Educational and Psychological

Measurement
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Client-Centered Counseling
C. Gilbert Wrenn
Educational and Psychological Measurement 1946 6: 439
DOI: 10.1177/001316444600600402

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 CLIENT-CENTERED COUNSELING
C. GILBERT IVRENN
University of hlinnesota

THEcontribution made by Rogers in his published state-

ments regarding non-directive counseling has been very con-
siderable. The emphasis has been laid upon what actually
happens t o the client as opposed t o the counselor’s conclusions
concerning him, There is little doubt that this is a needed
emphasis and, although not a new concept, a contribution t o
effective practice. Rogers writes persuasively and it is only
upon carefuI appraisal that one becomes aware of certain incon-
sistencies in his concepts. All prbponents of new ideas or
emphases are liable t o the error of overenthusiasm in their
approach and t o a belief that the new concept or method will
provide a much needed panacea. This enthusiasm coupled with
persuasive writing has made Rogers’ publications particularly
difficult to evaluate (3,4).
One assumption that .seems t o be in error is that client-
centered counseling and non-directive counseling are synony-
mous. Clienticentered counseling has been used in varying
degrees of emphasis by counselors for generations. Rogers has
carried this concept t o its ultimate extreme and has termed it
CC
non-directive.” He has systematized the approach a t this
ultimate level and has provided an excellent discussion of pro-
cedures t o be used and cautions t o be observed. He believes
that directive counseling is guilty of grave error in the extent
t o which the counselor assumes responsibility for the conclu-
sions reached. For when the student’s mental processes are not
the focus-of attention, two errors are apt to be in evidence: (1)
there is lack of awareness of the extent t o which the diagnosis
and conclusions of the counselor are accepted and (2) there is
a glossing over of repressed but possibly more fundamental
difficulties in the emotional and rational life of the client.
Rogers’ treatment, however, has been almost a Philippic
against what he terms “directive counseling.” I n charging
directive counseling with neglect of the cIient and in proposing
439

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440 EDUCATIONAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASURElllENT

the advantages of non-directive counseling, he has presented

counseling as falling into a dichotomy: one category, the direc-
tive, possessing a complete absence of client-centeredness; the
other, the non-directive, having a completely client-centered
approach.
It has seemed useful t o investigate the possibility that
client-centeredness in counseling falls along a continuum of
emphasis. It is true that certain counselors may invariably
use an extreme of client-centeredness or counselor-centeredness
while other counselors may do so only under certain conditions.
A great deal of counseling, however, falls a t other points than
at the extremes of the continuum suggested. The question
arises as to the criteria that might be established t o determine
the extent of client-centeredness t o be used in a given situation.
Whatever criteria could be suggested are subject t o misuse if
adopted literally. On the other hand, without such criteria
the counselor fumbIes in his attempts earIy in the interview t o
adopt the best counseling procedures for a given situation. Two
possible sets of criteria might be suggested:
A. Criteria revolving around the nature of each client, and
varying from one counseling situation t o another.
1. The hypothesis regarding the client need, or t o use a
term recently coined by Bordin (2), the “diagnostic
construct,” which is set up early in the counseling
process. Such a construct as “self-conflict” or
66choice-anxiety” clearly calls for a high degree of

non-directiveness while other needs might require an

information emphasis.
2. The degree of emotional tension in the client.
3. The apparent maturity of the client, his ability t o
face and accept objective’data regarding himself.
4. The apparent urgency of the problem. A problem
which is so urgent that only one interview can be
held before a decision is reached by the client may
demand a high degree of counselor participation.
5. The extent t o which specific information is requested.
This information may be related closely or not a t all
t o the basic problem of the individual but the need
for information must be met.

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 CLIENT-CENTERED COUNSELING 441
6. T h e apparent degree of dependency of the client.
This is included as one of Bordin’s “constructs” but
dependency may also be a factor in what is an even
more basic personality need. An attitude of depen-
dency in a client certainly calls for great carefulness
in counselor participation.
B. Criteria residing in the counselor an8 the counseling
situation :
1. T h e philosophy, training, and versatility of the coun-
selor may determine the extent t o which client-
centeredness is used. It is foolish to assume that any
man can change his habits quickly or that some men
can ever change their long established procedures
under even favorable circumstances. Regardless of
the logic involved, the versatility of the counselor in
the use of counseling procedures depends upon his
previous experience, his flexibility of mind, and other
personal factors. This reality must be recognized.
2. T h e time allotment for counseling and the case load
are factors in the situation which may be impossible
t o change. It is t o be assumed that the extreme in
client-centered counseling, the non-directive, is more
time-consuming than the completely directive, and
that the time allotment may determine the number
of cases with which non-directive approaches can be
utilized.
3. T h e amount of test data and pre-counseling informa-
tion available should be utilized. Counselors may
find themselves in a situation where it is expected
that test information previously secured will be util-
ized and that information will be shared with the
student. Bixler ( 1 ) has recently indicated proce-
dures whereby the non-directive counselor can utilize
test information although this is a move toward the
directive approach in Rogers’ own terms (5).
4. The nature of referral of the client to the counselor
is a predetermining factor in a given counseling situ-
ation. It is assumed by Rogers that if the client
does not wish t o come and if there is no felt need,

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442 EDUCATIONAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL hlEASUREMENT

the non-directive approach cannot be utilized. On

the other hand, when a client is referred by a col-
league or administrator the referral is made with the
expectation t h a t counseling will take place. Under
these conditions the counselor must use his best judg-
ment to secure rapport with the client and to move
constructively toward a solution. Skillful stimula-
tion of the client by the couriselor may be necessary
and may even result in a highly non-directive situ-
ation after a time, but the counselor who does not
take active steps regardless of the nature of the re-
ferral will soon find himself justly accused of ineffec-
tiveness. T h e reputation of being a “prima donna’’
is hard t o live down.
5. T h e understanding possessed by both the client and
the administrator of the function of the counselor.
If the position and reputation of the counselor in the
situation is such that a decision by him is anticipated,
it will be difficult t o use any extreme of non-directive-
ness. Administrative decisions and counseling should
not be confused in the same person but they fre-
quently are. Rather than “throw in the sponge”
regarding effective counseling, as a non-directive
purist might do, such a counselor must meet a
situation and use client-centered approaches to the
degree that he finds possible for each client.
These criteria are suigested in the hope of encouraging each
thoughtful reader t o establish his own criteria. Most of us have
counseled for years without any logical basis for determining the
kind of treatment used in a given counseling situation or for
considering the variety of possibilities open to us. Frequently
the right thing is done by what might be called intuition but
the right thing will be done more frequently if thought is given
t o an adequate basis for determining the treatment t o be fol-
lowed. Thoughtful consideration of such criteria as these will
not necessarily result in mechanical processes which are detri-
mental t o effective client-counselor relationships. T h e same is
true of a consideration of possible hypotheses regarding basic
problems which underlie a student’s surface indication of need.

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 CLIENT-CENTERED COUNSELING 443
T h e usefulness of these lies in greater clarity of thought during
the interview rather than in a logical or mechanical selection
of hypothesis or procedure during the first contact.
Rogers’ analysis of the extreme client-centered approach has
been helpful t o the counseling profession, provided it is seen in
perspective. For a decade or two professional counselors have
made strenuous attempts to discard paternalism and advice-
giving in counseling. W e have made great strides toward a
careful intellectual approach t o the understanding of the indi-
vidual and a diagnosis of both his surface and basic needs. T h e
clinical use of tests and of other objective information has
advanced counseling far above the level of paternalism. T h e
fact remains that in this process we may have laid too little
emphasis upon the emotional and intellectual processes a t work
in the individual during counseling. W e have certainly been
careless in giving sufficient attention t o the degree of acceptance
by the client of ideas or solutions proposed by the counselor.
Recent discussion of the non-directive approach has served t o
jar counselors into a new awareness of the client’s part in the
process. T h a t this should divide all counseling into two ex-
treme positions seems both unsound and unrealistic. All previ-
ous work of “non-directive” counselors has certainly not been
(I
directive” in the extreme sense. Many of the points empha-
sized by Rogers have been previously emphasized in varying
degrees by many writers and practitioners although the fact
remains t h a t the impetus given by Rogers t o our further con-
sideration of the total nature o t the counseling process has been
a needed and an effective one.
A second objection is registered against the assumption that
the non-directive approach is less difficult and requires less
training than the directive one. Rogers has implied that the
degree of professional training now needed for the training of
directive counselors is unnecessary for the non-directive ap-
proach. H e has made the non-directive approach seem far
simpler than i t actually is. If one were to use only the non-
directive approach the situation would call for a high degree of
psychological insight and emotional self-control. This is partly
a matter of the personality integration of the counselor but it
is certainly dependent upon thorough understanding and care-

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444 EDUCATIONAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASUREMENT

ful training. Shafferhas pointed this out in his review of Rogers

and Wallen’s book (6). But if one adopts the concept that the
non-directive approach, in the extreme, is only one of several
which an effective counselor may use, one must also be prepared
to use varying degrees of directiveness in a skillful interpreta-
tion of objective information. Then there must be added to our
present emphasis in professional training a growing insight into
the nature of drives and mechanisms and repressions and frus-
trations, in order to effectively run the gamut of procedures in
client-centered counseling. I n this we have not subtracted from
the amount of training necessary but have added to it by in-
cluding the background ‘necessary for skillful non-directive
counseling where conditions call for this approach.
I n summary, the emphi& .on the non-directive procedure
has been stimulating t o thk field of counseling but i t is not a
new one nor is it simple. We must give more attention to the
client and less t o the counselor, but client-centered counseling
is ;ot one part of a dichotomy. It is a continuum. Skillful
counseling consists of knowing. wheit t o use the varying proce-
dures that are available along this continuum. And this versa-
tility means adding more emphasis t o certain areas of a profes-
sional training program, training t h a t will contribute to the
psychological insight and skill needed for the extreme of client-
centered counseling called non-directive.

REFERENCES
1. Bixler, Ray H. and Bixlir, Virginia H. “Test Interpretation in
Vocational Counseling.” EDUCATIONAL AND PSYCHOLOGI-
CAL MEASUREMENT, VI (1946), 145-155.
2. Bordin, Edward S. “Diagnosis in Counseling and Psychother-
apy.” EDUCATIONAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASUREMENT,
VI (1946), 169-184. *
3. Rogers, Carl R. Counseling and Psychotherapy. New York:
Houghton-Mifflin Company, 1942.
4. Rogers, Carl R. “Psychometric Tests and Client-Centered Coun-
seling.” EDUCATIONAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASUREMENT,
VI (1946), 139-144.
5. Rogers, Carl R. and Wallen, John L. Counseling with Returned
Servicemen. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company,
1946.
6. Shaffer, Laurence. Review of Carl R. Rogers and John L. Wallen,
Counseling with Returfzed Servicemen. Occupations, XXIV
. (1946), 520-523.

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