insulin increases the permeability of cells in the liver and muscles to glucose
so more glucose diffuses into them, and triggers conversion of glucose into
glycogen.
This lowers blood glucose back to normal, insulin secretion reduces back to
normal.
Glucagon:
When blood glucose falls below the norm, cells in the islets of Langerhans
detect this and secrete more glucagon into the bloodstream.
Glucagon triggers the conversion of glycogen into glucose in liver cells, which
is released to the bloodstream.
This raises blood glucose back to normal, glucagon secretion reduces back to
normal.
*Pro Tip: We say more insulin/glucagon is secreted, as there is always a base
level of each hormone secreted.
Related Questions:
Q: Describe the roles of insulin and glucagon in the human body. [6]
13. Reproduction in Plants
Learning Outcomes:
1. Sexual vs Asexual Reproduction
2. Bonus: Pros and Cons of Asexual Reproduction
3. Parts of a flower
4. Pollination
5. Fertilisation
Keywords:
Asexual, sexual, fertilisation, fusion, sex nuclei
Genetically identical, genetically different, genetic variation
Self/cross-pollination, bisexual, unisexual
Long and pendulous, large and feathery,
Small, smooth, light, spiky, rough, hairy back and legs
Germinate, diploid zygote

1. Sexual vs Asexual Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction: The process that produces genetically identical
offspring from one parent, without the fusion of nuclei of male and female
gametes.
Examples: Binary fission (bacteria), budding (yeasts), reproducing by
spores, vegetative propagation*
*Pro Tip: Vegetative propagation is when a fragment of a parent plant
regrows into an entire new plant.
Sexual Reproduction: The process that involves the fusion of nuclei of male
and female gametes to form a diploid zygote, producing genetically different
offspring.
Examples: Humans, flowering plants, etc.
2. Bonus: Pros and Cons of Asexual Reproduction
Advantages Disadvantages
No genetic variation hence more
Favourable traits are passed on as susceptible to sudden environmental
offspring are genetically identical change (e.g. disease/climate change)
wiping out population*
No need to spend energy on
reproductive organs
Reproduction is faster, can
colonise an area quickly
*Pro Tip: On the other hand, sexual reproduction results in genetic variation, so the
species can adapt to environmental changes faster, increasing their chances of
survival.
3. Parts of a flower

*Pro Tip: Receptacle is the base of the flower where the parts of the flower are
attached
 Structure Function
Stamen (Remember
it is male part of Consists of the male parts of the flower
flower because of
men)
Filament Holds the anther in a good position to release pollen
grains
Anther Produces pollen grains
Consists of the female parts of the flower
Carpel/Pistil *Pro Tip: Some flowers have multiple Carpels, and all
Carpels = the Pistil
Stigma (Remember, Receives pollen grains
sticky)
Style Holds stigma in good position to receive pollen grains
Ovary Produces and protects ovules, and becomes the fruit
after fertilisation
Ovule Becomes a seed after fertilisation
Contains an ovum, the female gamete
Receptacle The base of the flower where the other parts of the
flower are attached
Sepal
(All sepals = Calyx) Protects the flower during the bud stage
Petal Can be colourful to attract pollinators
(All petals = Corolla) Can have nectar guides

4. Pollination
 Pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from an anther to a stigma.
Type Self-pollination Cross-pollination
Difference Occurs within the same Occurs between different
plant plants of the same species
[Memory
shortcut]
Features of flowers
that favour
self/cross
pollination [MOP] M: Bisexual flowers, both
male and female parts M: Male or female parts
M: Male and female mature at same time mature at different
O: Flowers may not Open timings/Unisex flowers
parts Mature at (ensuring self-pollination) O: Flowers open
same time?
O: Flowers may not P: Position (anther higher P: Position (anther lower
than stigma so pollen can than stigma)
Open
P: Position (anther fall on stigma)
higher/lower than
stigma)

Parent plants 1 2
involved
Genetic variation Less* More
Chance of Higher Lower
occurring
Energy expenditure Lower Higher, need to produce a lot
more pollen
*Pro Tip: Self-pollination is NOT asexual reproduction. It involves fertilisation = it is
sexual reproduction, hence there is still genetic variation, just lesser variation than
cross-pollination.
Insect vs wind pollination
Pollinating Insects Wind
Agent*
Insects visit flowers to
obtain nectar
Anthers brush against
insects, pollen grains stick Pollen grains are picked
How it onto their hairy up by wind
works bodies/hairy back and legs They land on the stigmas
(more suitable for bees) of another flower
Pollen grains are transferred
from the insect to stigma of
the same/different flower
Stigma Small Large and feathery
Odour/sce Sweet-smelling Odourless (No smell)
nt
Anthers Small Large
No Yes
Protruding
reproductiv
e parts?

Filament Shorter Long and pendulous (hangs

loosely)
pollen
Grains
 Relatively fewer Very numerous
Larger and Small, light and
rough/spiky smooth

Nectar (and nectar guides) Present Absent

Colour (petals) Bright and colourful petals Petals are dull/absent
to attract insects
[Memory shortcut]
Features of insect/wind-pollinated flowers [SOAP GNC]
S: Stigma
O: Odour
A: Anthers
P: Protruding reproductive parts
G: Pollen Grains
N: Nectar (and nectar guides)
C: Colourful petals
5. Fertilisation
Fertilisation: The fusion of male and female sex nuclei, resulting in a diploid zygote.
 Process leading to fertilisation:
After pollination, stigma produces a sugary fluid, stimulating pollen grain to
germinate.
A pollen tube grows from the pollen grain, secreting enzymes to digest a path
through stigma, style and ovary wall.
Pollen tube enters an ovule via the micropyle.
Pollen tube (absorbs sap and) bursts, releasing two male sex nuclei, one of
which* fuses with the ovum forming a diploid zygote.
*Pro Tip: (FYI) The other nuclei helps form the endosperm, which will be the
food reserves for the seedling.
[Memory shortcut]
Fertilisation process in flowers [STEM-2D]
S: Sugary fluid
T: pollen Tube
E: Enzymes secreted
M: Micropyle
-
2: 2 nuclei released, 1 of which fuses with ovum
D: Diploid zygote
After fertilisation
Flower withers
Ovules turn into seeds
If fertilisation does not occur in an ovule, it degenerates when the ovary
turns into a fruit
At least 1 ovule must be fertilised for the ovary to turn into a fruit
13. Reproduction in Plants CAQs
Important Definition
Q: Define the term asexual reproduction.
The process that produces genetically identical offspring from one parent,
without the fusion of nuclei of male and female gametes.
Q: Define the term sexual reproduction.
The process that involves the fusion of nuclei of male and female gametes to
form a diploid zygote, producing genetically different offspring.
Q: Define the term pollination.
The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to a stigma.
Q: Define the term self-pollination.
The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to a stigma of the same
flower or a different flower on the same plant.
Q: Define the term cross-pollination.
The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to a stigma of a flower
on a different plant of the same species.
Q: Define the term fertilisation.
The fusion of male and female sex nuclei, resulting in a diploid zygote.

Sexual vs Asexual Reproduction

Q: Which statement about the methods of reproduction is correct?
A) All the offspring from sexual reproduction are genetically identical but dissimilar to
the parents.
B) Asexual reproduction results in identical zygotes.
C) In asexual reproduction, two nuclei from one parent fuse.
D) In sexual reproduction, one nucleus from each of the two parents fuses.
(D)
 A: Wrong, offsprings are genetically different due to independent assortment of
chromosomes, random fusion of gametes and crossing over.
B: Asexual reproduction does not involve fusion of gametes, so no zygotes are
ever formed!
C: No fusion of gametes occurs in asexual reproduction.
D: Correct, this is characteristic of sexual reproduction where sex nuclei fuses
together.
Wind Pollinated Features
Q: Which features are found in a wind-pollinated flower?
Stamens Petals Nectary Stigma
A long and hanging absent small
or absent feathery
B long and hanging large absent feathery
C short and erect absent or present sticky
small
D short and erect large present sticky

(A)
Stamens: Long and hanging to protrude out of flower and allow pollen to get
caught by the wind.
Petals: Large petals are to attract insect pollinators. Wind pollinated flowers
don't need them, so absent or small.
Nectary: To produce nectar to attract insect pollinators. Wind pollinated flowers
don't need one, so absent.
Stigma: Feathery to increase SA:V to easily catch pollen in the wind.
*Pro Tip: Refer to the features of insect and wind pollinated flowers memory
shortcut, SOAP GNC.

Sexual vs Asexual Reproduction

Q: State the differences between sexual and asexual reproduction. [4]
 Sexual reproduction _____(A)______, while asexual reproduction
_______(B)_______.

A B
Can involve 2 parents
Involves fertilisation, the fusion of
male and female sex nuclei
Results in genetically different
offspring
Results in the formation of a diploid
zygote
Involves meiosis to form sex
cells/gametes
Any other valid comparisons
Always only involves 1 parent
Does not involve the fusion of male and
female sex nuclei
Results in genetically identical
offspring
No zygote is formed
Does not involve meiosis as no sex
cells/gametes are formed

Insect & Wind Pollination

Q: Describe how insect pollination occurs. [2]
When an insect visits the flower to collect nectar, it brushes against the stigma,
causing pollen grains on its body/hairy back and legs (more suitable for bees)
are transferred to the stigma, pollinating the flower.
(The insect also brushes against the anthers, causing pollen grains from the
anthers to stick to its body/hairy back and legs, and the insect goes on to
pollinate other flowers.)
Q: Describe how wind pollination occurs. [2]
When wind blows on the anthers, pollen grains are shaken loose and carried by
the wind.
They are caught by the large and feathery stigmas which have high surface
area to volume ratio of another flower, pollinating it.
Insect vs Wind Pollination
Q: State two differences between wind-pollinated and insect-pollinated flowers. Give
a reason for each difference. [4]
Features of insect/wind-pollinated flowers [SOAP GNC]
S: Stigma
O: Odour
A: Anthers
P: Protruding reproductive parts
G: Pollen Grains
N: Nectar (and nectar guides)
C: Colourful petals
Insect-pollinated flowers have _____(A)______, while wind-pollinated flowers
have _______(B)_______.
 A B
Smaller anthers, as less pollen needs Large anthers, as more pollen needs to be
to be produced produced
Shorter filaments for anthers to Long and pendulous filaments, so
remain within the flower, so insects anthers protrude from the flower to be
will rub against them when exposed to the wind for pollen to be
collecting nectar carried by the wind
Less pollen produced, as the Large amounts of pollen produced, to
chances of insect pollination compensate for the lower chance of
succeeding are higher successful wind pollination
Large and spiky pollen grains to be Small, light and smooth pollen grains to
easily trapped in hairs of pollinators be easily carried by the wind
Large and feathery stigmas with large
Small stigmas surface area to volume ratio to catch
pollen in the wind
Stigma is within the flower, so insects Stigma protrudes out of flower, to be
will more likely rub against them exposed to the wind and catch pollen in
when collecting nectar the wind
Bright and colourful petals to Petals are dull/absent as the plant does
attract pollinators not need to attract pollinators
Nectar is present to attract Nectar is absent as there is no need to
pollinators attract pollinators
A sweet-smelling odour to attract Odourless as there is no need to attract
pollinators pollinators
Any other valid comparisons
Pros and Cons of Self and Cross-pollination
Q: Describe the advantages and disadvantages of self-pollination compared to cross-
pollination. [4]
Advantages (Choose 2):
Has higher probability of occurring than cross-pollination, increasing chances
of fertilisation, hence more offspring are produced, ensuring the species’
survival.
When pollination occurs within the flower, pollen only needs to travel a very
short distance to the stigma, hence pollination occurs faster, and offspring are
produced faster.
Requires less pollen to be produced, hence lower energy and resources are
needed, which can be used instead for the growth and survival of the plant.
Disadvantages:
Results in less genetic variation in offspring than cross-pollination, hence they
are more susceptible to being wiped out during sudden environmental
changes or a disease outbreak.
Offspring have higher chances of inheriting two copies of recessive disease
alleles, increasing occurrences of genetic diseases.

Advantage of Genetic Variation

Q: A new disease breaks out amongst 2 plant populations. Population A are all self-
pollinated and population B are all cross-pollinated. It is observed that population A
failed to survive, while population B survived. Explain why. [4]
Population A are all self-pollinated hence they have less genetic variation
between individuals.
They have similar levels of susceptibility to the disease, hence had a higher
chance of being wiped out.
Population B are all cross-pollinated hence they have more genetic variation
between individuals.
Some of them had resistance to the disease and were able to survive and
reproduce, hence they were not wiped out.
Fertilisation Process
Q: Outline the process leading to fertilisation after pollination. [4]
Fertilisation process in flowers [STEM-2D]
 S: Sugary fluid
T: pollen Tube
E: Enzymes secreted
M: Micropyle
-
2: 2 nuclei released
D: Diploid zygote
After pollination, the stigma produces a sugary fluid, stimulating the pollen
grain to germinate.
A pollen tube grows from the pollen grain, secreting enzymes to digest a path
through the stigma, style and ovary wall.
Pollen tube enters an ovule via the micropyle.
The pollen tube (absorbs sap and) bursts, releasing two male sex nuclei, one of
which fuses with the ovum, forming a diploid zygote.
14. Reproduction in Humans
Learning Outcomes:
1. Male and female reproductive system
2. Describing the menstrual cycle
3. Fertilisation
4. Foetal development
5. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
Keywords:
Erectile, ejaculation, testosterone, sexual intercourse
Gametes, fertilisation, fusion of sex nuclei
Oestrogen, progesterone, mature ovum, ovulation, repair, further thickening
Peristaltic action, sweeping action
Activate, nourish, neutralise, acidic environment
Puberty, menstruation, pregnancy
Zygote, embryo, implantation, foetus
Finger-like projections, immunity, muscular development
Sexually transmitted infection, mucous membrane, human immunodeficiency
virus, acquired immune deficiency syndrome
Abstinence, physical barrier, sterilise

1. Male and female reproductive system

Female reproductive system
 Structure Function
Vagina (birth Where sperms are deposited during sexual intercourse
canal)
The opening between the uterus and vagina
Cervix (allows sperm from vagina to enter uterus, as well as menstrual
blood to pass from uterus to vagina)
The uterine lining sheds during menstruation
An embryo embeds itself in the uterine lining during
Uterus (womb) implantation
Foetus develops here during pregnancy
During childbirth, its elastic muscles contract to push out
the foetus
Oviduct / Where mature ovum are released
Fallopian tube Site of fertilisation
Ovary Site of where eggs mature
Produces oestrogen and progesterone

Male reproductive system

 Structure Function
Testis*/testicle
(plural: Produces sperm and testosterone
testes/testicles)
The skin sac containing testes (which need to be
Scrotum outside of the body to be 2°C cooler for sperm
production)
Sperm duct Carries sperm from the testes to the urethra
Seminal vesicles Secretes fluids that later make up semen
+ Cowper's gland
Prostate gland Mixes
sperms
sperm with a fluid to nourish and activate
Urethra The duct for urine/semen to exit
Penis The male erectile organ, which deposits semen into
vagina during sexual intercourse

Semen = Sperm + fluids from the seminal vesicles, cowper's gland and prostate
gland.
[Memory shortcut]
Functions of fluids in semen [LANE]
L: Lubricates, making it easier for sperm to swim to ovum
A: Alkaline, neutralises acidic environment of the vagina to protect sperm
N: Nourishes sperm with nutrients like glucose, mineral salts
E: Enzymes from prostate gland activate sperm to swim actively

Comparing male and female gametes (sex cells)

 Gamete Male (sperm) Female (ovum)

Appearance*

Size Smaller Larger

Number ~250 million per ejaculation 1 released per ovulation
Motility No, is moved by cilia and
(ability to Yes, using its flagellum peristalsis in the oviduct
move)
*Pro Tip: Knowing the detailed parts of the sperm and egg are not required.

Puberty: The stage where a person becomes physically mature and capable of sexual
reproduction.
Sexual organs enlarge, and the person begins to produce gametes
In females, menstrual cycles begin
Pubic and armpit hair appears
Includes other physical changes, e.g. Voice deepening in men, hips broaden in
women.
2. Menstrual cycle
Typical menstrual cycle = 28 days, but it varies. It could vary more or stop
completely if the person is experiencing high stress/poor diet/poor sleep, etc.
*Pro Tip: You must be familiar with the hormone graph
[Memory shortcut]
Stages of menstrual cycle [Mother Orders Restaurant, Father Pays Bill]
M: Menstruation (Day 1-5)
O: Oestrogen is the dominant hormone in the 1st half
R: which Repairs and thickens uterine lining
F: Fertile period (Day 11-16) surrounds ovulation (Day 14)
P: Progesterone is the dominant hormone in the 2nd half
B: which causes growth of more Blood vessels within lining
 Day Stage Events
1-5 Menstruation The uterine lining and unfertilised egg are broken
down and discharged out of the vagina as menses
6-13 Repair + Growth Oestrogen levels increase
Uterine lining repairs and thickens
Upon ovulation, one ovary releases a mature
Fertile period + ovum into the oviduct, which survives for 2-3
11-16 Ovulation (Day days unless fertilised
14) Sexual intercourse during this period has
highest chance of pregnancy, since sperms
survive up to 3 days
Progesterone levels increase
Uterine lining thickens further and more blood
vessels grow within it, preparing for possible
15-28 Growth +
Maintenance
implantation
Nearing the end of the menstrual cycle,
oestrogen and progesterone levels fall,
causing the uterine lining to shed, starting the
next menstrual cycle

Hormones involved in menstruation

Oestrogen
Stimulates repair and thickening of uterine lining
Inhibits another ovulation during second half of the menstrual cycle
Progesterone
Maintains thickness and stimulates further thickening of uterine lining
Stimulates growth of more blood vessels in uterine lining
Inhibits another ovulation during second half of the menstrual cycle

3. Fertilisation
Fertilisation: The fusion of nuclei of a sperm and ovum, forming a diploid zygote.
Occurs in the oviduct/fallopian tube
Implantation: The process whereby the embryo embeds itself in the uterine lining.
Zygote travels toward uterus via peristaltic action of the oviduct walls and
sweeping action of cilia
The zygote undergoes mitosis, forming an embryo (a ball of cells)
Embryo reaches uterus 5 days after fertilisation, floats around for 2 days. On Day
7, embeds itself into uterine lining during implantation.
The placenta, amniotic sac and foetus then develops.
4. Foetal development

Placenta
After implantation, finger-like projections called villi, containing blood vessels
from the embryo, grow into the uterine lining, forming the placenta.
Placenta secretes progesterone to maintain thickness of the uterine lining,
supporting pregnancy.
Oxygen and nutrients such as glucose, amino acids diffuse from maternal to
foetal capillaries
Metabolic waste products such as urea and carbon dioxide diffuse from foetal
to maternal capillaries
Some antibodies diffuse from maternal to foetal capillaries, giving the foetus
immunity against some diseases
Maternal and foetal blood do not mix, because:
Mother's blood pressure > foetus, would kill foetus
 Mother and foetus may have incompatible blood types
Amniotic sac/Amnion
Contains amniotic fluid and the foetus
Amniotic fluid
Supports and cushions foetus by absorbing shock
Allows some movement, promoting muscular development
Lubricates birth canal during childbirth
Trains the digestive system, as the foetus drinks the fluid and urinates it
*Pro Tip: When a pregnant woman's 'water bag' bursts nearing labour, it means the
amniotic sac broke.
[Memory Shortcut]
SALT for functions of amniotic fluid
Shock absorption
Allows some movement for muscular development
Lubricates birth canal during childbirth
Trains the digestive system

Umbilical cord
Carries nutrients and oxygen from placenta to foetus
Carries metabolic waste products from foetus to placenta
Umbilical cord has 2 arteries *(from foetus to placenta) and 1 vein (toward
foetus)
*Pro Tip: Umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated blood, because artery carries blood
away from foetus' heart, to placenta

5. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

HIV is a sexually transmitted infection (STI)
HIV attacks a certain type of white blood cells, decreasing their number
The resulting condition = Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) as
the immune system is weakened, and body is susceptible to common infections
that would otherwise not be as severe.
Modes of HIV transmission:
Unprotected sexual intercourse with infected individual
Where semen containing HIV comes into contact with the mucous
membrane of an uninfected female's vagina, OR
When vaginal fluids containing HIV come into contact with the mucous
membrane of an uninfected male's urethra.
Sharing of contaminated needles
Blood transfusions where the donor's blood has the virus
*Pro Tip: This is why in professional/public health services, donated blood is
always screened.
Passed from mother to foetus during pregnancy
STIs can be prevented by:
Abstinence (no sexual intercourse)
Have only 1 sexual partner/avoiding casual sex
Using condoms (physical barrier prevents transmission)
Not sharing needles/sterilising needles whenever used
14. Reproduction in Humans CAQs
Important Definitions
Q: Define the term fertilisation (in the context of humans).
The fusion of nuclei of a sperm and ovum, forming a diploid zygote.
Q: Define the term implantation.
The process whereby the embryo embeds itself in the uterine lining.

Menstrual Cycle Hormones

Q: Which change occurs just before menstruation?
A) A decrease in the concentration of oestrogen and progesterone
B) An increase in the concentration of oestrogen and progesterone
C) A decrease in the concentration of progesterone and an increase in the
concentration of oestrogen
D) An increase in the concentration of progesterone and a decrease in the
concentration of oestrogen
(A)
Near the end of the previous menstrual cycle, oestrogen and progesterone
levels fall, resulting in uterine lining unable to be maintained -> menstruation
occurs.
*Pro Tip: Get very familiar with the menstrual hormone graph (see topical notes
on Reproduction in Humans), it will help with both MCQ and OEQ.
Amniotic Fluid Functions
Q: Some statements about the functions of amniotic fluid are listed.
1 Allows movement of the foetus
2 Protects the foetus from mechanical shocks
3 Supplies oxygen to the lungs of the foetus
4 Supports the foetus
Which statements are correct?
A) 1, 2 and 4
B) 1 and 3 only
C) 2, 3 and 4
D) 2 and 4 only
(A)
Amniotic fluid functions:
Shock absorption - Option 2 & 4
Allows for some movement, promoting muscular development - Option 1
Lubricates birth canal during childbirth
Trains the digestive system as foetus drinks and urinates the fluid
Option 3 wrong: Oxygen is supplied to the foetus by umbilical cord. Foetus does
not use its lungs, only newborns do.
*Pro Tip: Recall the memory shortcut SALT.

Menstrual Cycle
Q: Explain the changes in the thickness of the uterine lining throughout a typical
menstrual cycle. [4]
Stages of menstrual cycle [Mother Orders Restaurant, Father Pays Bill]
M: Menstruation (Day 1-5)
O: Oestrogen is the dominant hormone in the 1st half
R: which Repairs and thickens uterine lining
F: Fertile period (Day 11-16) surrounds ovulation (Day 14)
P: Progesterone is the dominant hormone in the 2nd half
B: which causes growth of more Blood vessels within lining
From days 1-5, menstruation occurs where the uterine lining breaks down and
is shed.
From days 6-14, maturing follicles in the ovaries cause oestrogen levels to
rise, hence the uterine lining is repaired and grows thicker.
From days 14-21, increasing progesterone secreted from the ovary causes the
uterine lining to further grow and thicken, and more blood vessels grow within
the lining, to prepare for implantation of an embryo.
 From days 22-28, oestrogen and progesterone decline, and when levels are
too low to maintain the uterine lining, it breaks down, starting the next menstrual
cycle.

Hormone levels if Fertilisation Occurs

Q: If fertilisation occurs, what will happen to the thickness of the uterine lining after
day 28? Explain your answer. [3]
If fertilisation occurred, the ovary continues secreting oestrogen and
progesterone, keeping their levels high.
Hence there is no menstruation, as the uterine lining is maintained even after
day 28 and does not breaking down,
in preparation for the implantation of the embryo.
Fertile Period
Q: On which days of the menstrual cycle is the woman most fertile? Explain your
answer. [4]
Ovulation occurs on day 14, where a mature ovum is released from an ovary
into an oviduct.
Sperm survive up to 3 days, so if sexual intercourse occurs on day 11, sperm
can still meet ovum on day 14 immediately upon ovulation, resulting in
fertilisation.
Ovum can survive up to 2 days, so if sexual intercourse occurs at the start of
day 16, sperm can still meet the ovum.
Thus the fertile period where sexual intercourse would lead to the highest
chance of pregnancy is from day 11 to 16.

Importance of Semen Fluids

Q: During the formation of semen, fluids secreted from seminal vesicles, cowper's
gland and the prostate gland are mixed with sperm. Explain the importance of these
fluids. [4]
Functions of fluids in semen [LANE]
L: Lubricates, making it easier for sperm to swim to ovum
A: Alkaline, neutralises acidic environment of the vagina to protect sperm
N: Nourishes sperm with nutrients like glucose, mineral salts
 These fluids lubricate the pathway to the ovum, making it easier for sperm to
swim to the ovum.
are alkaline, neutralising the acidic environment of the vagina, protecting
sperm as they swim towards the ovum.
Fluid from the prostate gland contains enzymes that activate sperms to swim
actively, so they can reach the ovum in time before it dies.
These fluids nourish sperm with nutrients, so they can generate the large
amounts of energy needed via aerobic respiration to swim all the way to the
ovum.

Development Of Foetus
Q: Describe the sequence of events that occur after a human egg cell after it is
fertilised, which enable it to develop and survive in the uterus. [5]
After fertilisation, the zygote is moved from the oviduct towards the uterus, by
peristaltic action of the oviduct walls and the sweeping action of cilia.
Meanwhile, the zygote divides by mitosis into an embryo,
Which embeds itself into the uterine lining during implantation, where it
develops into a foetus.
(along with any 2 more points):
Finger-like projections called villi, containing the blood vessels from the
embryo, grow into the uterine lining, forming the placenta.
The placenta secretes progesterone and oestrogen, maintaining the thickness
of uterine lining.
In the placenta, oxygen and nutrients diffuse from maternal to foetal
capillaries, and are delivered to the foetus via the umbilical cord,while
metabolic waste products such as urea and carbon dioxide are removed.
The amniotic sac develops, containing amniotic fluid that protects foetus from
physical injury/allows for movement for muscular development/trains the
foetus' digestive system.
Related Questions:
Q: Describe the process of fertilisation and outline the early development of
the embryo. [5]
Placenta Functions
Q: Describe the functions of the placenta during pregnancy. [4]
The placenta secretes oestrogen and progesterone, to maintain the thickness
of the uterine lining throughout pregnancy.
Within the placenta, oxygen and nutrients diffuse from maternal to foetal
capillaries,
while metabolic waste products such as urea and carbon dioxide diffuse
from foetal to maternal blood vessels.
The placenta allows some antibodies to diffuse from maternal to foetal blood,
giving the foetus immunity to those diseases.

Maternal and Foetal Blood Do Not Mix

Q: Explain why the maternal and foetal blood vessels are not directly connected. [2]
Maternal and foetal blood types may be incompatible, and direct mixing of
blood would lead to agglutination of red blood cells which is dangerous both
mother and foetus.
The mother's blood pressure is higher than that of the foetus, which may burst
foetal blood vessels if they were connected.

STI Transmission
Q: Describe the ways in which HIV can be transmitted. [4]
Choose 4:
Unprotected sexual intercourse, where semen containing HIV comes into
contact with the mucous membrane of an uninfected female's vagina.
Or when vaginal fluids containing HIV come into contact with the mucous
membrane of an uninfected male's urethra.
By sharing contaminated needles, such as between drug addicts.
By blood transfusion with blood from an infected person.
During pregnancy, where the virus travels from an infected mother to the
foetus.
15. Cell Division
Learning Outcomes:
1. Mitosis
2. Meiosis
3. Bonus: Amount of DNA/number of chromosomes at each stage
4. Genetic variation
Keywords:
Mitosis, nuclear division, diploid, genetically identical, genetically different
DNA replication, genes, mutation, uncontrolled cell division, cancer
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis
Sister chromatids, centromeres divide, daughter chromosomes
Mitotic spindle, opposite poles, equator of cell, unravel
Meiosis, haploid, reduction division, diploid condition
Homologous chromosomes, gene loci, centromere position, synapsis
Crossing over, corresponding sections of DNA, non-sister chromatids, new
combinations of alleles, chiasmata
Independent assortment of chromosomes, orientation of homologous pairs,
random fertilisation

1. Mitosis
Mitosis: A form of nuclear division which produces two genetically identical daughter
nuclei, containing the same number of chromosomes as the parent nucleus.
Usually occurs in diploid cells
Diploid: Having two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent.
Before mitosis occurs, DNA replication occurs
Importance
Mitosis is needed for growth, repair, and in asexual reproduction
Mitosis results in genetically identical cells:
Ensuring proper development of the embryo from the zygote
 Preventing genes from changing (mutations), which can lead to cells
appearing foreign hence being attacked by the immune system
Prevents mutations, which can lead to uncontrolled cell division and
subsequently cancer

Mitosis Stages
[Memory hack]
Mitosis stages [Pee on the Mat]
P: Prophase (preparing)
M: Metaphase (middle)
A: Anaphase (away)
T: Telophase (two nuclei)
Stage of Mitosis Events occurring
Chromatin condenses into chromosomes
Nuclear envelope disintegrates, nucleolus
disappears
Prophase Centrioles begin migrating to opposite poles
Chromosomes begin migrating to equator of the cell
Spindle fibres/microtubules begin to form, asters
form around centrioles
Function of asters is to anchor the centrioles
down to the poles of the cell
[Memory hack]
Aster sounds like "a star" and they look like the
shining beams of a star
Metaphase
Chromosomes have aligned at the equator of the
cell
Centrioles are found at opposite poles
Mitotic spindle fully formed with microtubules
attached to the centromeres of chromosomes

Anaphase
Microtubules shorten, centromeres of
chromosomes divide, each sister chromatid is now
a daughter chromosome, pulled to opposite poles
 Telophase Daughter chromosomes have reached opposite
poles and unravel into chromatin
Nuclear envelope reforms around chromatin,
nucleolus reappears
Microtubules disintegrate
One centrosome (centrosome = a pair of centrioles)
is found at each pole
Cytokinesis* Cytoplasm divides into two, resulting in two diploid
daughter cells
*Pro Tip: Cytokinesis is not considered as part of mitosis. It
occurs during or after telophase.
[Memory hack]
Aspects of Mitosis/Meiosis stages [Child Naughty Call Mother]
C: Chromosomes
N:Nucleus + Nucleolus
C: Centrioles
M: Microtubules

2. Meiosis
Meiosis: A form of nuclear division which produces four genetically different haploid
nuclei, containing half the number of chromosomes as the parent nucleus.
Occurs during the formation of sex cells/gametes.
Consists of 2 divisions, Meiosis I and Meiosis II
1 diploid parent cell at the start of Meiosis becomes 4 haploid daughter cells
after Meiosis is complete
Haploid: Having only one complete set of chromosomes.
*Pro Tip: Being haploid is defined by the number of chromosomes, not the amount of
DNA.
Meiosis I
Before Meiosis I, DNA replication occurs
Meiosis I is also known as reduction division, as it results in daughter cells
having half the number of chromosomes as before
Homologous chromosomes: A pair of chromosomes, one from each parent.
They have the same length, centromere position, and same gene loci, although
they may have different alleles.
In diploid cells, there are 2 chromosomes for each chromosome number
Each of these pairs is called a homologous pair
Importance of reduction division:
During fertilisation, nuclei of gametes fuse into 1 nucleus
Haploid gametes (23 chromosomes) fuse to give a diploid zygote (46
chromosomes), restoring the diploid condition
This ensures that chromosome number stays constant and does not double
with every successive generation
Stage of Meiosis Events (Details repeated in mitosis have been simplified)
I
Synapsis occurs: Homologous chromosomes pair up
Crossing over:
During Prophase I, crossing over may occur,
exchanging corresponding sections of DNA
between non-sister chromatids of homologous
chromosomes,
resulting in new combinations of alleles and
forming chiasmata.
[Memory Shortcut]
Crossing over explanation [PENAC]
P: Prophase I
Prophase I E: Exchange of sections of DNA between
N: Non-sister chromatids of homologous
chromosomes
A: new combinations of Alleles
C: Chiasmata
*Pro Tip: Chiasmata = plural of chiasma. Chiasma = point of
contact between homologous chromosomes during crossing
over.
 Metaphase I
Homologous pairs align along the equator of the cell,
each chromosome is attached to one microtubule from
one pole

Anaphase I
Homologous chromosomes separate to opposite
poles
(notice that centromeres did not divide)

Telophase I
Chromosomes reach opposite poles of the cell and
unravel into chromatin
No DNA replication after Meiosis I

Cytokinesis I
Results in the formation of 2 haploid daughter cells

Meiosis II
The events of meiosis II are very similar to that of Mitosis:
 Prophase II Metaphase
II Anaphase II Telophase II Cytokinesis II

4
haploid
daughter cells
(gametes)
produced

Non-separation/Non-disjunction
When sister chromatids fail to separate during Anaphase/Anaphase II
OR when homologous chromosomes fail to separate during Anaphase I

*Pro Tip: Check out inheritance topical notes for more details on non-separation and
how it can lead to Down Syndrome.

3. Bonus: Amount of DNA/Number of chromosomes at each stage

Let amount of DNA per cell be x
Let original number of chromosomes per cell be 2n
Mitosis
*Pro Tip: Number of chromosomes are counted by the number of centromeres
present. This is why chromosome number doubles during Anaphase and Anaphase II.
Meiosis

*Pro Tip: Youtube animations to visualise mitosis and meiosis better:

Mitosis: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DwAFZb8juMQ&ab_channel=Bifrost
 Meiosis: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=nMEyeKQClqI&ab_channel=DailyMedEd

4. Genetic variation
Genetic variation is advantageous as the species is less susceptible to sudden
environmental changes as it can better adapt and survive
Independent assortment of chromosomes during metaphase I
Orientation of homologous pairs along the equator is random and independent
of other pairs
Maternal and paternal chromosomes could be segregated into either daughter
cell in different combinations.
(As a result, there are 2^23 possible genetic combinations for human sperm and
ovum.)
Crossing over
During Prophase I, crossing over may occur, exchanging corresponding
sections of DNA between non-sister chromatids of homologous
chromosomes,
resulting in new combinations of alleles and forming chiasmata, increasing
the genetic variation of the gametes
Random fertilisation
Each parent produces genetically different gametes
During fertilisation, a random sperm and a random egg meet, increasing the
number of offspring variants
15. Cell Division CAQs
Important Definitions
Q: Define the term diploid.
Having two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent.
Q: Define the term haploid.
Having only one complete set of chromosomes.
Q: Define the term mitosis.
A form of nuclear division which produces two genetically identical daughter
nuclei, containing the same number of chromosomes as the parent nucleus.
Q: Define the term meiosis.
A form of nuclear division which produces four genetically different haploid
nuclei, containing half the number of chromosomes as the parent nucleus.
Q: Define the term homologous chromosomes.
A pair of chromosomes, one from each parent. They have the same length,
centromere position, and same gene loci, although they may have different
alleles.
Identifying Stage of Mitosis/Meiosis
Q: A cell that contains three pairs of chromosomes divides by meiosis. Which diagram
shows the cell in prophase II?
(A)
Diploid number = 6 (3 pairs of chromosomes). Prophase II is after Meiosis I
(reduction division), so there should only be 3 chromosomes.
Anaphase I: centromeres do not divide, so we should see sister chromatids
attached together. The only option which shows this is A.
*Pro Tip: These questions love to test on Meiosis, since it's more complex. They
often ask about Prophase I and Prophase II.
Identifying The Gamete
Q: A cell containing three pairs of chromosomes divides by meiosis. Which diagram
shows one of the daughter cells after telophase II?

(D)
Telophase II -> Cytokinesis II -> Gametes formed.
Diploid = 3 pairs of chromosomes = 6 total. Since gametes are haploid, only will
have 3 chromosomes -> A and B are out.
Since gametes have gone through Anaphase II where centromeres divided,
should not see sister chromatids attached together at the centromere -> C is
out.
Importance of Mitosis
Q: Give 2 reasons why mitosis is important in living organisms. [2]
Choose 2:
Mitosis produces genetically identical daughter cells, which is needed for the
growth of an organism.
It is also needed for repair, by replacing old/dead/damaged cells with new ones.
Mitosis allows for asexual reproduction to occur, such as during the growth of a
new plant via vegetative propagation.
Mitosis is required for the proper development of the embryo, as cells form
must be genetically identical to avoid harmful mutations that affect proper cell
functions.

Importance of Reduction Division/Meiosis I

Q: Explain the importance of reduction division. [3]
Due to reduction division which is meiosis I, gametes produced have half the
chromosome number of the parent nucleus, and are haploid.
When nuclei of the haploid gametes fuse during fertilisation, the resulting
zygote is diploid, restoring the diploid condition in the zygote.
Hence ensuring chromosome number stays constant and does not double with
every successive generation.
Related Questions:
Q: Explain why meiosis is important in organisms that reproduce sexually. [3]
*Pro Tip: The answer will be very similar to the question above. Reproduce
sexually --> fertilisation is involved --> reduction division is required -->
which is achieved by meiosis I.

Mitosis vs Meiosis
Q: Describe the similarities and differences between mitosis and meiosis I. [4]
Similarities (Choose 2):
Both involve DNA replication before the nuclear division occurs.
 Both involve the condensing of chromatin into chromosomes during Prophase
and Prophase I.
Both involve the nuclear envelope disintegrating and the nucleolus
disappearing during Prophase and Prophase I.
Both involve the centrioles migrating to opposite poles of the cell during
Prophase and Prophase I.
Both involve chromosomes aligning at the equator of the cell during Metaphase
and Metaphase I.
Both involve the formation of the mitotic spindle which is complete at
Metaphase and Metaphase I.
Both involve chromosomes being pulled to opposite poles of the cell during
Anaphase and Anaphase I.
Differences (Choose 2):
Mitosis _____(A)______, while Meiosis I _______(B)_______.

A B
Results in 2 genetically identical,Results in 2 genetically different,
diploid daughter nuclei haploid daughter nuclei
Prophase I may involve crossing over,
Prophase has no crossing over forming chiasmata and resulting in new
combination of alleles.
Chromosomes align singly along the Chromosomes align in homologous pairs
equator during metaphase at equator during metaphase I
No synapsis during prophase Synapsis occurs during prophase I, where
homologous chromosomes pair up

Related Questions:
Questions can ask for similarities/differences even between specific stages,
Eg: Describe 2 differences between Telophase I and Telophase II. [2]
 *Pro Tip: A tip to answering them is that the points of comparison usually
surround the 4 main aspects of what happens during cell division stages:
Aspects of Mitosis/Meiosis stages [Child Naughty Call Mother]
C: Chromosomes
N: Nucleus + Nucleolus
C: Centrioles
M: Microtubules

Sources of Genetic Variation

Q: Explain the mechanisms that create genetic variation in offspring. [5]
Independent assortment of chromosomes during Metaphase I:
Due to independent assortment of chromosomes during Metaphase I, the
orientation of each homologous pair is random and independent from other
pairs,
Hence maternal and paternal chromosomes could be segregated into either
daughter cell in different combinations.
Crossing over:
Crossing over explanation [PENAC]
P: Prophase I
E: Exchange of sections of DNA between
N: Non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes
A: new combinations of Alleles
C: Chiasmata
During Prophase I, crossing over may occur, exchanging corresponding
sections of DNA between non-sister chromatids of homologous
chromosomes,
resulting in new combinations of alleles and forming chiasmata, increasing the
genetic variation of the gametes.
Random fertilisation:
Random fertilisation of a random sperm and egg further increases the genetic
variation of the zygote formed, increasing the number of offspring variants.
16. Molecular Genetics
Learning Outcomes:
1. DNA structure
2. DNA to protein
3. Genetic Engineering
4. Implications of Genetic Engineering
5. Bonus: Genetic Engineering vs Artificial Selection
Keywords:
Deoxyribonucleic acid, double helix, anti-parallel, nucleotide, polynucleotide
Nitrogenous base, Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine
Hydrogen bond, complementary base pairing
Gene, sequence of amino acids, specific polypeptide, transcription, translation
Donor, recipient, transgenic organism, foreign genes, anneal, vector, plasmid
Restriction enzyme, restriction site, sticky ends, recombinant plasmid,
heat/electric shock

1. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

Structure of DNA
DNA contains genetic information
DNA is made of two anti-parallel polynucleotide strands wound together
forming a double helix
Is made of nucleotides, which have:
Deoxyribose sugar
Phosphate group
Nitrogenous/nitrogen-containing base
(Adenine/Thymine/Guanine/Cytosine)

The strands are held together by complementary base pairing, with hydrogen
bonds between:
Adenine and Thymine
Guanine and Cytosine
Therefore ratio of A:T and G:C must = 1:1
[Memory hack]
Remembering which nitrogenous bases pair together
Adenine + Thymine: Picture an Adder (a type of snake) bites a person's
Thigh.
Guanine + Cytosine: Picture Guava slices inside a cell's Cytoplasm.

DNA vs Gene vs Allele vs Chromosome vs Chromatin

DNA: DNA is a type of molecule, just like carbohydrates, proteins and fats are
types of molecules.
DNA can be very short, or very long
Gene: A sequence of DNA nucleotides that codes for a specific polypeptide
A long DNA molecule can consist of many genes along it
 *Pro Tip: Gene has a more detailed definition in the topic Inheritance.
Allele: A different/alternative form of the same gene.
Alleles usually have slight nucleotide differences, but are otherwise very
similar.
Chromatin: In the nucleus, DNA is loosely-packed and coiled around proteins.
This form of DNA is called chromatin.
Chromosome: A chromosome is a very long strand of DNA.
In the nucleus, chromosomes are not yet condensed, and are in the loose
form of chromatin. Chromosomes condense during cell division.

2. DNA to Protein
Transcription: The process where DNA is used as a template to synthesise a strand
of mRNA.
The 2 strands of DNA are separated
One of the strands is used as a template to make a complementary strand of
mRNA
mRNA features:
Thymine (T) base is replaced with Uracil (U) base
single-stranded, unlike DNA
uses the sugar ribose, instead of deoxyribose in DNA
Translation: The process where mRNA is used as a template to synthesise a
sequence of amino acids, forming a polypeptide.
mRNA leaves the nucleus and enters the cytoplasm
mRNA attaches to a ribosome, which uses mRNA as a template to determine
the sequence of amino acids when synthesising the polypeptide
every 3 nucleotides on mRNA is a codon, each codon is read by ribosome to
sequence 1 amino acid
The polypeptide folds into a protein
*Pro Tip: Do not worry about the details of transcription and translation. Only a brief
understanding is needed to answer questions.
3. Genetic Engineering
Genetic Engineering: The technique used to transfer genes from one organism to
another.
Requires a vector (a vehicle that transfers genes)
A commonly used vector is a plasmid (small, extrachromosomal circular DNA
found in bacteria)
Transgenic organism: An organism which contains foreign genes after gene
transfer.

Restriction enzymes
Naturally found in bacteria as defences against viruses
Recognise a specific short nucleotide sequence, the restriction site
They cut DNA there, resulting in sticky ends (where unpaired nucleotides can
complementary base pair with another such strand to form double stranded
DNA)

Genetic Engineering of bacteria to produce human insulin

Inserting gene into plasmid
A restriction enzyme is used to cut a section of DNA containing the human
insulin gene, creating sticky ends
The same restriction enzyme is used to cut a plasmid, creating sticky ends
Plasmid and DNA are mixed, allowing them to anneal via complementary base
pairing at the sticky ends
DNA ligase is added to seal them together, the result is a recombinant plasmid
which carries the insulin gene
Inserting recombinant plasmid into bacteria
Heat/electric shock treatment is applied to the bacteria that create pores in
their plasma membranes so they can uptake the recombinant plasmids
Those bacteria become transgenic bacteria, and will produce insulin as part of
their metabolic processes
*Pro Tip: Only a small percentage of bacteria will successfully uptake plasmids. They
can be isolated by mixing with an antibiotic that the recombinant plasmids make them
resistant to.
[Memory Shortcut]
Genetic engineering process [Really Talkative PALS]
R: Restriction enzyme
T: Target gene
P: Plasmid
A: Anneals via complementary base pairing
L: DNA Ligase
S: Shock treatment

Creating transgenic plants

Use a restriction enzyme to cut the desired gene from the donor organism
Use the same restriction enzyme to cut a plasmid
Mix them together so they anneal via complementary base pairing. Add DNA
Ligase to seal them together, forming a recombinant plasmid
 Using heat/electric shock treatment, insert the recombinant plasmid into a
bacteria that infects plant cells
Allow bacteria to infect plant cells, the desired gene will be inserted into the
plant's DNA
Induce the cells to grow into plants. They will produce the desired gene product.

3. Implications of Genetic Engineering

Biological implications: Impact on living things due to biological reasons
Social implications: Impact on society, usually social/economic, but also
includes health benefits/unforeseen health problems caused to humans who
consume GM products
Ethical implications: How genetic engineering could be morally questionable

Advantages of Genetic Engineering How is it a benefit?

Low-cost production of medicine, Saves lives and is affordable
such as insulin
Can be used to treat genetic diseases Saves lives
Crops that can grow in extreme Increase crop yields, avoiding food
weather conditions shortages, especially in light of climate
change
Crops that have higher nutritional
value, e.g. Golden rice, higher vitamin Decreasing malnutrition, especially in
poorer countries
A
Crops produce their own pesticide Less pesticides need to be sprayed on
crops, environmentally-friendly.
Crops resistant to herbicide, e.g. Herbicides can be used to efficiently kill
soybeans weeds, increasing crop yields
 Disadvantages of Genetic Engineering How is it a disadvantage?
New proteins in GM food may cause Some people may suffer allergic reactions
allergies in some people
Unforeseen consequences: Unwanted May be toxic or cancer-causing to people
metabolic reactions may result, who eat them
producing harmful toxins
Useful insects such as butterflies and
honey bees, which feed on nectar of Loss of biodiversity
GM crops, may die due to the crop
producing pesticide
Possibility of use for biological warfare Can be used as weapons of mass
destruction
Some companies (e.g. Monsanto)
engineer GM crops to have seeds that
cannot germinate, so farmers must Financial exploitation of farmers
constantly buy seeds from the
companies
Some companies can set patents on Medications too expensive for those who
medicines made using genetic need them and cannot buy/ financial
engineering, and make medicines very exploitation as people have no choice but
expensive. to pay the high prices
*Pro Tip: These advantages and disadvantages are not exhaustive lists.
4. Bonus: Genetic Engineering vs Artificial Selection
Genetic Engineering Artificial Selection
Involves the insertion of genes into Does not involve any insertion of genes
the DNA of the organism into the DNA of the organism
Only requires one of the target Requires at least two of the target
organism organism, one male and one female, so
that breeding can occur.
Desired outcome is immediate, as Desired outcome is achieved gradually,
traits are expressed upon successful as traits become more desirable with each
insertion of genes generation
Requires precise lab techniques and Does not require any special lab
equipment equipment
Can introduce new traits that were Only can manipulate traits already present
previously non-existent in the in the species
organism's species
Foreign genes can come from a
completely different species as the Can only be done within a species
target organism
16. Molecular Genetics CAQs
Important Definitions
Q: Define the term gene.
A sequence of DNA nucleotides that codes for a specific polypeptide.
Q: Define the term transgenic organism.
An organism which contains foreign genes after gene transfer.

Nucleotide Components
Q: Which represents a nucleotide?

(D)
1 nucleotide = 1 deoxyribose sugar, 1 phosphate group and 1 nitrogenous base
*Pro Tip: They can test the same thing but using words, without a diagram.
Transgenic Organisms And How They Are Made
Q: How are all transgenic plants formed?
A) By cross-fertilising two different varieties of plants
B) By exposing an adult plant to a substance that causes mutations
C) By inserting a section of DNA from one plant species into the cell of another plant
species
D) By transferring a chromosome from one plant species to another
(C)
Transgenic organism: An organism which contains foreign genes after gene
transfer.
A wrong: cross-fertilisation/cross-pollination does not involve transferring
foreign genes.
B wrong: This may change the genes in the plant, but there is no transfer of
foreign genes involved.
C correct: Fits the definition of transgenic organism.
D wrong: Technically, this introduces foreign genes, but this is not how genetic
engineering is carried out. C is still best answer.

Genes, DNA and Chromosomes

Q: Outline the relationship between genes, DNA and chromosomes. [3]
DNA is a double helix made from 2 DNA strands, each made of many
nucleotides.
A gene is a sequence of nucleotides along DNA that codes for a specific
polypeptide.
A chromosome is a very long DNA molecule found in the nucleus, that contains
many genes.
Related Questions:
Q: Outline the relationship between genes, alleles and chromosomes. [3]
A gene is a sequence of nucleotides along DNA that codes for a specific
polypeptide.
Alleles are different/alternative forms of the same gene.
Genes are located on chromosomes, each of which contains many genes.
Structure of DNA
Q: Describe the structure of DNA. [6]
DNA is a double helix made from two anti-parallel polynucleotide chains.
Each nucleotide consists of a deoxyribose sugar, phosphate group, and a
nitrogenous base.
There are four bases, where Adenine pairs with Thymine, Guanine pairs with
Cytosine.
Hydrogen bonds form between complementary base pairs, holding the two
strands together.
 Sequences of nucleotides along the strands that code for specific
polypeptides are called genes.
DNA is loosely packed and coiled around proteins in the nucleus, forming
chromatin.
Calculating Percentage of Bases
Q: A scientist analysed a double stranded DNA sample, and found that 15% of its
nitrogenous bases were adenine, Calculate the percentage of the other nitrogenous
bases in the DNA sample. Explain your answer. [2]
Since Adenine complementary base pairs with Thymine, they have a 1:1 ratio,
so Thymine makes up 15% of bases.
The remaining 70% consists of Guanine and Cytosine. Since they
complementary base pair with each other, they are in a 1:1 ratio.
Hence percentage of Cytosine and Guanine = 70%/2 = 35% respectively.

DNA to Protein
Q: Describe how genes control the production of proteins. [3]
In the nucleus, transcription occurs where DNA is used as a template to
synthesise a strand of mRNA.
It exits the nucleus to the cytoplasm, attaches to a ribosome and is used as a
template during translation.
Every 3 bases on mRNA is a codon that codes for an amino acid, determining
the sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide, which in turn determines the
structure and function of the protein.

Genetic Engineering Process

Q: Explain how bacteria which produce human insulin can be made. [6]
Genetic Engineering process [Really Talkative PALS]
R: Restriction enzyme
T: Target gene
P: Plasmid
A: Anneals via complementary base pairing
L: DNA Ligase
S: Shock treatment
 A restriction enzyme is used to cut a section of DNA containing the human
insulin gene, creating sticky ends.
The same restriction enzyme is used to cut a plasmid, creating sticky ends.
Plasmid and target gene are mixed, allowing them to anneal via
complementary base pairing at the sticky ends.
DNA Ligase is added to seal them together, resulting in a recombinant
plasmid.
Mix this with the bacteria, and heat shock/electric shock treatment is applied,
creating pores in the bacteria’s plasma membrane to allow the recombinant
plasmid to enter.
The transgenic bacteria will then produce insulin as part of their metabolic
processes.
Related Questions:
Q: Explain how a transgenic organism can be produced.
*Pro Tip: Such a question is more general, so use words like "donor
organism", "target gene", "receiving organism" in your answer.
Advantages of Genetic Engineering
Q: Suggest 3 reasons for the development of transgenic organisms. [3]
Choose 3:
Allows for the low-cost production of life-saving medicine, such as bacteria that
produces insulin.
To modify crops to grow in extreme weather conditions, improving crop yield.
To modify crops to produce more yield/bear more nutritious produce.
To modify crops to be resistant to herbicide, so herbicides can be used on them
to kill surrounding weeds, improving crop yield.
To modify crops to produce their own pesticide, so that pests which try to eat
them die, improving crop yield and reducing the use of pesticide sprays, which is
more environmentally friendly.

Disadvantages of GM Crops
Q: People have opposed the use of genetic engineering to improve crop yield. Give 3
reasons that can be used as arguments against this type of genetic engineering. [3]
Choose 3:
 Genetically engineering crops to be resistant to herbicides may result in weeds
gaining this trait if cross-pollination between crops and weeds occur.
Genetically engineering crops to produce pesticides may result in the death of
useful insects such as bees and butterflies if they were to eat nectar from such
crops.
New proteins produced by GM crops could cause allergic reactions in some
people who eat them.
New genes expressed in GM crops may alter other metabolic reactions in the
crops, resulting in harmful toxins being produced.
Companies could engineer the crops to produce seeds that cannot germinate,
so they can financially exploit farmers to constantly buy more seeds from
them.
*Pro Tip: If this question asked for biologically valid arguments, only the first 4 are
biological arguments.

Social/Ethical implications of genetic engineering

Q: Medical biotechnology can be used to produce chicken eggs that contain human
proteins. These proteins can be used in medicines. Discuss 2 social and 2 ethical
implications of using chickens to produce human proteins. [4]
Social:
This could reduce the cost of production of such medications and make them
more affordable hence widely available.
Companies could set patents on the production process for such proteins, and
make medicines very expensive, people who need them may not be able to
afford it.
Ethical (Choose 2):
It could result in unforeseen health problems for the chickens, causing suffering
for chickens which is morally wrong.
Morally wrong to violate animal rights, by using chickens as biological 'factories'.
Some vegetarians/vegans/religions may object to consuming the medicinal
proteins because their production involved animals.
*Pro Tip: Social implications mean anything that impacts society, including health
issues. Ethical implications mean anything that is morally-related.
17. Inheritance
Learning Outcomes:
1. Inheritance terms and concepts
2. Monohybrid cross
3. Bonus: All monohybrid cross combinations (O levels)
4. Sex determination, sex-linked inheritance
5. Genetic mutation
6. Variation
7. Natural and Artificial Selection
Keywords:
Phenotype, genotype, allele, gene locus, dominant, recessive
Homozygous, heterozygous, co-dominance, multiple alleles
Monohybrid, expected/observed offspring ratio, chance, discrepancy, sample
size
Mutation, mutagens, radiation, sickle-cell anaemia, down syndrome, non-
separation/non-disjunction
Continuous/discontinuous variation, additive effect, intermediates, few and
distinct
Natural selection, selection pressure, favourable traits, evolution
Artificial selection, selective breeding, hybridisation, inbreeding

1. Inheritance terms and concepts

Gene: A unit of inheritance that determines a specific trait in an organism. It is a
sequence of DNA nucleotides that codes for specific polypeptide, and has a particular
gene locus.
Gene locus: The location of a gene along a chromosome
Genotype: The combination of alleles an individual has for a trait
Phenotype: The trait that is expressed as a result of genotype
Allele: One of the alternative forms of a gene
Homozygous: Two copies of an allele for a trait are present
Heterozygous: One of each allele for a trait is present
*Pro Tip: AA = homozygous dominant. aa = homozygous recessive. Aa =
heterozygous, there is no such thing as heterozygous
dominant/heterozygous recessive.
Dominant allele: Always expressed regardless whether the individual is
homozygous or heterozygous for the trait
Recessive allele: Only expressed if the individual is homozygous recessive for
the trait

IRIW (If co- IRIW (If

Genotype IRIR IWIW dominant) incomplete
dominance)

Phenotype

Co-dominance*:When two different alleles for a particular trait are both expressed in
an organism and influence phenotype.
Let allele for red flower be IR
Let allele for white flower be IW
In a heterozygous individual (IRIW), if the phenotype turns out to be flowers with
both red and white petals, these alleles are co-dominant.
Incomplete dominance*: When two different alleles are expressed resulting in
phenotype being an intermediate between the two.
Let allele for red flower be IR
Let allele for white flower be IW
In a heterozygous individual (IRIW), if the phenotype turns out to be pink
flowers, these alleles show incomplete dominance.
*Pro Tip: Co-dominance and incomplete dominance can only be observed if individual
is heterozygous for the trait.
Multiple alleles: When three or more alleles exist for a gene.
e.g. for blood type there are the alleles: IA IB IO
IA IB are co-dominant
IO is recessive to IA and IB
*Pro Tip: For co-dominance, incomplete dominance, multiple alleles and sex-linked
inheritance, we represent alleles with superscripts, such as IR, IW.

2. Monohybrid cross
Monohybrid cross involves 1 trait, with 2 alleles
Genetic crosses can predict expected offspring ratios
Discrepancy between observed and expected ratios
As fertilisation is a random process, the genotype of each offspring is based
on chance
The smaller the sample size of offspring, the greater the discrepancy would be
Cross #1: 2 homozygous parents (pure-bred) with different alleles
*Pro Tip: Pure-bred means offspring are homozygous for certain traits
Let T represent allele for tall plant (dominant)
Let t represent allele for dwarf plant (recessive)
*Pro Tip: If letter used has capital and small letters which look very similar, (e.g. c
and C), use c' for the recessive allele to avoid ambiguity
*Pro Tip: F1 and F2 are used when there is an initial cross, followed by a second cross
between the offspring from the first cross. Otherwise, then in the last rows, replace F1
with 'offspring'.

Cross #2: 2 plants from F1 generation

[Memory shortcut]
 Full genetic diagram steps [Lockdown Period, Grab Food Only]
L: Let... (define your alleles, unless question already did)
P: Parents phenotype and genotype
G: Gametes are formed from parents
F: Fertilisation
O: Offspring genotype and phenotypic ratio

Test Cross
Used to determine the genotype of an individual, as heterozygous and
homozygous dominant individuals appear the same
The individual is crossed with a homozygous recessive individual, eg ?? X tt
If individual is homozygous dominant, offspring would all express the
dominant phenotype
If individual is heterozygous, offspring ratio would be 1:1
If individual is homozygous recessive, offspring would all express the
recessive phenotype

3. Bonus: All monohybrid cross combinations (O levels)

Let A be the allele for Tall plant
Let a be the allele for dwarf plant
 Parents Offspring Offspring Phenotypic
Crossed Genotypes Ratio
AA x AA All AA All Tall
aa x aa All aa All Dwarf
AA x aa All Aa All Tall
Aa x Aa 1 AA, 2 Aa, 1 aa 3 Tall : 1 Dwarf
Aa x aa 2 Aa, 2 aa 1 Tall: 1 Dwarf
Aa x AA 2 Aa, 2 AA All Tall

4. Sex determination, sex-linked inheritance

Sex determination
Sex chromosomes are either X or Y
XX is female
XY is male*
Each chromosome comes from each parent
The mother's ovum definitely contains an X chromosome, as the mother's
diploid cells have XX
The father's sperm can contain either an X or Y chromosomes, as the
father's diploid cells have XY
Therefore sex of the zygote formed depends on the sperm, and there is a
50% chance of the zygote being a boy or a girl.
Sex-linked inheritance
As the X and Y chromosomes are different, there may be genes on the X
chromosome that do not have a corresponding gene loci on the Y chromosome.
Sex-linked traits are often passed via the X chromosome, e.g. colourblindness
Let XN be the normal allele (dominant)
 Let XC be the disease allele (recessive)
XNXC: Normal female, as XN is dominant over the recessive XC allele
XCXC: Colourblind female
XNY: Normal male
XCY: Colourblind male. Although the XC allele is recessive, the male only has 1 X
chromosome, hence the recessive condition is expressed.
*Pro Tip: Since this is inherited via the X chromosome, no superscript is needed
for the Y chromosome.
5. Genetic mutation
Mutation: A sudden change in the structure of a gene or chromosome number
Mutagen: An environmental agent that increases mutation rate
E.g. Ultraviolet radiation, Nuclear radiation, toxic chemicals such as tar in
cigarette smoke
*Pro Tip: Mutagens simply cause more mutations in DNA, while
carcinogens cause mutations that increase chances of cancer.
Sickle-cell anaemia
A genetic disease caused by single base substitution in the haemoglobin
gene, resulting in a different amino acid being coded for
Normal haemoglobin (HbA) becomes mutated haemoglobin (HbS)
At low oxygen concentrations, mutated haemoglobin molecules clump
together, causing the cell to become sickle-shaped
Results in anaemia (cells get insufficient oxygen) because:
Sickled RBCs are more fragile, break easily
Cannot carry O2 efficiently
Are actively destroyed by the spleen, leading to low RBC count
Benefit to heterozygous individuals (HbAHbS)
Their RBCs have low occurrence of sickling
More resistant to malaria
Hence they survive and reproduce better (passing on HbS allele)
Thus the sickle-cell allele is most abundant in malaria-stricken regions (e.g.
sub-Saharan Africa)
Down Syndrome
 During formation of sperm/egg, non-separation/non-disjunction* results in the
resultant gamete having two copies of chromosome 21
Homologous chromosomes may fail to separate during Anaphase I
OR Sister chromatids may fail to separate during Anaphase II
*Pro Tip: The older the mother, the higher the chance of non-separation
occurring
Fertilisation with a normal gamete will result in zygote having three copies of
chromosome 21, causing Down Syndrome.
Symptoms: Eyes that slant upward, flattened face, short neck, small ears, small
hands and feet

Anaphase I Anaphase II

6. Variation
 Type of Discontinuous Continuous
variation
Phenotypes Few and distinct phenotypes Amany range of phenotypes, with
intermediate forms
Number of 1 or few Multiple genes, which have an
genes involved additive effect
Environment No effect on phenotype Affects phenotype
Sex, blood type, ability to roll
Examples tongue, lobed or attached Skin/hair colour, height
ears, eye colour

7. Natural and Artificial Selection

Natural selection: The process whereby organisms better adapted to their
environment tend to survive and reproduce.
Variation exists between individuals
Organisms face selection pressures
eg. competition for limited resources, predators, disease outbreaks
Individuals with favourable traits have a selective Advantage
And are more likely to Survive and reproduce
Hence passing on their favourable alleles to their offspring
Over Time, more and more of the population have the favourable trait
[OR, if question says evolution occurred, replace the above statement with this]:
Accumulation of new genes by mutation and natural selection resulted in the
evolution of the species.
*Pro Tip: Natural selection is needed for evolution to occur, but natural
selection can occur without evolution.
[Memory shortcut]
Explaining natural selection process [VAST]
 V: Variation exists between individuals
A: selective Advantage
S: Survive and reproduce, passing favourable alleles to offspring
T: over Time, more and more of the population has the favourable trait
Artificial selection: The process whereby humans select and breed species to have
desirable traits.
Is also known as selective breeding
Is done either through hybridisation or inbreeding
Examples where artificial selection is used:
Wolves with desirable traits (docile/small/cute) were selectively bred, over
time resulting in today's modern dogs.
Soybeans with high oil content
Breeding wagyu cows, for wagyu beef
Hybridisation
Crossing different varieties (of the same species) to produce new varieties which
have desired traits from both parents
E.g. crossing a plant which has good fruit flavour with another that has attractive
flower colour to yield plants that have both of the desired traits.
Inbreeding
Plants/animals with desirable traits (e.g. higher yield crops/cuter animals) are
chosen, and bred together
Offspring with desired traits are inbred repeatedly over many generations
(inbreeding involves crossing closely related varieties)
*Pro Tip: Inbreeding is often used following hybridisation.
17. Inheritance CAQs
Important Definitions
Q: Define the term gene.
A unit of inheritance that determines a specific trait in an organism. It is a
sequence of DNA nucleotides that codes for specific polypeptide, and has a
particular gene locus.
Q: Define the term allele.
One of the alternative forms of a gene.
Q: Define the term dominant allele.
Always expressed regardless whether the individual is homozygous or
heterozygous for the trait.
Q: Define the term recessive allele.
Only expressed if the individual is homozygous recessive for the trait.
Q: Define the term co-dominance.
When two different alleles for a particular trait are both expressed in an organism
and influence phenotype.
Q: Define the term genotype.
The combination of alleles an individual has for a trait.
Q: Define the term phenotype.
The trait that is expressed as a result of genotype.
Q: Define the term heterozygous.
When one of each allele for a trait is present.
Q: Define the term homozygous.
When two copies of an allele for a trait are present.
Q: Define the term mutation.
A sudden change in the structure of a gene or chromosome number.

Continuous Or Discontinuous Trait

Q: The diagram shows six male and six female birds of the same species.

Which row describes the type of variation shown in these birds?

Presence or
Pattern of spots absence Sizes of males
on female birds around the eye of ring and females
A continuous discontinuous continuous
B continuous discontinuous discontinuous
C discontinuous continuous continuous
D discontinuous continuous discontinuous

(A)
Discontinuous: Clear and distinct phenotypes, cannot be affected by
environment.
Continuous: Have a range of phenotypes, can be affected by environment.
Pattern of spots = continuous
Patterns are unique to each bird, no 2 birds have identical pattern of spots
on the wings.
Presence or absence of ring around the eye = discontinuous.
2 clear and distinct phenotypes: Either a bird has or does not have the
ring.
Size = continuous
Bird size comes in a range, and environment (diet) affects their size.
*Pro Tip: They can test this concept using many other examples, it is not solely
limited to this bird diagram.
Fertilisation Resulting In Down Syndrome
Q: Which fertilisation would result in a male child with Down syndrome?
 Chromosomes in Chromosomes in
ovum sperm
A 22 + 1X 22 + 1Y
B 22 + 1X 23 + 1Y
C 23 + 1Y 22 + 1X
D 23 + 1Y 23 + 1X

(B)
Ovums always only have X chromosomes, since mother is female (XX), she can
only produce ovums with X chromosomes.
C and D wrong.
A wrong, since 22 + X + 22 + Y = 46 total chromosomes (normal)
B correct, since 22 + X + 23 + Y = 47 total chromosomes (Down syndrome)
The child will also have sex chromosomes XY = male with Down syndrome

Genes, DNA, alleles and Chromosomes

*Pro Tip: For questions on genes vs chromosomes vs DNA vs alleles, see
Molecular Genetics CAQs

Genetic Diagrams
Q: Pure-breeding Tall (T) and Dwarf (t) pea plants were crossed. Their offspring were
crossed again. Draw the full genetic diagram for these two crosses. [6]
Full genetic diagram steps [Lockdown Period, Grab Food Only]
L: Let... (define your alleles, unless question already did)
P: Parents phenotype and genotype
G: Gametes are formed from parents
F: Fertilisation
O: Offspring genotype and phenotypic ratio
*Pro Tip: F1 and F2 are used when there is an initial cross, followed by a second cross
between the offspring from the first cross. Otherwise, then in the last rows, replace F1
with 'offspring'.

Discrepancy Between Observed and Expected Ratio

Q: Explain why there is a discrepancy between the observed an expected offspring
ratio. [2]
 As fertilisation is a random process, the genotype of each offspring is based on
chance/probability.
The smaller the sample size of offspring, the greater the discrepancy would be.

Explaining Genotype of Individuals in Family Tree

Q: Explain whether this is a dominant or recessive condition. [2]

Recessive condition, as P has the disorder, but her parents M and N are
unaffected.
P must be homozygous recessive, and received one recessive allele from
each parent M and N.
Q: Explain the genotype of M. [2]
P is affected, hence homozygous recessive, and must have received one
recessive allele from each parent M and N, thus M has at least 1 recessive
allele.
M is unaffected, hence M has at least 1 dominant allele so disease is not
expressed, therefore M is heterozygous.
Continuous vs discontinuous variation
Q: Contrast continuous and discontinuous variation. [4]
Continuous variation_____(A)______, while discontinuous variation
_______(B)_______.
 Point of A B
Comparison
Range/number of Has a range of
phenotypes, with many Has few and distinct
Phenotypes intermediate forms phenotypes
Distinguishability Phenotypic differences Phenotypes are easily
between are very small and distinct from one
phenotypes difficult to tell apart another
Environment on Environment can affect Environment does not
phenotype phenotype affect phenotype
Multiple genes control
Number of genes the expression of the
trait, with an additive
Trait is controlled by 1
or a few genes.
effect

Non-disjunction/Non-separation
Q: Explain how a mutation takes place to cause a child with Down syndrome during:
a) Meiosis I. [3]
During anaphase I, non-disjunction/non-separation occurred, where the
homologous pair of chromosome 21 failed to separate, and they both moved
into one daughter cell.
After meiosis II, the resulting gametes from this cell have two copies of
chromosome 21.
Fertilisation with a normal gamete resulted in a zygote with three copies of
chromosome 21, causing the child to have Down syndrome.
b) Meiosis II. [3]
During anaphase II, non-disjunction/non-separation occurred, where the
centromere of chromosome 21 did not divide, and both sister chromatids
moved into one daughter cell.
 The resulting gamete has two copies of chromosome 21.
Fertilisation with a normal gamete resulted in a zygote with three copies of
chromosome 21, causing the child to have Down syndrome.

Sex Determination
Q: Explain whether the male or female gamete determines the sex of a child. [3]
In females, each nucleus has two X chromosomes, while males have one X and
one Y chromosome.
During meiosis, sex chromosomes segregate into different gametes.
The female's ovum can only have an X chromosome, while the male's sperm
can either have an X or Y chromosome,
Hence the male gamete that determines the sex of a child.
Evolution by Natural Selection
Q: A population of normal rabbits migrated to a dense forest. Explain how they could
evolve to have small body size and dark fur. [5]
Explaining natural selection process [VAST]
V: Variation exists between individuals
A: selective Advantage
S: Survive and reproduce, passing favourable alleles to offspring
T: over Time, more and more of the population has the favourable trait
In the forest, the presence of predators acts a selection pressure.
As there is variation between rabbits, some of them had smaller body sizes, and
some of the had darker fur.
These were favourable traits, as smaller body size allowed them to evade
predators more easily, while darker fur allowed them to camouflage in the
forest to avoid being spotted, giving them a selective advantage.
As a result, these individuals survived and reproduced more, passing on their
favourable alleles to their offspring.
Over a long period of time, accumulation of new genes by mutation and
natural selection resulted in the evolution of the species to have small bodies
and dark fur.
*Pro Tip: If question was on how natural selection resulted in small body size and
dark fur, then for the last point, instead write: "Over a long period of time, more
and more of the population had that trait due to natural selection."
Natural Selection: Sickle-Cell Anaemia
Q: People with sickle-cell anaemia are less affected by malaria. Explain why, in regions
where malaria is present, there are many people with the sickle-cell allele. [3]
In regions with malaria, malaria acts as a selection pressure.
Those with the sickle-cell allele have a favourable trait as it makes them more
resistant to malaria, giving them a selective advantage.
Hence, they have a better chance to survive and reproduce, hence passing on
the sickle-cell allele to their offspring, and the allele becomes abundant in the
region over time.
18. Ecology
Learning Outcomes:
1. Food chains and food webs
2. Non-cyclic energy flow
3. Ecological pyramids
4. Carbon cycle
5. Impact of Man on the Ecosystem
6. Conservation
Keywords:
Biotic, abiotic, food chain, food web
Producers, primary, secondary, tertiary consumers, trophic level
Growth and repair, carbon compounds, uneaten parts, decomposers, non-cyclic
Food chain, food web, ecological pyramid, biomass
Carbon cycle, fossil fuels, organic matter, combustion, decompose, carbon sink
Shells, exoskeleton, soluble in water
Bioaccumulation, bioamplification/biomagnification, biodegradable
Deforestation, soil erosion, flooding, desertification, greenhouse gas, global
warming
Dissolved oxygen, aerobic bacteria, submerged plants
Biodiversity, extinction, endangered species, indiscriminately, mesh size

1. Food chains and food webs

Population: A group of organisms of the same species that live together in a
habitat
Habitat: The place an organism lives
Community: Comprises all the populations living and interacting with one
another in a habitat
Ecosystem: A community of organisms interacting with one another and with its
abiotic environment
Biotic environment: All the living organisms that an organisms interacts with in
its habitat
 Abiotic environment: The climate and physical features of the surroundings in
the habitat
Food Chain: A series of organisms through which energy is transferred in the form of
food

Producer (1st trophic level) --> Primary Consumer --> Secondary Consumer -->
Tertiary Consumer etc.
Each step in the food chain is a trophic level (the diagram above has 4 trophic
levels)
Trophic level: The feeding position that an organism occupies in a food
chain.
Producers: Organisms that take up the first trophic level, and make their own
food from inorganic materials.
Consumers: Organisms that obtain food by feeding on other organisms.

Food Webs:
Made of interlinked food chains
Shows the feeding relationships in a community

2. Non-cyclic energy flow

 Producers are photosynthesising plants that obtain their energy from the Sun
This energy is transferred up the food chain in the form of carbon
compounds when producers are eaten by consumers
Some energy is used by organisms for growth and repair
The rest is lost via:
As heat to the surroundings due to cellular respiration
As chemical energy trapped within excreted and egested substances (eg.
urine and faeces)
As chemical energy trapped in the uneaten parts when an organism dies
(e.g. bones)
*Pro Tip: Decomposers will use the above substances for cellular respiration,
releasing energy as heat.
Therefore, only 10% of energy is actually passed on from one trophic level to
the next
Energy flow is thus linear and non-cyclic
As energy is lost to the abiotic (non-living) environment, energy must be
constantly provided (by the sun) to maintain ecosystems

3. Ecological pyramids
Pyramid of Energy
Since energy is lost each round, the pyramid gets narrower further up
As energy transfer is ~10% efficient, energy of trophic level is 1/10th that of the
trophic level under it

*Pro Tip: All food chains have an upright pyramid of energy!

Pyramid of Biomass
Biomass at each trophic level = total mass of all individuals of that organism type
Usually, populations lower down the food chain are larger, their biomass is larger.
This is why biomass pyramids are often upright
Exception: Marine ecosystems, which have a smaller producer biomass
(phytoplankton) compared to primary consumer (zooplankton).

*Pro Tip: At any one point in time, when measured, the biomass of phytoplankton is
smaller than zoo plankton. That is due to the fast rate that phytoplankton are being
eaten. The ecosystem is still sustainable because phytoplankton reproduce very
quickly, and many of them can be eaten by each zooplankton. The pyramids of energy
and numbers for this food chain is still an upright one.

Pyramid of Numbers
Usually, this pyramid is upright, as there are fewer organisms the higher the
trophic level
However if the producer is very large (e.g. a tree), can support large number of
small consumers, pyramid shape will vary.
*Pro Tip: The pyramid of biomass and energy are still upright for this food
chain.
A skewed shape also frequently occurs when the top predator is fed on by
parasites, eg lice, such that the number of lice is a lot greater than the number of
predators
*Pro Tip: Skewed pyramids of numbers often happen in parasitic feeding
relationships
4. Carbon cycle

Carbon entering the Biotic system

CO2 from the atmosphere is absorbed by plants, reduced to form glucose
during photosynthesis
Glucose is also converted to other carbon compounds (e.g. starch)
When consumers eat plants, carbon is transferred up the food chain
Allowing energy to passed from one organism to another in the form of
carbon compounds
Carbon re-entering the Abiotic system
 CO2 is released into atmosphere during aerobic respiration by producers,
consumers and decomposers
This maintains CO2 concentration in the atmosphere, so there is a constant
supply of CO2 for photosynthesis
Fossil fuels come from dead organic matter buried over long periods of time.
When burnt for energy (combustion), it releases CO2 into the atmosphere

Carbon Sink: An area which stores carbon as carbon compounds indefinitely, and
releases less carbon than it takes in.
Forests
Trees take in CO2 through photosynthesis and convert it into carbon
compounds such as cellulose which they use for growth and repair
Trees can be buried and become fossil fuels after they die
Oceans
Carbon is used to make shells of shellfish such as clams, and the
exoskeletons of corals, which stores carbon even after the organism has
died
Phytoplankton take in CO2 from the air during photosynthesis, and
transfer their carbon to other organisms in the ocean when eaten
As CO2 is soluble in water, it dissolves into the ocean
Dead organisms may be buried at the seabed and become fossil fuels
[Memory shortcut]
How oceans act as carbon sinks (SPDF "Singapore Police Defence Force")
Shells (shellfish, corals)
Photosynthesis
Dissolve
Fossil fuels

5. Impact of Man on the Ecosystem

Pollution: The addition of substances to the environment that damage it, making it
unfit for life.
Bioaccumulation: The process where certain substances are not excreted, and
accumulate in the bodies of organisms over time.
Toxic chemicals are taken up by organisms in contaminated water/when they eat
food or prey containing these chemicals.
Some toxic chemicals cannot be excreted, so they accumulate in organisms'
bodies, bioaccumulation has occurred.
These substances are usually non-biodegradable
Biodegradable = capable of being decomposed by bacteria or other living
organisms
Bioamplification/Biomagnification: The process where a substance increases in
concentration higher up the food chain.
Consumers in each trophic level have to consume many organisms of the lower
trophic level (due to inefficient energy transfer).
Hence they ingest the toxic chemicals present in multiple organisms, and toxic
chemicals accumulate in high concentrations within consumers.
Bioamplification/biomagnification has occurred.
The top consumer is most affected by the toxic chemicals as they are present in
the highest concentrations, and could die if present in lethal concentrations.
Deforestation
Soil erosion
Tree roots hold soil together, and the forest canopy protects topsoil from
force of rain
With less trees, soil is more likely to be washed away
Flooding
Eroded soil may be deposited in rivers, blocking the flow of water
Water level rises and floods surrounding areas
Desertification
After topsoil is eroded, barren land cannot support plant life
Loss of biodiversity
Organisms lose their habitats and may become extinct
 With fewer trees to absorb CO2 via photosynthesis, more CO2 would remain
in the atmosphere
Cutting of trees also releases CO2 when the remains are decomposed
Since CO2 is a greenhouse gas, more of it in the atmosphere increases
global warming
Uncontrolled fishing
Catching too much fish leads to decline of their populations
Eventually, certain species of fish may go extinct
Eutrophication: The process where a body of water receives excessive nutrients,
leading to excessive growth of algae and floating water plants.
Untreated sewage is dumped/fertilisers are washed by rain into a body of water
Nutrients (Nitrates and phosphates) in the untreated sewage/fertilisers allow
algae/floating water plants to grow rapidly across the water surface (algae
bloom)
They block sunlight from reaching below, submerged plants have insufficient
light for photosynthesis and die
Other animals also die due to the lack of dissolved oxygen.
Aerobic bacteria decomposes the dead organic matter, further decreasing
dissolved oxygen.
Hence, many organisms in the river die due to the lack of dissolved oxygen in
area.
[Memory shortcut]
Eutrophication process [NASA]
N: Nutrients (Nitrates and Phosphates)
A: Algae bloom
S: Submerged plants
A: Aerobic bacteria
Sewage treatment
Separation
First, large materials are separated from sewage with screening bars.
In the primary settlement tank, solids from sewage settle to the bottom and
are separated from liquids. Solids are called primary sludge.
Liquids
Liquid from primary settlement tank flows into an aeration tank, where air is
pumped in.
The air provides oxygen for aerobic bacteria to break down organic pollutants
like urea, and nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates.
*Pro Tip: Fungi can also be involved here.
Cleaned liquid is moved to the final settlement tank, where microbes settle at
the bottom as activated sludge.
Some activated sludge is returned to the aeration tank to reuse the
microbes.
The cleaned water at the top, called effluent, is then discharged into water
bodies and will not cause eutrophication.
Effluent can be further treated chemically to turn it into drinkable water.
Solids
 Meanwhile, sludge at the bottom of the primary settlement tank is moved into
an anaerobic digester.
Anaerobic bacteria breakdown organic matter into biogas (mostly methane)
which can be used as fuel.
The remaining sludge is used as fertiliser or incinerated.

Environmental Biotechnology: The use of biological processes to solve

environmental problems.
Eg. the use of microorganisms in sewage treatment
Eg. using bacteria to clean up oil spills
6. Conservation
Reasons for conservation
To preserve biodiversity (the range of species found in an ecosystem)
Extinction of one species could affect the balance of the ecosystem
Ecosystems have scientific value, as useful information can be obtained
through scientific research of diverse organisms
We rely on wild plants for certain medicines
For obtaining food and raw materials sustainably (eg. fish, timber)
Our crops rely on natural pollinators to reproduce
Conserving biodiversity maintains a large gene pool, allowing us to improve
crops and livestock by cross-breeding different varieties of wild plants with
favourable traits
Preserve natural scenery, which also brings economic benefits through tourism
Means of conservation
Conserving fisheries
Ban fishing of endangered species
Raise endangered species in hatcheries, then release them into fishing
grounds to increase their population size
Limit the periods of time when fishing can be done to allow fish to
repopulate
Ban drift nets/dredges as they trap all kinds of marine life indiscriminately
Regulate size of fishing ships to limit how much they can catch
 Use nets of larger mesh size so young fish are not caught
Conserving forests
Cut trees selectively at a controlled rate
Do not cut down young trees
Plant seedlings to replace trees cut down
Set up protected forest reserves
18. Ecology CAQs
Important Definitions
Q: Define the term producer.
Organisms that take up the first trophic level, and make their own food from
inorganic materials.
Q: Define the term consumer.
Organisms that obtain food by feeding on other organisms.
Q: Define the term trophic level.
The feeding position that an organism occupies in a food chain.
Q: Define the term carbon sink.
An area which stores carbon as carbon compounds indefinitely, and releases
less carbon than it takes in.
Q: Define the term bioaccumulation.
The process where certain substances are not excreted, and accumulate in the
bodies of organisms over time.
Q: Define the term bioamplification/biomagnification.
The process where a substance increases in concentration higher up the food
chain.

Energy Loss
Q: The diagram shows how energy from food is used by a gazelle.
What percentage of this energy is available to consumers and decomposers?
A) 14%
B) 46%
C) 60%
D) 70%
(C)
Consumers: Gain energy from edible parts of the gazelle (e.g. 10 units).
Decomposers: Gain energy from uneaten parts (4 units) + 46 units from urine
and faeces.
Total = 10 + 4 + 46 = 60 units = 60%.
*Pro Tip: Regardless the amount of edible/uneaten parts, the total energy for
consumers + decomposers from the gazelle's body will always be 14 units.
Identifying Trophic Levels in Food Webs
Q: Which row states the number of secondary and tertiary consumers present?
number of number of tertiary
secondary consumers
consumers
A 4 3
B 3 2
C 3 7
D 4 2

(D)
Producer (grass) → primary consumer → secondary consumer → tertiary
consumer
Secondary consumers (4): scorpion, leopard, tick, hawk
Tertiary consumers (2): baboon, tick eating bird
*Pro Tip: An organism can be in more than 1 trophic level at the same time,
depending on the food web.
Carbon Sinks
Q: Which event would directly increase the area of carbon sinks in an ecosystem?
A) Burning more fossil fuels
B) Draining lakes and marshes
C) Humans eating more meat
D) Replanting forests
(D)
A: Fossil fuels act as carbon sinks, burning them would deplete this carbon
sink.
B: Lakes and marshes are carbon sinks (dissolved CO2 in the water +
photosynthesis), draining them decreases these carbon sinks.
C: To produce more meat, more forests need to be cleared for rearing cattle,
decreasing carbon sink area.
D: Forests are carbon sinks, replanting them directly increases area of carbon
sinks.
Sewage Treatment Process
Q: The processes listed are some of those used in the treatment of sewage.
1 separating solid and liquid parts into separate tanks
2 removing urea from liquid sewage
3 converting solid waste to soluble waste and methane
Which of the listed processes involve microorganisms?
A) 1, 2 and 3
B) 1 and 2 only
C) 2 and 3 only
D) 3 only
(C)
1: Separating liquids and solids relies on density, allowing solids to sink to the
bottom of the primary settlement tank, no microorganisms needed.
2: Remove urea from liquid sewage (in aeration tank) involves aerobic bacteria.
3: Converting solid waste to soluble waste and methane (in anaerobic digester)
involves anaerobic bacteria.
Disturbances in A Food Web

Q: Explain the impact on hawks if foxes were suddenly removed from the food web.
[2]
When foxes are suddenly removed, there is one less predator/consumer of
mice, so mice populations increase.
In turn, there is more food available hawks, causing their population to increase.

Non-cyclic Energy Flow

Q: State the ways energy is lost between trophic levels. [3]
Energy is lost as heat to the surroundings due to cellular respiration.
Chemical energy is also trapped within carbon compounds in undigested
food waste that is egested, and in excreted substances such as urine.
When an organism dies, chemical energy is also trapped in the uneaten parts,
such as its bones.

Short Length of Food Chains

Q: Explain why are food chains usually not very long. [3]
As 90% of energy is lost between each trophic level, less and less energy is
available for each increasing level of consumer.
The higher the trophic level gets, the fewer the number of organisms it can
sustain.
In very long food chains, there would be too few organisms to transfer sufficient
energy to the top consumer for it to be to sustainable.
 Related Questions:
Q: Explain why there are usually very few predators of tertiary consumers.
[3]

Carbon Cycle
Q: Describe the importance of respiration and photosynthesis in the carbon cycle. [2]
Aerobic respiration involves breaking down carbon compounds such as
glucose, releasing carbon dioxide to the atmosphere so it can be re-used for
photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis involves converting carbon dioxide in the atmosphere into
carbon compounds such as glucose, which can be transferred to other
consumers which eat these producers in food chains.
Q: Describe the role of bacteria and fungi in the carbon cycle. [2]
They are decomposers which break down organic matter such as faeces and
dead organisms, releasing carbon trapped in the carbon compounds to the
atmosphere as carbon dioxide,
so it can be re-used for photosynthesis, making carbon available for other
organisms in the food chain once again.

Carbon sinks
Q: Explain how the ocean acts as a carbon sink. [5]
How oceans act as carbon sinks (SPDF "Singapore Police Defence Force")
S: Shells (shellfish, corals)
P: Photosynthesis
D: Dissolve
F: Fossil fuels
The ocean is a carbon sink as it stores carbon as carbon compounds
indefinitely, and releases less carbon than it takes in.
Organisms like clams store carbon in their Shells, which remain for long periods
of time after they have died/Corals store carbon in their exoskeletons, which
remain long after they die.
Phytoplankton remove carbon dioxide from the air via Photosynthesis, and
transfer the carbon to other organisms when they are eaten.
 Dead organisms may be buried at the seabed and become Fossil fuels, storing
carbon for long periods of time.

Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification

DDT, dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane, is a pesticide which is no longer in use today
due to it being a health hazard to organisms. It is known to accumulate in the tissues
of organisms.
Food chain: Caterpillars --> Sparrows --> Eagles
Q: Explain why eagles had highest concentration of DDT in their bodies when DDT
was sprayed on caterpillars. [4]
When DDT is sprayed on caterpillars, sparrows which eat them ingest DDT into
their bodies.
However, sparrows cannot excrete it, so DDT accumulates in their bodies,
bioaccumulation has occurred.
As each sparrow feeds on many caterpillars, large amounts of DDT enter and
accumulate in their bodies, biomagnification/bioamplification has occurred.
Similarly, each eagle eats many sparrows, so eagles end up with the highest
concentrations of DDT in their bodies.
*Pro Tip: If question asks, the reason for top consumer dying is because they get
poisoned by the high concentration of the harmful chemical within their bodies.
Related Questions:
Q: Discuss the importance of controlling the use of pesticides.

Eutrophication
Q: Explain how discharging sewage into a river could lead to the death of organisms in
the river. [4]
Eutrophication process [NASA]
N: Nutrients (Nitrates and Phosphates)
A: Algae bloom
S: Submerged plants
 Sewage contains a lot of nutrients in the form of nitrates and phosphates.
Algae feed on these nutrients and multiply quickly, covering the surface of the
river. Eutrophication has occurred.
This blocks sunlight from reaching the submerged plants in the river, which
cannot photosynthesise to make food and release oxygen into the water, and
they die. Other animals die due to the lack of dissolved oxygen.
Aerobic bacteria decomposes the dead organic matter, further decreasing the
amount of dissolved oxygen. Hence, many organisms in the river die due to the
lack of dissolved oxygen in area.
Related Questions:
Q: Discuss the importance of proper treatment of sewage before discharge.

Environmental Biotechnology
Q: Explain how the treatment of sewage makes use of environmental biotechnology.
[2]
It uses aerobic and anaerobic bacteria to break down organic pollutants and
remove nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates.
before discharging sewage, hence preventing water pollution and
eutrophication.

Conservation
Q: Discuss the importance of conserving species to maintain biodiversity. [3]
Choose 3:
As the extinction of one species could disrupt the ecosystem, they need to be
conserved to maintain balance of the ecosystem
Ecosystems have scientific value, as useful information can be obtained
through scientific research of diverse organisms
We rely on wild plants for certain medicines
For obtaining food and raw materials sustainably, such as fish and timber
Our crops rely on natural pollinators to reproduce
Conserving biodiversity maintains a large gene pool, allowing us to improve
crops and livestock by cross-breeding different varieties of wild plants with
favourable traits
Preserving natural scenery also brings economic benefits through tourism