CHAPTER 3 CULTURE: Its Unity and Diversity Among the Jews, aKiddushin marriage ceremony requires husband and wife to have an exclusive relationship and to be sanctified to each other under the law of Moses, Traditionally, parents relied on the services of a matchmaker to select a proper spouse for their child. Today, dating is the common practice. Engagement in Jewish law carries legal and social significance. The official Jewish engagement takes place with the signing of Te naim, a mutual agreement between the bride’ and groom k parents to discuss the date and financial arrangements of the marriage. The Te naim creates the legal status of being “engaged” and is often read by a prominent rabbi or close friend. The mothers of the bride and groom breaka China plate to signify the completion of the engagement agreement. On the morning before the wedding, the groom is usually called to read the Torah (Scriptures) in the synagogues; this serves to announce the forthcoming marriage. The couple abstains from seeing each other before the wedding day. On the wedding day, they recite special Prayers as a ‘day of atonement” and fast from dawn until the chupah ceremony is completed. The bride and groom traditionally wear white as asign of purity. The marriage contract is signed and witnessed by close friends or respected teachers. The groom is asked if he is prepared to fulfill the obligations in the contract. Singing and dancing precede the marriage ceremony, Theceremony isa combination of symbolism, traditions, and religious Binding acts. The central physical symbol is thechupah, the marriage SPY Supported by four poles. The chupah represents the home that wt voo 50 GENERALSOCIOLOGY will create’ e7, with the Divine Presence to bless them, founder ee by their parents, with the groom preceding the bride. Nine blessings are recited. Two witnesses are called to examine the wedding bond. The groom places thering on the bride's index finger. They are then declared married. The new couple is secluded for awhile: Then, they: break the fast, entering the banquet room where they are greeted by joyous dancing and singing: Arecep- tion follows. The bridal ‘celebrations continue for the entire week. Then, the couple settles down to normal life Ma. Patricia P. Stock, 2001 Do you detect similarities or differences with our marriage customs and traditions from the above? Why do Jews behave this way? ‘As we go from place to place, we note differences in people's beliefs with regard to dressing, food and cooking, love and courtship, marriage practices, ways of worshipping God, earning a living, leisure time activities, ete. The Chinese, Japanese, Indians, Arabs, Americans, Russians — people in general — are brought up. differently; thus, they acquire different ways of behaving. The behavior patterns peculiar to agroup of people comprise what sociologists and other social scientists call culture. THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE ‘We often hear the expression, “That lady ishighly cultured.” Why’ Is it because she speaks English, Spanish, or French; appreciates moc- ern art; listens to classical music by Beethoven, Mozart, and Bach ¢ the compositions of Buencamino, Santiago, and Kasilag; watches 0} eras, concerts, and plays; visits museums; reads classic novels and bestsellers? The popular view of culture is that of a state of r ment, of being well-versed in the arts, philosophy, and languages. T° social scientists, however, this is a limited view of culture: to them every member of a society is cultured. ; “Culture” can also refer to expressive cul ich i a ture, which includes ee = ee arts, such as sculptures and face g, and language when ae as an artistic medium. These have aesthetic appeal for those arrange them and to others who appreciate A and enjoy them (Hicks and Gynne 1994:313). There is also the so-called a cul- v includes rock Sociols tent. Culture refe living of any sex tudes, values, a (1996:82) 4 role in the p tures found in tools, and oth: ined and org: artifacts, comy members of th cal, artisti rust follow : our surround selves. Lang ‘explanation: cludes the w 1998: 64) Cultu ways in w! feeling, It guage and and their living, th ‘modes o! everythi ‘one wha’toms ple’s ship, sure ans, they ar to tists les Be for al- Cutture: tts Unity and Diversity 51 ture, Which includes activities, products and. ¢ tet mencrorians eon tines includes rock music, spectator sports, movies, and TV Soap operas, Sociologists and anthropologists define cult text Culture refers othe total and distinctive way aflife or decincins living of any society. It encompasses learned behaviors, beliefs, atti- tudes, values, and ideals characteristic of certain socictics. Weinstein (1996:82) defines culture as a human invention that has a fundamental role in the population's adaptation to its environment. Its essential fea tures found in the people's collective life include norms, values, language, tools, and other material objects, The units of culture or traits are com- ‘bined and organized in a number of ways to create large structures like artifacts, complexes, and culture patterns. These are shared by the members of the society and passed on to others through socialization. Culture is the sum total of human creations- intellectual, techni- cal, artistic, physical, and moral. It guides social life, the things generation must follow and to which they may eventually add. Culture interprets ‘our surroundings, gives them meaning, and allows us to express our- selves, Language, religion, science, art, notions of right and wrong, and explanations of the meaning of life are all part of culture. It also in- cludes the various materials and objects that people learn to use (Stark 1998: 64), Culture is a people’s social heritage; it refers to the customary ways in which groups organize their ways of behaving, thinking, and feeling. It is transmitted from one generation to another through lan- guage and the arts. It presents people with ways of relating to others and their surroundings. Culture represents the designs or recipes for living, the interrelated network of norms and roles. It encompasses modes of thinking, acting, and feeling found in a society and includes everything an individual has acquired as a member of a society It tells one what to do, what not to do, and how to do things Culture is the aspect of our existence which is familiar to some People but different to others, It is the way of life common to & group 0f people which enables them to share ideas and patterns of behavior distinguishes them from others. Hence, they are able to bee ive harmony. Culture varies from one society t0 another. It is y a ‘us Filipinos different from the Chinese, Vietnamese, Spanish, Ttie culture that identifies us as Filipinos. ——52 GENERALSOCIOLOGY SOCIETY AND (CULTURE efine society as a group of peaple occupying. a yo, with a common culture, and interacting With cach other. The members are united by social relationships, share a com, language and beliefs, and consume similar goods. The society has s,, cial boundaries that set off members fromall other persons and prouy, However, some sociologists do not emphasize the geographical ter, tory. In this age of increasingcommunication, migration, and glabalizatic, people may share a common culture even if they are geographical\, dispersed. For example, Filipino migrants all over the globe continue 1, share common ways of doing things with their mother society. Functionalists consider society a social system which has a set of components related to one another in a more or less stable fa: through a period of time. Functionalists view the family, rel: economy, education, and the state as the major soc jal institutions. For society to work efficiently, there must be balance or equilibrium amon the various social institutions. Change in any of the social institution will affect other parts of society. On the other hand, conflict theorists analyze socicty base conflict and power. While they also pay attention to social insti and their structural relations, they focus on conflict and. power society and the process of change which disorganizes and brings ins'2 bility, if not chaos. According to conflict theorists, wealth, power.» prestige are scanty and dominated by the elite and the rich. The poor lower class are exploited by the dominant clite, resulting in con{lic! ' scarce resources. When the lower class feels their inferior statu become aware that they are exploited, they rise against the upper Sociologists d graphical territory, Certain arrangements are possible in the face of conflicting "\« ests. One arrangement is for the group which enjoys sufficient > to sags enforce a and shape institutional life to serve its \" ests, government has this position to promulgate rules for benefits. Another arrangement is for Pe ant ces groups to cooperate and compromise with each other and form ances against outsiders (Zanden 1993: 56-57) According to Zanden, the functionalist and the conflict the" approaches complement each other. Functionalism’s shortcoming difficulty in expia conflict theor tegration, an conflict sche conflict are LANGUAGE A What di session of officer of crossings the ‘L’ language. | erating spe The Esk: fisherfolks Mets and 5 Many kind enced by c not ail lan; just a fewReo, Cac}, Mon 8 So. Ups, erri. tion, ally Ie to tof ion on, For ong ons on ons hin ta nd or for nd 58. ete ad vn est li- ts Culture: Its Unity and Diversity §3 difficulty in explaining. history and social conflict theorists have difficulty Soyenee = tegration, and stability. While some proponents ofthe functionct any conflict schools have difficulty reconciling their differences.a many of sociologists support the view that functionalists and conflict te are simply studying two aspects of the Same reality as consen: aa conflict are paramount features of social life. aris LANGUAGE AND CULTURE i ‘What distinguishes human beings from lower animals is the pos- session of culture. While animals like dogs and chimpanzees can learn tricks or imitate Certain activities, they cannot transmit what they have leamed to their young and so they cannot accumulate things that have been learned. Symbolic language is responsible for the existence and development of culture. Language refers to the systematized usage of speech and hearing to convey, communicate, or express feelings and ideas (Eshelman and Cashion 1983:93). Itis made up of a set of verbal and written symbols used within a certain culture. A symbol is anything that stands or represents something else and is not immediately present to our senses. Meanings are conferred on them. The existence of cul- ture is made possible by the use of symbols as these enable people to share ideas, Symbols may be colors, emblems, gestures, designs, marks, or words. The word ‘chair’ connotes something to sit on or a presiding officer of a committee. The cross is a symbol for Christians or street crossings. After the assassination of Ninoy Aquino on August 21, 1983, the ‘L’ sign was used during mass actions or rallies to designate ‘Laban’ meaning ‘fight’ and yellow flags symbolize support for Cory Aquino, widow of the assassinated senator. Culture is inculcated orally and by writing through the medium of language, Language is an abstraction and is made up of rules for gen- erating speech. Social and cultural factors influence its vocabulary . The Eskimos have different words for different types of snow; i f fisherfolks i ilippines have different words for various types 0 nae danao have different words for hets and bancas; the Samals of Min Many kinds of fish. Research shows that vocabulary may be influ- i . For instance, ree ronmental, and physiological factors. leaned ie same number of words for color; some have a leven or twelve. The "just a few words while others have as many as elNEE increasing number of words fora certain item or object is attrib, a increasing economic and technological complexity of a Scie foward and Hattis 1992:339). Moreover, language helps detery,. our cultural practices and how we organize our perception of the ay Ned Language is an integral part of culture, and human culture canno, exist without it. All societies have languages. Even in simple sociciie where people cannot read or write, they have a spoken languay. Through language, wide vistas of reality have been opened. Our obse; vations, norms, values, and ideas exist because we have learned i identify or experience these through language (Perucci and Knudse; 1984:64-65), and share and transmit these from one generation to ay other through the process of socialization. Language enables people to transcend time and space. Through language, we recall what happened in the past and discuss what are possibly forthcoming. Language enables us to communicate with oth ers, design complex plans and projects, and develop abstract idea (Lindesmith and Strauss 1968:27-29). ‘As Emy Pascasio (1981:80) says, Language is an excellent medium in which to study the value system of any people because it reveals choices, directions of interest, and differences among age, sex, and occupational groups. Language acts as a cultural marker, a gauge of social role, indicating at the same time the dominant social institutions involved in the situation. Since the people in asociety play multiple roles within various institutional frameworks, language events extracted from life situations disclose a wide range of values. ‘There are over seventy languages and dialects in the Philippines Because of the multiplicity of languages and dialects, the Americar educators introduced English as the medium of instruction when the) established the public school system. Likewise, English was used \ introduce democracy and other aspects of the American culture. Dut ing the Commonwealth Period, Pres, Quezon advocated a national language based on Tagalog, but this was strongly opposed by the othe! ethnic linguistic groups, especially the Cebuanos who constitute largest language speaking group. Filipino is used in everyday soc! interactions as well as in the marketplace. _ In 1974, th develop compe! be gradually ir was implement social sciences the training of The 198 Philippines w other existing nication and | Filipino and, jnereasing pe glish is deter of the teach global langu professional speaking grc THE CHAR Cultus all times. A Z.€ edge whic! ‘one’s life a havior pat language dency sot from the fi Suggestion The acqui forced thr ‘one finds: 2. learning, edge to t dogs and their knoaw een Ee Culture: Hts Unity and Diversity 55 social sciences. However, the the training of teachers 2,0 Problem of implementation depended on and the preparation of materials. The 1986 nee peeeonaon Provided for a national language of the Philippine: ich would be dev. ch ‘eloped and enriched on the basi on a pane Mele: ne and other languages, For mae oe. ue on and instruction the Official languages of the Philippines are Filipino and, unless otherwise provided by law, English. There is an Filipino’s competence in the use of En- global language, S0 proficiency in the use of English gives Filipinos professional workers an advantage over other Asian and non-English speaking groups. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE : Culture has qualities which are the same everywhere and through all times. Among the universal characteristics of culture are: 1. Culture is learned, The norms, skills, values, and know!- edge which constitute one’s culture are acquired during the course of one’s life and not transmitted genetically. While animals also learn be- havior patterns, the advantage of humans over them is the use of language or symbols. Humans also have the longest period of depen- dency so there is a great dependence on learning, Culture is derived from the family and other social groups through conditioning, imitation, Suggestion, informal and formal instruction, and mass communication. The acquisition of culture follows certain principles of learning, rein- forced through a system of reward and punishment. For this reason, One finds certain uniformities in all cultures. 2. Culture is transmitted. While all animals are capable of learning, only humans can transmit their acquired habits and know!- €dge to their offspring. Apes can be taught to operate machines, or dogs and seals can learn certain tricks, but they will not be able to pass their knowledge on to their offspring. Humans are able to convey their56 GENERALSOCIOLOGY ideas to the next generation, which may add to the accumulated behay. patterns and knowledge. Culture is transmitted by conditioning dhilren to acquire attitudes essential in social life and training them tp accordance with expected pattems of behavior. 3. Culture is social, collective, and learned. It is developed ‘through group interaction and results from the accumulation ‘of know). edge and group expectations. Fora behavior pattern, belief, or value to be considered part of culture, it must be shared by groups of individu- als. Ideas, like children should respect their parents or fiestas should be held to honor the patron saint, are part of the culture shared by mem- bers of our society. We share cultural characteristics with segments of our population based on ethnicity, religion, or occupation. The group habits and knowledge are shared by the group members and are kepi relatively uniform by certain social sanctions and pressures. 4, Culture is ideational. Within the culture are group habi: considered as ideal patterns of behavior which the members are cs pected to follow. Humans assign meanings to their environment 2) experiences by symbolizing them, These are internalized by the vidual who perceives and responds to the world in accordance with culture of the group. This is what W.I. Thomas calls the “definition « the situation.” However, in terms of specific expectations and behavior, we find that not all members of a group follow the be pattern which is considered the right, the good, or the moral way $. Culture is gratifying. Culture has provisions to satisfy biological and sociocultural needs of people. It allows for the reaso’ ably efficient and spontaneous interaction in the group for the satisfact..” of these needs. There are some basic needs common to all humank:!' which demand uniformly similar forms of gratification, These are !° referred to as universal culture pattems. e 6, Culture is adaptive. All cultures are always changing °" these changes represent adjustments to the environment. As mention’ earlier, culture plays a fundamental role in the people’s adaptatio" | the environment. Culture adapts to meet specific sets of circumnsta"** such as climate, level of technology, population, and geography. ©" ture enables people to adjust to their physical as well as $s" environment. Culture enables the members of society to develop **"* of coping with t the forces of the with others in o; No cultur different rates. and cultural be ‘exposure of the from their own diffusion. Char tors or external international re 7. Cult culture are c! stressed that o collective. A c: ‘The vari adaptive proc: such that fric tual support because es ety always tr ‘COMPONEN Culture Unified in « Tetwork of Tesponses. \ @tions are de ®) Sanctions w! Auman beha\ 5habits Te ex, nt ang ind. | th the ion of Des of avior y the son- ction kind also ae at Neal alts anti Certaac al ela ci ale ‘of coping with the exigencies of nature, as well as ways of harnessing the forces of their environment. People also learn to relate themselves; with others in order to survive, No culture is static, Cultures are in constant flux, but change at different rates. Change occurs as a result of discoveries, inventions, and cultural borrowing. The acceptance of change depends on the exposure of the members of society to new ideas and ways different from their own and their opportunity to accept ideas and ways through diffusion. Change may be a response to internal or environmental fac- tors or external influences such as trade, migration, missionary activities, international relations, and war. 7. Culture is an integrated whole. The various parts of the culture are closely interrelated and integrated into a whole. Durkheim stressed that culture is the product not of a single individual but of a collective. A collective consciousness exists beyond the individual. The various elements should tend to fit each other for a better adaptive process; this is what Sumner terms a ‘‘strain” of consistency such that friction among various elements are lessened, leading to mu- tual support. However, these elements are not always in perfect harmony because “stresses” and “strains” have unequal rates of change. Soci- ety always tries to work out a balance between them. COMPONENTS OF CULTURE Culture is made up of many elements which are interrelated and unified in order for all its aspects to function effectively, There is a network of social relationships involving a complex series of reciprocal Tesponses. Modes of acting, thinking, and feeling in various social situ- ations are defined by the members of the society who learn and share these, According to Kendall (2000:4), our cultural toolbox has two major ‘aspects: the material and nonmaterial culture. Material culture refers. tothe concrete and tangible objects that humans create, use, and share, Serving as buffers against the various elements in the environment. ial culture consists of knowledge, social norms, beliefs, and Sanctions which are abstract and intangible creations that influence behavior.58 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY & Knowledge The total range of what has been learned or perceived as tru |, knowledge. This body of information 18 accumulated through exper, ence, study, or investigation. However, what Is considered to be thy truth may change, What in the past was thought true may be consig, ered an error today, Scientific discoveries rectify supposed errors o the past and produce new knowledge. People act on the basis of wha; they assume to be true. Culture includes natural, supernatural, technical, and magical knowledge (Richter 1987: 149-50). Natural knowledge refers to the accumulated facts about the natural world, including both the biologics! and physical aspects. Technological knowledge pertains to the know! ‘edge of nature which are use ful in dealing with practical problems like methods of acquiring food, dealing with diseases, means of transports. tion, tools and implements, and weapons of war. Supernatural knowledge refers to perceptions about the actions: cof gods, demons, angels or spir- its, and natural beings like shamans, witches, or prophets who are held to possess supernatural powers. Magical knowledge refers to percep- tions about methods of influencing supernatural events by manipulating certain laws of nature. In simple societies witha traditional way of lite supematural and magical knowledge influence social behavior. In com trast, modern societies rely more onnatural and technological know leds: Social norms In our ordinary everyday activities like eating, talking, dressiné cooking, courtship, child rearing, working, spending leisure time, as‘ ell as in special occasions like weddings, burials, or Christmas, there certain prescriptions or standards of behavior called norms. Norms #* rules or group expectations of how one should behave or act in cert="” situations, They define what behavior is required, acceptable, or @ propriate in particular situations, Conformity brings reward \ ‘nonconformity brings punishment or sanctions. Stark (1998:84) state> that, because of our attachments to other people, we are prompies © conform to their expectations of how we ought to behave. Who! we choose to de is greatly influenced by what our friends want us ‘© do 08 A norm is an idea in the minds of members of a group put" cumstances (H; Towed by some the form of rut tations. Some honesty, truths ticular categor norms for law children. Nor situations. Nc ethics, and le Folkways Folkw convention: bitual way: they are fol (1906:1V) Folkwa which o goblini traditi ing ger no one like en purpo orare The patterns « evolve ir trial and explicit, ‘to gener: sometin _ oF topic culture Fe » eating,Problems jij, of tra: Msporta. al knowledge ngels or spir. who are held Ts to percep. manipulating I way of life, ‘vior. Incon- I knowledge. ig, dressing well as, there are s are et incerta able, of 3?” ard while ga) states 8:8 a . Culture: Its Unity and Diversity 59 cumstances (Homans 1950:123). Any departure from the norm is fol- lowed by some kind of punishment or sanction. Norms are usually in the form of rules, standards, prescriptions, and socially shared expec- tations. Some norms apply to everyone, like those revolving around honesty, truthfulness, or loyalty to country, Other norms apply to par- ticular categories of people who assume certain roles. There are specific norms for lawmakers, doctors, teachers, law enforcers, parents, and children. Norms define the proper ways of behaving for a number of situations. Norms pertain to society’s standards of propriety, morality, ethics, and legality. Folkways Folkways are commonly known as the customs, traditions, and conventions of society. They are the general rules, customary and ha- bitual ways, and pattems of expected behavior within the society where they are followed, without much thought given to the matter. Sumner (1906:[V) says: Folkways are the habits of the individual and customs of the society which arise from efforts to satisfy needs; they are intertwined with goblinism and demonism and primitive notions of luck, and so they win traditional authority. These eventually become regulative for succeed- ing generations and take on the character of @ social force. They arise noone knows whence or how. They grow as if by the play of internal like energy. They can be modified, but only to a limited extent, by the ‘purposeful efforts of humans, [n time they lose power, decline and die, orare transformed. These customary ways are accumulated and become repetitive patterns of expected behavior which tend to be self-perpetuating. Some evolve into the present form out of a slow but continuous process of trial and experimentation. Some are rational, others are not; some are explicit, but most are implicit. They are handed down from generation to generation and gained the widespread support of public opinion. They ‘Sometimes guide people’s sentiments and attitudes toward given issues Or topics. Some folkways change slowly while others change as the Culture changes, _ Folkways include innumerable group expectations like rules of » ating, drinking, dressing, sleeping, dancing, and working, forms of greet-60 GENERALSOCIOLOGY te behavior in institutional settings. ‘There are , served during Christmas, lent, and other specia) ings, rituals, and poli number of folkways ob: occasions. In the Tagalog rural areas, people eat three times a day with merienda (snack) in the afternoon. They eat with their hands, They greet each other with a smile, asking where the person has been or is going. Children say “po” to elders. In courtship, a boy may seek the help of a relative or a friend for an introduction to the girl. He may serenade her (although this practice is now waning) or send love notes directly or through an intermediary. Visiting the girl in the afternoon or early evening is another folkway. SOME FOLKWAYS IN THE PHILIPPINES Mather teaches child to do housework. Sun all degre philosop! Mores Me of the p values v associat Having socicty. individ M societal the cod mores | The Te applies moral z attitud ness di Laws I with g design like fir and m Teinfo: these Smoki ing or: imple Bress | fact thCulture: lis Unity and Diversity 61 Sumner (1906:5-6) sums up folkways as a great mass of usage of all degrees of importance, covering all interests in life, embodying a life philosophy, and forming a character. Mores Mores are special folkways which are important to the welfare of the people and their values. They are based on ethical and moral values which are strongly held and emphasized. They are social norms associated with strong feelings about what is right and what is true. Having strong moral sanctions, they are the “must” and “should” of a society. They are the expected behavior current in a society which individuals follow as they satisfy their needs and desires. Mores are coercive in nature as they are considered important to societal welfare. Observance of mores is compulsary. They embody the codes of ethics and standards of morality in a society. Most of the mores have been enacted into laws. Mores consist, in large, of taboos. The Ten Commandments constitute an important source of mores. It applies to sexual behavior, marriage and family relations, physical and moral aggression against members of the in-group, betrayal of 2 group, attitudes toward authority, religion, or the unfortunates in society, busi- ness deals, and other vital issues which involve group welfare. Laws Laws are formalized norms, enacted by people who are vested with government power and enforced by political and legal authorities designated by the government. Laws are enforced by formal sanctions like fines, imprisonment, or death. Some laws grew out of the folkways and mores. They have the strong support of public opinion and tend to Teinforce folkways and mores. It is hard to enforce the laws when these do not reflect folkways and mores. For example, the ban on Smoking and traffic regulations are not strictly followed. The antismok- ing ordinance passed in Metro Manila in 1991 hasbeen very difficult to implement. It was also difficult to pass a law against smoking in Con- ess because of the strong and powerful tobacco lobby, despite the fact that smoking is hazardous to health.62 GENERAL SOGOLOGY ‘Some laws such as those contained in the Constitution, the Cy, Code. Jaration of Human Rights have strong public sup. verbal adi secu heather band, people re divided in their opinion of wheth, ec some laws are advantageous to them or not. | norms Some laws ae related to innovations which bear little morals. | ae Ory nificance for the people concerned. Examples of these are corpo! h ~ and being la ° Jaws, association laws, and government agency laws, the mean Baty feild c which are variously interpreted in subcultures of the larger society coats ‘The need for increasing formalization of laws become necessary ; be ostracize with the rapid social change and with the migration of people T pal ee sets of folk. fee be ways: mores unsatisfactory. treaso! Values While ‘behavior, v rily.as forces of social change, yet these may be considered short Bere the social norms. Some styles of dresses and decorative items which were good, desi fashionable years ago appear funny or ridiculous today. The same = a an ‘truc of styles of houses, furniture, cars, and gadgets. Fashions or vouuc> te wron are powerful regulators of behavior in urban areas and industrial: Societies. The prestige and status of a person depend on their usc 0! these new styles. Those who do not keep up with fashions or fads x subjected to ridicule or are called “old-fashioned.” Sanctions goals, scle Despite the great influence of culture, not all members of soc!«' follow its norms. This may be duc to ignorance or lack of know|c the tendency to follow the norms of one’s subgroup, or personal sons or principles. To ensure that the norms are followed «! reward and punishment. Rewards are positive sanctions for those d behave properly, while punishments are negative sanctions for tho! leas of th who behave improperly (Popenoe 1977:87). nid. The ‘Sanctions may be formal or informal. Sanetions are £05" and sc sp, televonbe an fives pubic opinith end erg coer ete Jove or friendship. Lavishing children with love by kissino. coddlins :Ik. yerbal admiration may be enough to make them follow what the par- ents would like them to do, Formal sanctions are used for violations of norms in organizations or associations, When a person violates folkways, sanctions may come in the form of ridicule or disapproval, being considered as funny or eccentric, and being labeled as an “odd ball.” Violations of the folkways involve only mild censure compared to violations of the mores. Violators of mores are considered immoral, sinful, vicious, or antisocial. They may be ostracized, subjected to ridicule or mob violence, banished or exiled. Sanctions for violators of laws are fines, imprisonment, or the death penalty. Deviants, such as those who commit murder, rape, arson, or treason are meted out severe sanctions. Values While norms are standards, patterns, rules, and guides of expected behavior, values are abstract concepts of what is important and worth- while. These values are the basis of our judgment, of what we consider good, desirable, and correct, as well as what is considered bad, unde- sirable, and wrong. Frequently, we hear people label those who have done wrong.as having “no sense of values.” This remark is made when aperson’s behavior is considered undesirable. We place a high value on love of God, honesty, cleanliness, and love of country, so when someone’s behavior belies these values, we are appalled. Values are linked with actual events and are often emotionally charged. They are the standards by which persons, individually or in groups, define their goals, select alternatives, and judge others as good or bad. This con- cept of values will be discussed further in another chapter. Beliefs When one hears the word “belief,” what often comes to mind are Superstitious beliefs— but these are just one form of beliefs. Beliefs embody people’s perception of reality and may include the primitive of the universe as well as the scientist’s empirical view of the World. They result from one’s experiences about the physical, biologi- Cal, and social world in which the individual lives. Belicfs, such as Superstitions and those that relate to philosophy, technology, art, and Science, are usually incorporated into the whole vast body of know!-64 GENERALSOCIOLOGY e edge which has been accumulated through time. Some of these idea, have not been scientifically proven but are considered facts by thos, who hold them. For example, the Pinatubo Aetas’ idea that nature spir. its help them in times of danger or punish them when they are bad, or the idea held by barrio folks that one has to ask the help of the Almighty God for a bountiful harvest, are just as regulative as the idea held by modem societies that one must follow the doctor's advice when one is sick or rely on the use of fertilizers, insecticides, and selected seeds for bountiful harvest. Even with advances in science, superstitious beliefs of the older folks prevail. People consider, consult, and depend on their body of beliefs for certain courses of action. There are valuc-orien beliefs that lead to some form of collective behavior which seck to reevaluate the existing social structure and its fundamental values. fechnolog, tary powe MATERIAL CULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY magnetic | Knox, an Through the use of technology, raw materials are converted int consent is objects that can be utilized by society. Aside from the nonmaterial pects of culture, which include language, social norms, values, and be! there are certain material techniques and products used by societie Technology refers to techniques and know-how in processing ' Te people ha private materials to produce food, tools, shelter, clothing, means of transpo = i tion, and weapons. Technology applies the principles of science on’ ment e mechanics to the solution of problems or to accomplish a specific ‘several te The material objects that are produced by technology are called | Ret with « facts. The extent of the use of artifacts depends on society's le cell phon technological development. Simple societies have stone tools, 1 of the soc and pestle, nipa huts, hand-woven clothes, orcarts as their artifacts |" |" faeial ex; agricultural societies, animals and simple machines are used to acco™ ‘plish work. As societies move toward industrialization, more sophisticate tools and machines are used, With post-industrialization, technolos) shifts toward cybernation where machines make decisions and w here robots.can be programmed to monitor assembly lines (Mooney, Knox, and Schacht 2000:367). New technologies have advanced in leaps and bounds since the 1960s. There have been outerspace exploration, automation, advan ‘in medicine, new transportation, and communication facilities With the ‘onset of the twenty-first century, there have been considerable ad: vances in information technology. Information technology re fers toanyology where Knox, ce the Culture: Its Unity and Diversity 65 Material culture of an ethnic minority. (Photo courtesy of Dr. Realidad Rolda) technology that conveys information like photography, telegraphy, ro- fary power printing, telephone, wireless telegraph, motion pictures, magnetic tape recording, radio, television, and the internet (Mooney, Knox, and Schacht 2000:373). Media is the central arena in which consent is won and maintained (Shaughnessy 1999:17). Technology and media have enormous impact on society. Some people have withdrawn from groups or organizations into the more private sphere of home and family. There has been a decline in visiting and socializing with the neighbors, as well as in membership of clubs and organizations, It is said that television provides sufficient entertain- ment so there is no need to go out of the house. In households with Several television sets, the family members do not even need to inter- act with one another anymore. People can also now interact through cell phones or the internet which involves less social presence. Many “of the social cues that guide the interactions between persons, such as facial expressions, vocal intonation, or body gestures, are missing (Sullivan 2001:143-144). Modern technology contributed immensely to the increasing ma- terial culture, such as the use of automation and electronic Communication which have had a tremendous impact on the work- . Ih its various forms, technology has increased the speed by Which aspects of culture are transmitted and shared, The use of new technology, like computers, has lessened the need for supervisors and facilitated contro! of the employees. They make the workers more Accountable by gathering information about their performance. At the ‘Same time, employees are now able to work even in their homes x ,, Knox, and Schacht 2000:373).66 GENERALSOCIOLOGY According to Cortes (2002:2), with computers becoming mor affordable even to underdeveloped: countries, computer networking can connect schools, laboratories, and other sources for scholars or re. searchers, thus making possible the instantaneous sharing of information With increasing research and development activities, learning will be a lifelong process for everyone. Communication technology can mobilize people more easily for popular resistance. This was utilized in calling on people to assemble at the EDSA Shrine on January 20, 2001, after the eleven senators voted against the opening of the second envelope in the impeachment trial of Pres. Estrada. New technologies have changed the concept of society. Travel ‘between communities or countries have considerably eased. It takes « matter of hours instead of days or months to travel between conti- nents. The use of e-mail, text messaging, fax, and video confer have changed the conventional means of communication. The 1 connections between socicties have been strengthened, leading to the development of a global society. However, post-modernism, an emerging worldview, maintains sciencific and technological innovations do not necessarily provide ‘h: “truths.” They were presumed to bring about a better, sa fer, and more humane world, But questions are raised by post-modemists about ‘ validity of the scientific enterprise and the negative consequence: ° the resulting technologies. They point to the outcomes of technology suchas pollution and damage to world ecology, occupational and so! | dislocations, threats to the privacy of the individual, and social and psy chological weakness (Money, Knox, Schacht 2000: 367-369). ‘There are issues raised vis-a-vis the goals and consequences ol the high level of technology. What are its effects on happiness 2"! family life? Does a high level of technology necessarily bring about # healthy and clean environment? Does it ensure the preservation natural resources or employment and security? THE ORGANIZATION OF CULTURE = The elements of culture — symbols, knowledge, norms, valu beliefs — are not accumulated in isolation from one another. Rath" these are org: grate to comp jn the study a and the way Incult. not be broke’ for a particul a product of Materi other. Mate an idea, a se doll, or cro peliefs, or \ cross, and | Cultu in some ki tered, and telation wi culture co revolve ar cation, he: Not degree of demands | fied by Li which are Sponses the exist: and laws educatior tions con Or trainin A cultureefi SETS! (EAR CNS LEERY OF these are organized and patterned so that they fit each other and inte- grate to compose a unifying theme for social behavior. Those interested in the study and analysis of « particular culture can look at its content and the way the parts are related, In culture are small units called culture traits, A culture trait can- not be broken down into smaller units. It is related to a particular need fora particular situation, Each trait, whether material or nonmaterial, is a product of social interaction and conveys some meaning. Material and nonmaterial traits are closely associated with each other. Material traits are concrete or tangible objects associated with an idea, a social norm, or a technique, i-c. the use of'a cup, a nail, bottle, doll, or cross. Nonmaterial traits are abstract and include folkways, beliefs, or values. Examples are shaking hands, making the sign of the cross, and saying “po” to elders, Culture traits do not operate singly but are related to other traits in some kind of a meaningful relationship. They are generally clus- tered, and each trait in the cluster derives meaning only in dynamic relation with other traits. This cluster or combination of traits forms the culture complex. The traits are functionally related to each other and revolve around themes such as family, economy, religion, politics, edu- cation, health, or leisure activities, Not all members of a culture participate in all activities. Their degree of participation varies according to age, sex, occupation, or the demands of the culture. The levels of cultural participation are classi- fied by Linton (1936:272-273) into three, namely: 1) Culture universals, which are the norms, values, beliefs, and conditioned emotional re- sponses common to members of the society. They are necessary for the existence of a given society. Among these are language, norms, and laws that define family relationships, government, economic, and ¢ducational activities, 2) Specialties, which are the behavior expecta- tions confined to certain subgroups. These often require unusual skill Or training and reflect the division of labor and hierarchy of statuses in “culture. These are not shared by the total population. For example, ccupational and work groups require particular skills and attitudes. 3) Alternatives are behavior expectations which permit a certain range of choice in human behavior and specify the tolerable variations in behav- _ 1r. These are shared by some individuals but are not common to all a.68 GENERALSOCIOLOGY members of a society or even to all members of any one group. Ther. isa range of alternatives in activities such as cooking, rearing children, spending one’s leisure time, or worshipping God. Sub-culture As a society becomes more complex and industrialized, there inevitably arise smaller groups which develop distinct norms, valucs, beliefs, special languages, and life-styles. These subgroups may be ‘based on age, social class, occupational, political, educational, or rel gious interests or inclinations, regions, nationality, or ethnicity. The group develops its distinctive set of cultural norms and beliefs which differ significantly from the larger society, While members of a subculture participate in the mainstream society, they tend to associate with one another more personally than with the members of other groups (Stark 1998:39).. In the Philippines, there are subgroups which reflect regional or ethnic differences, such as the Negritos, the Cordillera group, the Mus- lims, Tagalogs, Visayans, Pampangos, and others. Even amo Tagalogs, there are differences among the Batangas, Laguna Quezon Tagalogs as well as those coming from Rizal and Bulscen ‘There are subcultures which remain even in modem society, devel oped around ethnic traditions, occupations or professions, re religious beliefs, or common experiences. Some subcultures may {1 themselves physically distinct from others, as in the case of slum dwe' or squatters in Metro Manila vis-a-vis the residents of exclusive lages like Forbes Park, Dasmarifias, and Ayala Alabang. There is also the youth subculture, Youths develop their own Pp terns of behavior as in cating, conversing, styles of dressing, spo''s and recreation. They evolve a specialized language which disting them from the wider society, so that outsiders like the elders can’ understand what they are taking about. They are susceptible to {a and crazes in entertainment and adornments. While these subculture have distinct cultural specialties unique to them, they still contain t'" dominant values and norms of the broader society, This is what !1** been called a culture within the culture. Subcultures arise from individual needs to obtain assurance and security from others or an inability to cope with the dominant cult F Some subcult feeling of esp subcultures in which denote: and respect fi Some s and oppose t! ues contradi emphasizes « the presence ture.” (Ying: delinquents, ‘behavior is « not shared b outlet that pc contra-cultu these subg considered : The ¢: more comp! ety, tends t such cult ence of the ETHNOCE There group to or her ways Strange, or better than centrismm nd all ott 1906: 13). ( Took on ou as the basis Tight and y to one’s g1 (aeThey dre, there alues, ay be T reli. group differ alture h one Stark nal or Mus- g the , and acan. level- sions, y find ellers e vil- n pat- ports, ishes anno! » fads tures in the at has o and ee ee subcultures oe ee oe symbols or badges which enhance solidarity, a Ratiny ‘Orps, and a sense of belonging. The existence of Ee dene Bachata rise to the concept of multi-culturalism, Detifescect for each cities Subcultures living together with tolerance pee res adhere to standards that come in conflict with and oppose the conventional standards, Many of their norms and contradict th : oe ues cont ‘ose of the dominant culture. When the subculture emphasizes conflict between a group and a larger society, as seen by the presence of an inverse or counterculture, it is labeled “contra-cul- ture. (Yinger 1960:625). Among these are the groups of juvenile delinquents, drug addicts, prostitutes, racketeers, and kidnappers. Their behavior is called deviant. What they do and what they believe in are not shared by majority of the members of the society. It is a creative outlet that poses an alternative to the majority culture. The existence of contra-cultures may open the possibilities for social conflict. As such, these subgroups become a threat to the prevailing social values and are considered a social problem. The existence of subcultures is inevitable as society becomes more complex. Specialization, as a requirement of industrialized soci- ety, tends to increase them. Although society may be pulled apart by such culture differences, there are also unifying factors, like the pres- ence of the government, a common language, and the mass media ETHNOCENTRISM There is a tendency for people who belong to the same cultural group to define reality from their own point of view. One considers his orher ways as right and normal, and those from other groupsas wrong, strange, or queer. The tendency to regard one’s culture as the best and better than those of others is called e¢hnocentrism. Literally, ethno- centrism means a belief that one’s group is at “the center of everything and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it (Sumner 1906:13). Considering their group as superior, the members sometimes look on outsiders with contempt. The group regards its cules one 8s the basis for judging others. There is the attitude that “my “ ee and yours is wrong.” It may take the form of extreme al _ to one’s group and a feeling ‘of superiority of one’s culture an70 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY inferiority of others. This may develop negative derogatory phrases fo, immigrants whose norms, beliefs, and values differ markedly from thei, own, For countless years, this has been the view of many cultural groups The Pharisees of Biblical times considered themselves righteous com. pared to the other Jewish sects; the ancient Greeks looked with contemp: at foreigners; the colonizers from the West considered the societies they colonized in Africa, South America, and Asia as barbaric, primi- tive, or uncivilized; the Americans consider themselves as the most progressive nation in the world, a view also held by the Germans, Japa nese, English, Russians, and Chinese. The Filipinos take pride in calling their country as the “Pearl of the Orient,” “Gateway to the East,” or “the show window of democracy in the Far East.” Even within society, there are subgroups who consider themselve as superior to other groups. The Tagalogs think of themselves as si rior to other groups, a view similarly held by the Muslims, the Pampanco: and others; one’s religion is spoken of as the true religion in con' that of the others; or a school may claim to have the highest ed tional standards. These are all manifestations of ethnocentrism, whic! is produced by training and socialization. Itis encouraged by the schoo's media, the church, and the government. In imbuing the individu: the ideal of loyalty to one’s country, the ideas of national'commitm:'! to one’s group are enhanced. Ethnocentrism serves a society by developing greater feelings group unity and affirmation of loyalty to the ideals of the socict shared sense of oneness especially during times of unrest can help ‘! group to overlook internal differences and conflicts and inst courage one’s appreciation and commitment to one’s cultural # and develop coordinated activities. On the other hand, extreme et! centrism blocks one’s understanding of other cultures and leads intolerance and prejudice. This can cause intergroup conflicts and prob lems; a group that does not like to socialize with other people ™ become isolated and eventually stagnate. Ethnocentrism can also P< vent a person from learning about and understanding other cultures and deny basic oneness. It develops enmity between groups ard ; barrier to unity.Culture: tes Unity and Diversity 71 XENOCENTRISM When ‘ : we call thie overee sac heir own group or some part oftheir culture, Wes that fe Ron innoeentrim oF enocenrism, This the idea are inferior to tha oth and that one’s life-style, products, or ideas somsing or foreign een Eshleman and Cashion 1983:95), Those Xenocentrism is gn lands and the exotic are particularly favored Centered on a product, an idea, or a lifestyle In the Philippines, some people manifest a mania goods and western lifestyles. Some even prefer to live rey a enjoy the climate and lifestyle of the society there. A reason for this phenomenon is our colonial past and the sociocultural imposition of the colonizers. We call this attitude colonial mentality. In the words of Santos-Cuyugan (1961:101-102) The Filipino has not had a chance to pull together the “shreds and patches” of his cultural traditions, He has been too busy keeping wp with the invading Joneses from across the seas. As a result, the Fill in the 1960s have developed “reverse ethnocentrism, ” which somewhat unusual the vast majority of known cultures are ethnocen: trie, The Filipino is more likely to use standards from outside his cul tural system, standards that contravene, even debase his own. The true, good, and beautiful to the Filipino is what looks Greek, S generally Caucasian. Thus, many of the youth are focusing their goals on going abroad after graduation. They believe that it is more exciting to live in foreign lands where they can easily earn more. Doronila (1986:53-80) made a study to determine how successful the public elementary schoo! was in developing a sense of national identity, which is one of the objectives of education in the Philippines. ho sample consisted of 207 Grades I-VI pupils enrolled in an urban public elementary school. While this constituted only one case study ‘and therefore limit generalizations, it is interesting to note 1's findings vis-A-vis national identity. The results showed that the pupils had not developed national consciousness (0 4 significant extent. When asked about the preference for a mother country oF where one would want to J to remain _beacitizen, only 4.83 tof the 207 students preferre ae, i eae por concluded that the orientation of students ic, or72 GENERALSOCIOLOGY ro to national community is one of ‘neutrality with the Philippines co, in third or second best in the students’ knowledge of its histor, culture, in their affective orientation toward thenation asa whoie in their evaluation of the importance of national traditions of the fF, people. The students’ attitudes were unfocused, and there was ganization of attitudes which may be called a Filipino identity a ping NO oy. CULTURE SHOCK The cultural values and norms of behavior are internalized in, socialization process. Consequently, one behaves in accordance om the expectations of their culture. But, what happens when an individys) goes to a different society? He or she loses the familiar signs anj symbols of social intercourse and experiences unpleasant sensations or frustrations. What the individual undergoes is called culture shoo} When people encounter another culture whose patterns of te havior are different from their own, they may get disoriented or disorganized. The situation is brought about by unfamiliarity, lack o understanding, and inability to communicate with the new society, The find themselves smothered and disgusted by the customs and belieis they encounter. When people go to societies which are regarded primitive, they may be shocked by the state of sanitation, the raw fo being eaten, the lack of such comforts as electricity or a soft bed, the premarital relations between the sexes, or the practice of polygamy A conservative Filipino who migrates to the United States m®. experience culture shock in the courtship practices, the open display love and emotions, the liberal ways children interact with theit parents the frankness of conversation, and the practice of allowing agcine par ents to stay in old peoples’ homes. Even people from the provi" who migrate to Metro Manila may experience culture shock wi" city lifestyle, the hustle and bustle in the streets, the lack eT and the food. Culture shock is experienced by Filipino workers wh? to the Middle East where the culture, particularly the religion, “ different from ours. An American who comes to the Philippin* a be repelled by some of the food, such as balut (cooked Cle o bryo) and bagoong; the driving habits; the lack of punctualt Bs foot of euphemisms and circumlocution; and the concept of wang (debt of gratitude). Some pe and ennui ove able to adjust require some ‘CULTURAL | When p serve that its the new ways scoff at the n refuse to cat spirits? Why Jeave their p the realities we consider priate, and r another soci of their cult Cultur Tt is good if the concept ethnocentri differ, so th: itself but ha bad only wi ‘Hunt 1985 cultural tra devise thei traits and ¥ they stand Wher tool for un« Scems inhu studied obj of human b within and People in th —roeanker Culture: ing Unity and Diversity 73 Come the dismay, lonelines: able to adjust and get to tite ee disorganized, Others ane require some effort to understand cote social scientists CULTURAL RELATIVISM When le i ee that lees a another culture and ob- Bey orays as stan ss from heir own, ‘they tend to judge 8, €XOtic, Weird, or immoral, They may laugh or scoff at the new norms and values, We hear people ask: Wh . refuse to eat canned foods’ cae elie fs ? Why do Mangyans worship a hierarchy of spirits? Why do European males kiss in greeting? Why do Americans leave their parents in old people’s homes? These questions bring out the realities of cultural diversity, Cultural practices and values which we consider queer, funny, or immoral may be considered right, appro- priate, and moral in other cultures. The norms, beliefs, and ideas of another socicty must be understood and viewed in terms of the context of their culture. Culture is relative, and no cultural practice is good or bad in itself. It is good if it integrates smoothly with the rest of the culture. This is the concept of cultural relativism which isan alternative perspective to ethnocentrism. The concept of cultural relativism states that cultures differ, so that a cultural trait, act, or jdea has no meaning of function by itself but has meaning only within its cultural setting. A trait is good or bad only with reference to the culture in which it functions (Horton and Hunt 1985:56). There is no single standard to evaluate a particular cultural trait, It should be judged within its cultural context. People devise their own ways of dealing with various cireumstances. Culture traits and values cannot be studied unless the meaning and function they stand for in that society are taken into account, When doing field work, one has to use relativism . ‘ oe i ing another culture. Even if the custo! ns nope own values, the ‘behavior ay eS ‘studied objecti 3 if one shes to develop ascientiic eee ee bata : Cc 1990-34). Because of cultural differ i ee 7 ies, the aole judge of8 culture svalesis 3 ere EBay cracls Deeper insights into cultural dive in the socie . ——————— a i74 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY thnocentrism and can lead to a pregy,, be a deterrent to extreme ¢' . a fuller realization of people common humanity (Chinoy 1967-5 5) Cultural Universals At first glance, we immediately observe the differences in pay tems of behavior, beliefs, values, and ideas among different culture and societies. Yet as we look more closely, we note features and ¢|e. ments common to all culture, called culture universals. These ar, similarities in the general features of society, rather than the part ‘or specific cultural traits. Murdock (1945:1240) listed about 88 of these which include age-grading, sports, body adornment, calendar, clean) ness, community organization, cooking, cooperative labor, cosmology courtship, dancing, decorative art, division of labor, education, ethics, ethno botany, etiquette, faith healing, family forecasting, folklore, foo: taboos, funeral rites, games, gestures, gift-giving, government, - ings, hair styles, hospitality, housing, inheritance rules, joking, kan language, law, luck, superstitions, marriage, mealtimes, medicine esty concerning natural functions, mourning, music, numerals, obs penal sanctions, personal names, personal rights, puberty customs ligious differentiation, surgery, tool making, trade, wearing, and wes control. Other identifiable elements can be added to this list Culture universals are accounted for by people's biologics larities, psychic unity, dependence on group life, individuality and limited possibilities within one’s physical and social environment. \ other factor for the existence of cultural universals is that al! so are confronted with more or less the same problems in sustains *: cial life. For a society to survive, some social provisions mus! provided. Among these are the socialization of new members, pro’ tion and distribution of goods and services, ways of coping Ww! Supematural, assignment of tasks, and accomplishment of work tems of behavior are instituted to meet these problems. DIVERSITY OF CULTURE ‘a Cultural diversity refers to the wide range of differences!" “\ Patterns, ideas, beliefs, knowledge, forms of social organté#"" onic Tesponses to the environment, There is an enormous two societies n pecially when rer. In sone pe subordinati fully, but it ca culturally Factors that 1. Presenc persons and reli ‘ent fron childrer elderly males 3 2. As mer somew groups 3. Cultur ment. | differs as well The c« by looking f Cultu of solutions {in Farson | beings chan available so due to peor testing is d exhibited a1 Huxle which give Within whi able within lifferences between societies and within the society. "|cul- 100; inge Culture: tts Unity and Diversity 75: tremendous when the two societice dy ae ny ensue: This happens es In some cases, a nati Breatly in economic and political ‘pe subordination of one 've population becomes extinct. There can fatly, but it con be a shatter ce bY Another. This may occur peace- culturally . M8 xpericnce both psychologically and Factors that promote cultural diversity: . _ Presence of soci ‘i 1 ee ei (Ses This refers to a collective of Eadicligion Pare social characteristics like age, sex, . They si Pattems of behavior which are differ- ent from the others. For t h . For example, the behavior patti f children differ from that of the adolescents, wae Bae + eo eialdage” differences in behavior expectations of 2, As mentioned earlier in the chay ipter, there also exist groups that somewhat separate from the mainstream society. These sub- groups are called subcultures. 3. Cultures differ in ideas and practical responses to the environ ‘ment, How people harness the natural resources around them differs from group to group, leading to differences in occupation as well as technology. ‘The comparative characteristics of culture are deduced not only by looking for similarities but also for variability, integration, and relativity Cultural variability. Cultures differ because of the great variety Ofsolutions evolved by people from different societies. Aldous Huxley (inFarson 1965:69) points out that the intellectual capabilities of human beings changed over the last twenty oF thirty thousand years. Currently available social science evidences indicate that cultural diversity is not due to people’s inherent Jearning capabilities Although comparative testing is difficult to carry out, members of all human societies have exhibited approximately the same evel of intelligence. __ Huxley’s argument indicates that among the important factors h il to elie! differences are the kind of environment which the society lives, the human and natural resources avail- ® within this environment, the extent and intensity of exposure the - nr rm76. GENERALSOCIOLOGY er society has to other people from which they can borrow ideas their cultural heritage. + ny While biology presents the basic preconditions forall culture eaves room for variations of meeting them. For instance, the s, a crops produced and the technology used in producing these vary Pe tures vary according to what and how people eat, drink, and Provig for shelter. Some people like American Indians and Filipinos relish tes ing seafood; others, like the Navaho and Apache of New Mexico in, Arizona, are repelled by the thought of this. Some are carnivorous, others, herbivorous or vegetarian. Some eat dog meat; others canny imagine doing so, Eating beef is taboo among the Hindus; pork, amon, the Muslims. Sex differences are based on biological differences. How ‘the way a man or a woman is expected to act is prescribed by so Sex roles differ in different societies. There are different pattems behavior for males and females. ‘The division of labor by sexes is universal, but task ass according to the sexes is a matter of cultural definition. Maleness femaleness are institutionalized as statuses and become the core their identities. Mead (1935) contends that the so-called mascu feminine characteristics are not based on fundamental sex cite but reflect cultural conditioning by these societies. Among «0 African societies and polygamous groups, the female status to the male. In the Mexican-American and other Hispanic fa male role is influenced by the macho personality characte: dominance, sexual powers, and physical strength. In matrie eties, men are the baby tenders and housckecpers. In Russia, the 8° perform heavy physical work and are active in prof cine (Ruderman, in Epstein and Goode 1971:51). In the women occupy a high social position in society. However, 4 su empirical studies by Gonzalez and Hollnsteiner (1976) on female roles in the Philippines shows that there are aspects of roles that are unequal when compared to those of the men, cve" husband and wife work outside of the home. ons like ti Diversity is also present in childbearing practices, like (he lent Of time for suckling the infant, the type and degree of affectto" ie @xpreseed. the intraductinn of new food tojlet training, play 2c" and discipline. A stu India, Okinawa, Me group of social sci tween the diverse p (Whiting 1963) Historical ac tributed to Divine | to bring about van society's tendenc necessary and rez ‘Traditional practi tivities, and so on Human ing to form new cor ronment. People Cultural tency of their which people im and do as dents are con: €conomic, pol there are no ot their behavior from another, | Gational instin institutions do Commercial a; tion is also ‘engaged in “li Cultura Telativity of tt ‘ruth, right, p the means of heelowever ’ SOciety tterns of ignment ness and core of line and ferences ymber of inferior lies, the by male pal sOcI- women ¢ medi- ippines» rvey of ale ane yornen * if both Culture: Its Unity and Diversity 77° and discipline. A study of childbearing practices in six cultures (Kenya, India, Okinawa, Mexico, Philippines, and the US) was undertaken by a of social scientists to explore cross-culturally the relation be- tween the diverse patterns ‘of childbearing and differences in personality (Whiting 1963). Historical accidents, which personal and social experiences at- tributed to Divine Providence, luck, chance, and destiny, are also deemed to bring about variations in culture, Cultural variability also arises from society's tendency to preserve cultural practices that were at one time necessary and reasonable but which later became outdated or useless. Traditional practices in community fiestas, mourning rites, religious ac- tivities, and so on are illustrative of this. * Human ingenuity is manifested in the different aptitudes and skills to form new combinations and ideas from the natural and social envi- ronment. People vary in their awareness and observation, interest in, and experimentation with the resources around them. These differ- ‘ences give rise to the diversity of what people will emphasize and create from, affecting to some extent, the rate, form, and direction of cultural change. Cultural integration. Cultures vary significantly in the consis- tency of their patterns of values, belief, and behavior. If the ideals to which people commit themselves are consistent with what they believe inand do as family members, teachers, or professionals, or when stu- dents are consistent with what they believe in and do while engaging in economic, political, and other activities, then their culture is one where there are no outstanding contradictions between people’s beliefs and their behavior. Within a society, one set of beliefs or actions can differ from another, between institutional goals and means. To illustrate, edu- Cational institutions inculeate values such as equality, while political institutions do not. Banks emphasize thrift, frugality, and savings, while Commercial agencies stress buying and consumption. This contradic- tion is also seen in the electorate’s perception that the elected are "ngaged in “lip service” only. Cultural relativity. Differences in culture also arise from the Telativity of the standards that societies uphold and use for evaluating truth, right, propriety, virtue, morality, legality, justice, and beauty and ‘the means of adhering to these. While there have been many attempts78 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY to establish universal, absolute standards of “right” and “wrong,” they have never been fully accepted by all people at the same historic) period, Standards of propriety, morality, legality, aesthetic, rational ity and religious truth have been as varied and changeable as fashion hairstyles, and body ornaments. Standards of behavior must thus be understood within the context of a society's culture. To impose one’, ‘own standards on other societies which have contrasting cultural stan, dards, to assume that one’s own is superior to all others, exemplific; ethnocentrism, To regard one's own as inferior to others, to despis: ‘one's local culture and admire other foreign cultures as superior xenocentrism, SUMMARY All societies have culture, although their cultures may differ Cul ture refers to that complex whole which consists of all knowledye beliefs, arts, laws, morals, customs, and any other capabilities and hab its acquired by an individual as a member of society, Culture 1s that complex social heritage or general design for living within a socity ‘a has been transmitted by human beings interacting with one an Society is a group of people occupying a geographical territory See re a dolaaiiedla one another. Functior emphasi he relationships o' the society’s component paris and th resultant equilibrium. Conflict theorists emphasize the power structur ae ae various social classes, resulting into dis" Culture enables people to adapt to their i ultu their physical environment a0¢ cope with its changes, Culture our behavior. Variou ‘ments 7 comprise culture, namely: knowledge, norms, belicfs, v technol ial thi ogy, and material things. Knowledge is the body of fac learning accumula ‘ includes natural, su = an experience, study, or investigation 2"! are anéards of propriety erage technical information. No of folkways, mores, and | ; ethics, or legality and are made peeked a golcceaene are abstract concepts of wh! what are bad, undesirable, we and correct, as well * nt GProcude's Wersancic ee eeliots are the cmboo” primitive socic ‘objects are the ture. As socic! basis of age, s subgroups dev or small cultu Ethnoce develop amor This imbues | ethnocentrisn group or som inciple of c there is no sin culture. All cult Unity and din ‘comparative : STUDY HEL Concep Culture Society Folkwa Mores Laws Belicts How do the soci¢ Discuss How do the conf ExplainCulture: Its Unity and Diversity 79 "i imitive societies to the empirical findings of the scientists. Material lity objects are the products of technology that reflect the nonmaterial cul- ion’ ture. be _ Associety becomes more complex, subgroups are formed on the rey basis of age, sex, social class, occupation, religion, ar ethnicity. These an, subgroups develop certain cultural specialties and become subcultures fey ‘orsmall cultures within the culture, ” Ethnocentrism or the feeling that one’s culture is the best may if develop among members of a group in the process of socialization. This imbues loyalty and a feeling of solidarity in the group. Reverse ethnocentrism is xenocentrism, which is the rejection of one’s own group or some part of it. The opposite view of ethnocentrism is the __ principle of cultural relativity. The essence of cultural relativity is that there is no single universal standard of behavior to be used to judge any culture. All cultures are similar to as well as different from each other. Unity and diversity of cultures can be studied through the use of the comparative approach. STUDY HELP : 1. Concepts for study: 1c Culture Values rc Society Subcultures [> Folkways Ethnocentrism/Xenocentrism Mores ‘Cultural relativity Laws Culture universals : Beliefs Cultural diversity How does the lay person’s view of culture differ from that of the sociologist’s? Discuss Wilson's theory of culture. How does the functionalists’ view of society differ from that of the conflict theorists’? Explain the relationship between language and culture. enna| The Family The family plays an important role and has special responsibility the socialization ofachild. Itis usually the most influential group in the child’s life. The formative years and the development of the self and personality are undertaken by the family. The family gives care, emotional support, shelter, medical attention, and educational training. The family influences the child in choosing a vocation, career, or pro- fession. Among impoverished families in rural areas, children are sent to work in farms and mines or to help in fishing. In urban areas, chil- dren are made to sell cigarettes, Ieis of sampaguita, or to beg. Some = girls are even forced to be prostitutes. One's specific position in soei= sil116 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY Mea The family is the most influencial group in the child’s life fection, love, and a sense of belonging which are important in the de. velopment of one’s self-identity. In case the mother is working, there are surrogates, like the grandparents, aunts, cousins, siblings, or yaya; in the urban areas, The family plays a unique role in personality devel. opment and is the main link between the child and society. Here, the child gains his or her first experiences in love, affection, kindness, sym- pathy, courtesy, and other traits. The older members generally sei examples to the child, who learns the habits, attitudes, and valucs of the group through some system of reward and punishment. The child ci- ther conforms to the rules or rebels against them. Performance o! socially accepted behavior is rewarded, while socially undesirable ones are punished, m2ee 8BEBS The Child and Youth Welfare Code (1976:14) provides that the parents have the primary right and obligation to provide for the up- bringing of their children and to discipline them as may be necessary for the formation of their 800d character. In the family, children lea™ {0 cooperate, compete, and accommodate. These kinds of interaction may eventually determine their relationship with others. The family is a e cnr ; - ae Pervasive influence on the individual’s behavior, particu’ ly in: leand agricultural societies.