Machine Learning with Applications 15 (2024) 100513

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Machine Learning with Applications

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mlwa

Considerations for adapting higher education technology courses for AI

large language models: A critical review of the impact of ChatGPT
Omar Tayan a, b, Ali Hassan a, *, Khaled Khankan a, Sanaa Askool a
a
College of Computer and Cyber Sciences, University of Prince Mugrin, Madinah, 41499, Saudi Arabia
b
Department of Scientific Research & Graduate Studies, University of Prince Mugrin, Madinah, 41499, Saudi Arabia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Following the very recent launch of the ChatGPT chatbot, numerous comments and speculations were posted
Artificial intelligence concerning the potential aspects of society that are expected to benefit from this AI revolution. In particular, the
ChatGPT education sector is considered as one of the primary domains affected by this application, the impact of which
Higher education
remains yet to be fully understood. Furthermore, many Higher Education institutions are required to get to terms
Machine learning
with its impact on teaching and learning, and to clarify their stances on the use of ChatGPT software. This study
was developed to investigate some critical case studies considered as relevant to the inevitable re-evaluation of
educational aspects needed, ranging from academic missions to student and course learning outcomes and its
ethical uses. Following a review of some of the pros and cons of ChatGPT in the higher educational sector, this
paper shall demonstrate several case studies of early trials in teaching and learning assessments related to various
specializations. Next, the ability of some well-known AI detector software and analyzed in terms of their capacity
to successfully detect AI-generated content. Analysis shall be made of the foreseen impact on important aspects
including challenges and benefits related to its use in course assessments as well as academic integrity and ethical
use. The study concludes with a set of recommendations made from our findings and benchmarks obtained from
top universities in order to assist faculty members and decision makers at Higher Education institutions con­
cerning their response strategy and use of ChatGPT.

Introduction considerable interest among academics, researchers, and educational

Artificial Intelligence (AI) has garnered significant attention and
recognition for its remarkable potential to revolutionize diverse in­
dustries, and the realm of education is certainly no exception. Within
higher education institutions, there is an escalating embrace of AI
technologies, aimed at improving the efficacy of teaching methodolo­
gies, enhancing the quality of learning experiences, and streamlining
administrative procedures (Crompton & Burke, 2023; Zafari et al.,
2022). Consequently, scholars and academics have become acutely
aware of the pressing need to thoroughly investigate the influence of
these technologies and their subsequent consequences for education.
ChatGPT, a language model developed by OpenAI, is one significant AI
tool that has showed potential in the education industry. ChatGPT
generates human-like responses and engages in conversational conver­
sations with users by utilising natural language processing and machine
learning techniques (Haleem et al., 2022; Ray, 2023). The notable
application of ChatGPT within the field of higher education has sparked
practitioners alike (Gille, 2020; Rudolph et al., 2023; Sullivan et al.,
2023). The overall objective of this study is to undertake a detailed
exploration of ChatGPT implementation and use in the dynamic land­
scape of higher education. Through careful analysis of real-world cases
and experience data, research is trying to highlight the multitude of
opportunities, challenges and potential risks associated with the inte­
gration of AI technologies into the higher education environment. This
study’s goal is to demonstrate the significant effects of ChatGPT in
higher education, specifically its effectiveness in improving teaching
and learning experiences, expediting administrative tasks and inspiring
unprecedented levels of student engagement. Furthermore, the investi­
gation attempts to identify specific areas where ChatGPT has been
successfully utilized thereby providing a thorough evaluation of results
and limitations associated with its use.
The findings that emerge from this study hold the promise of
providing invaluable insights into the field of AI in higher education,
particularly with regards to the profound impact and effectiveness of

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: o.tayan@upm.edu.sa (O. Tayan), a.hassan@upm.edu.sa (A. Hassan), k.khankan@upm.edu.sa (K. Khankan), s.askool@upm.edu.sa (S. Askool).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mlwa.2023.100513
Received 31 May 2023; Received in revised form 20 November 2023; Accepted 20 November 2023
Available online 25 November 2023
2666-8270/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
O. Tayan et al.
ChatGPT as an AI-based technology. Through a comprehensive case
study review, the research seeks to unearth optimal practices, extract
invaluable lessons, and pinpoint areas where improvements can be
realized within the field of ChatGPT utilization. Moreover, the study
contribution aims extends beyond individual institutions and encom­
passes the broader field of AI in education. By examining the specific
case of ChatGPT, the study provides valuable insights into the oppor­
tunities and challenges associated with integrating AI technologies into
higher education practices.
In short, this study is an impassioned effort to examine the significant
effects of ChatGPT on the higher education ecosystem, employing a
comprehensive case study review as its primary methodological
approach. This research seeks to reveal crucial insights into the effec­
tiveness and challenges that ChatGPT presents, particularly in terms of
improving teaching methodologies, increasing learning experiences,
and enhancing administrative procedures. This is achieved by carefully
examining the complex aspects of ChatGPT’s implementation and
resulting outcomes observed within diverse educational contexts.
Overview of ChatGPT
The invention of ChatGPT by OpenAI is a watershed moment in the
field of artificial intelligence, highlighting the tremendous advance in
natural language processing (NLP) and machine learning (ML). The
fundamental goal of ChatGPT, which is to simulate human-like answers
in conversations, has the potential to revolutionize how humans engage
with AI systems. This game-changing technology exemplifies the inter­
section of research and practical applications, demonstrating AI’s
transformative potential in everyday life (Roumeliotis & Tselikas,
2023).
The astonishing ability of ChatGPT to grasp and generate meaning­
ful, contextually relevant utterances is the foundation of its capabilities.
This ability originates from its revolutionary algorithms, which allow it
to process not only individual words but also the intricacies and nuances
that distinguish meaningful interactions. These algorithms are sup­
ported by a strong computing infrastructure, which ensures that
ChatGPT can easily manage the computational needs of real-time an­
swers (Ray, 2023).
The transformer neural network, a pioneering invention in deep
learning, sits at the heart of ChatGPT’s architecture. This neural archi­
tecture excels at preserving intricate, long-term dependencies within
text, which is crucial for keeping context and generating relevant re­
sponses throughout lengthy conversations (Haleem et al., 2022). The
model’s capacity to recognize patterns in its large training data ensures
that its responses are not only coherent but also linguistically accurate,
making it an exceptionally versatile tool that can be applied to a wide
range of tasks (Ray, 2023).
One of ChatGPT’s most notable characteristics is its adaptability (Gill
& Kaur, 2023). It can act as a responsive conversational partner,
answering inquiries, explaining complex concepts, suggesting
problem-solving solutions, and even engaging in open-ended discussions
on a wide range of topics. ChatGPT’s adaptability distinguishes it as a
powerful solution with numerous applications ranging from improving
customer service and automating content development to aiding
tailored education and assisting creative authors (Haleem et al., 2022;
Javaid et al., 2023; Ray, 2023).
Furthermore, ChatGPT’s strength rests in its capacity to efficiently
manage complex and demanding requests. It uses its extensive training
data to understand the subtleties of specialized or delicate issues,
ensuring that users obtain precise and reliable information (Javaid et al.,
2023). This feature broadens its applicability to domains where preci­
sion and depth of information are critical. One appealing aspect of
ChatGPT’s functionality is its ability to learn and adapt over time. The
model refines its replies by accumulating insights from user interactions
and feedback, gradually becoming more accurate and contextually
suitable (Gill & Kaur, 2023). This ongoing learning method ensures that
2
Machine Learning with Applications 15 (2024) 100513
ChatGPT remains a dynamic tool capable of adjusting to changing user
needs and remaining relevant in a rapidly changing landscape.
However, given ChatGPT’s limitations, it is critical that it is used
cautiously. ChatGPT, like any AI systems, can unintentionally perpet­
uate biases in its training data and demonstrate sensitivities to input
language (Alawida et al., 2023; Ray, 2023). Users, developers, and or­
ganizations must be vigilant and ethically responsible, especially in
applications where the outcomes of AI decisions may have substantial
real-world effects.
ChatGPT exemplifies the bond of cutting-edge natural language
processing algorithms, transformational neural network architecture,
and an abundance of training data. Its potential to generate human-like
responses, as well as its adaptability and ongoing refinement, has it
positioned as a revolutionary instrument with far-reaching implications.
However, a careful and responsible strategy is required to effectively
exploit its potential while mitigating ethical problems. OpenAI’s con­
stant dedication to transparency, continuing research, and user feedback
ensures that ChatGPT continues to improve and add value to a broad
range of applications and sectors.
Motivation and research questions
As the main motivation, this study shall address four main research
questions:
1. How does ChatGPT perform in solving open-ended and multiple-
choice questions related to various higher education technology
courses?
2. Does ChatGPT have an impact on international educational accred­
itation frameworks such as ABET?
3. To what extent can existing AI-detectors such as ZeroGPT and
Turnitin successfully detect AI-generated content for open-questions
in technology courses?
4. Can the results from 1, 2 and 3, as well as the policies developed by
benchmark universities be used to develop an informed recommen­
dation on the use of ChatGPT?
The chosen research questions were considered to provide a holistic
examination of ChatGPT’s role and impact in higher education. Specif­
ically, the first objective assesses ChatGPT’s capability to assist in
educational settings and provides insights into its potential as a learning
tool. The second objective gauges potential implications of ChatGPT in
educational standards and quality of established outcomes, which can
inform discussions and policy on the use of AI in higher education. The
third objective serves to ensure that academic integrity can be main­
tained in educational settings as well as identifying potential challenges
facing academic honesty as in the case of non-original content. Finally,
the fourth objective fuses the findings from the previous objectives and
connects them to derive recommendations for practical policies, hence
bridging the gap between research and insights for action in institutions
seeking to regulate the use of AI in education. In particular, the devel­
oped recommendations relate to how ChatGPT and other similar AI LLM
tools can be used responsibly in Higher Education technology related
courses.
Implications of ChatGPT in higher education
While ChatGPT has been released recently (end November 2022),
many educators started to realize the potential of this tool. Those edu­
cators blew the whistle regarding the pedagogical impact and made
some recommendations in a plethora of articles. For instance, Zhai
(2023) did initial investigation around the potential impact of ChatGPT
on educational learning goals, learning activities, assessment and eval­
uation practices. He recommended a shift of the focus to creativity and
critical thinking that AI cannot substitute rather the current focus on
general skills. A number of important reflections in the context of
O. Tayan et al. Machine Learning with Applications 15 (2024) 100513

Table 1
Use Cases of ChatGPT using sample open exam questions.
No. Question/Assignment Description Academic ChatGPT Answer Comment on Result
Program

1 Write the python code to calculate the average mark from a Computer Science; def calculate_average(marks): Correct
class of students? Programming. total_marks = sum(marks) (Multiple variations
Beginner-Level num_students = len(marks) possible)
average_mark = total_marks / num_students
return average_mark
# Example usage
marks = [78, 89, 92, 80, 86, 81, 75, 95, 87, 90]
average = calculate_average(marks)
print("The average mark is:", average)
2 Which of the following defines a TUPLE in python? a) t = Computer Science; The correct answer is (b) t = (1, 2). Correct
(1) b) t = (1, 2) c) t = {1, 2} d) t = 1 Programming. A tuple in Python is an immutable sequence of elements,
Beginner-Level enclosed in parentheses (). The elements within a tuple can
be of any data type, and they are separated by commas.
3 Write the output of the following python code: Computer Science; The output of the given Python code will be: Correct
number = [5, 10, 15, 20] data=0 try: data = number[4] Programming. Case 1
except IndexError: print(“Case 1″) except: print(“Case 2″) Intermediate-Level
4 Arrange the following according to the order of precedence: Computer Science; Correct
+, /, (),%, * Programming. (), *, /,%, +
Intermediate-Level
5 Write a program that inputs an integer and passes it to a Computer Science; #include 〈iostream〉 Correct
function called isOdd(), which uses the modulus operator Programming. bool isOdd(int num) {
to determine whether the integer is odd. The function should Advanced-Level return (num% 2 != 0);
take an integer argument and return true if the integer is }
odd and false otherwise. If the integer is odd, your program int square(int num) {
should call another function called square() which return num * num;
calculates and returns the square value. }
int main() {
int num;
std::cout << "Enter an integer: ";
std::cin >> num;
if (isOdd(num)) {
int squared = square(num);
std::cout << num << " is odd, and its square is: " <<
squared << std::endl;
} else {
std::cout << num << " is not odd." << std::endl;
}
return 0;
}
6 In cyber security, explain each stage of the security life cycle Computer Science; The security life cycle is a framework used in cybersecurity Correct
(prevent, detect, react, and deter)? Cyber Security. to manage and enhance an organization’s security posture. (Multiple answers are
Beginner-Level The life cycle includes four stages: prevent, detect, react, possible)
and deter. Each stage plays a critical role in the overall
security strategy of an organization.
Prevent…
Detect: …
React: …
Deter: …
Overall, the security life cycle is a continuous process that
involves ongoing assessment, planning, and action.
7 What Is the Difference Between Symmetric and Asymmetric Computer Science; Symmetric encryption and asymmetric encryption are two Correct
Encryption in Cybersecurity? Cyber Security. cryptographic methods used in cybersecurity:
Beginner-Level - Symmetric Encryption:
Uses a single secret key for both encryption and
decryption. Efficient for bulk data encryption.
Suitable for trusted environments with shared keys.
- Asymmetric Encryption:
Uses a pair of keys: public and private.
Slower and computationally intensive. Used for secure key
exchange, digital signatures, and securing communication
over untrusted networks.
Both encryption methods have their unique strengths and
are often used together in modern encryption systems for a
balance between security and efficiency.
8 What is SSL encryption? Computer Science; SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) encryption is a security Correct
Cyber Security. protocol that establishes an encrypted link between a web
Intermediate-Level server and a web browser or client. It ensures that data
transmitted between the server and client remains
confidential and secure. SSL encryption uses a
combination of symmetric and asymmetric encryption
methods to protect data during transit. It is commonly used
to secure online transactions, login credentials, and
sensitive information on websites, ensuring that third
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O. Tayan et al. Machine Learning with Applications 15 (2024) 100513

Table 1 (continued )
No. Question/Assignment Description Academic ChatGPT Answer Comment on Result
Program

parties cannot intercept or tamper with the data being

exchanged.
9 What is meant by port scanning? Computer Science; Port scanning is a network reconnaissance technique used Correct
Cyber Security. to discover open ports on a computer or network device. It
Intermediate-Level involves sending a series of connection requests to a target
device’s IP address, each on a different network port, to
determine which ports are actively listening for incoming
connections. Port scanning is often used for various
purposes, including security testing, network
troubleshooting, inventory management, and attack
preparation.
10 What is meant by SQL injection? Computer Science; SQL injection is a type of cybersecurity attack that occurs Correct
Cyber Security. when an attacker inserts malicious SQL (Structured Query
Advanced-Level Language) code into input fields or data entry points of a
web application. This code can manipulate the
application’s database, potentially allowing unauthorized
access, data theft, or data manipulation. SQL injection
attacks can exploit vulnerabilities in poorly designed or
insecurely coded web applications. They are a significant
threat to the confidentiality and integrity of databases and
the security of web applications.
11 Convert the binary-number (1000 0101 1000) into BCD Electrical Eng & (1100 1000) Wrong
format: Computer Science Expected Response: 0010
Beginner-Level 0001 0011 0110
12 Convert (20)10 into Base-2 using One’s Complement Electrical Eng & (01,011)2 Correct
binary: Computer Science
Beginner-Level
13 If |x2 − x1| + |y2 − y1| is the “Manhattan Distance” Electrical Eng & No, using the Manhattan distance as a heuristic in A* Wrong
between two states (x1, y1) and (x2, y2), and given the Computer Science search in a 4-action grid does not guarantee that we will Expected Response:
distance is used as a heuristic in A* search. In this 4-action Intermediate Level find the optimal path. This is because the Manhattan Yes - Manhattan distance is
grid, are we guaranteed to find the optimal path? Briefly distance heuristic is admissible but not consistent in the 4- the actual distance on the 4-
explain? action grid. action grid.
….
….
….
To guarantee optimal pathfinding using A* search with the
Manhattan distance heuristic in a 4-action grid, one could
use a different distance metric that satisfies both
admissibility and consistency, such as the Euclidean
distance or the Chebyshev distance.
14 If in Q13, we have an 8-action grid, are we guaranteed to Electrical Eng & If we use the Manhattan distance as a heuristic in A* search Wrong.
find the optimal path? Briefly explain? Computer Science in an 8-action grid, then we are guaranteed to find the Expected Response:
Intermediate Level optimal path. This is because the Manhattan distance is No - Manhattan distance is
both admissible and consistent in the 8-action grid. not an underestimate on the
…. 8-action grid.
….
….
Therefore, when using the Manhattan distance as a
heuristic in A* search in an 8-action grid, we are
guaranteed to find the optimal path.
15 A ring-counter with 8 flip-flops has X states, while a Electrical Eng & A ring counter with 8 flip-flops has X = 8 states. Correct
Johnson-counter with 8 flip-flops has Y states. Provide the Computer Science A Johnson counter with 8 flip-flops has Y = 2 * 8 = 16
correct values for X and Y? Advanced-Level states.

16 What is the result of (− 14)10 in two’s complement Computer In 8-bit two’s complement representation, − 14 is Correct
arithmetic and 8-bits? Architecture 11,110,010
Beginner-Level
17 What is the smallest number representation of a 5-bit signed Computer − 16 Wrong
magnitude number? Architecture Expected:
Beginner-Level − 15
18 Consider the following MIPS code: Computer 30 Wrong
addi $t1, $zero, 5 Architecture Expected Response: 24
addi $t2, $zero, 1 Intermediate Level.
add $s2, $zero, $zero
LOOP: slt $t3, $t2, $t1
beq $t2, $zero, DONE
addi $t2, $t2, 1
addi $s2, $s2, 6
j LOOP
DONE:
After the loop is done, what is the value in register $s2?
19 Using MIPS, If the register $t0 has the value: 0000 0000 Computer Therefore, the value of the register $t1 after the nor Correct
1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000, what is the value of the Architecture operation would be 0xFF0F0F0F.
register $t1 after the following operation: nor $t1, $t0, Intermediate Level.
$zero
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O. Tayan et al.
Table 1 (continued )
No. Question/Assignment Description Academic
Program
20 In a Direct-Mapped cache with 40 blocks and 8 bytes/block, Computer
the cache block number that is mapped with memory Architecture
address 32 is? Advanced-Level
science education have been put forward by Cooper (2023). This in­
cludes the need for modelling a responsible use of ChatGPT, giving a
priority to critical thinking, and being aware of the “single truth” that
seemed to be assumed by ChatGPT. Roose (n.d.) does not recommend
banning of ChatGPT in classrooms but rather educators should consider
it a useful tool. Wirtz (n.d.) also argued that ChatGPT can be a useful tool
and that it would be “very stupid for educational institutions not to
allow ChatGPT”. However, Wirtz (n.d.) acknowledged that there is a
need for thinking very carefully about the objective of teaching. In this
context, it was argued that a student might be using ChatGPT to struc­
ture his/her thoughts or as a tool while applying what has been learnt to
projects. In terms of assessment methods, and as indicated in (Wirtz, n.
d.; Zhai, 2023) and (Stokel-Walker, 2022), in which essay writing are
suggested as one of the common assessment methods raises a source of
concern, where students may be outsourcing those type of tasks to
ChatGPT. On the contrary, a total ban of such tools would not be prac­
tical, since according to a recent survey (Mok, n.d.) revealed that 91 % of
business leaders who are hiring are looking for workers with ChatGPT
experience, mainly for 1) software engineering departments, 2)
customer service, 3) human resources, and 4) marketing.
To-date, no related literature was found investigating the impact of
ChatGPT on learning outcomes, whether discussing the program level or
course level outcomes. This exploratory paper aims to initiate in­
vestigations into the study of learning outcomes as an important aspect,
and to advance a wider discussion that goes beyond the current debate
of “to ChatGPT or not to ChatGPT”. Among the research questions
addressed in the following sections addresses whether such AI chatbots
affect targeted course learning outcomes and how should course as­
sessments adapt in light of AI chatbot proliferation.
a) Impact of ChatGPT on Assignment Questions from Technology
Specializations
In order to study the impact of ChatGPT on course assignment
questions, this paper tests ChatGPT responses for a sample of exams and
assignment questions at the undergraduate level with the instructors’
comment provided on the results generated. Note that all trials and
experiments conducted in this study were based on the ChatGPT-3.5
architecture. Table 1 shows the ChatGPT responses for a sample of
twenty randomly selected open type exam and assignment questions
relating to technology courses at undergraduate level as well as the
expected (correct) answers for those questions. The open questions had
related to four sample courses that includes Programming, Cyber Se­
curity, Electrical and Computer Engineering (including Digital Logic)
and Computer Architecture courses. Each course had a uniform distri­
bution of question levels: two beginner questions, two intermediate
questions and one advanced level question, resulting with five questions
in total for each course. It was observed that the overall ChatGPT ac­
curacy score for the given test cases was 70 %, implying that 30 % of the
given questions were wrongly answered. Notably, the incorrect answers
were mainly related to specific questions that had required calculations,
detailed answers and reasoning. From the incorrect results given, 10 %
had related to beginner-level questions, while 20 % had related to in­
termediate and advanced questions.
In contrast, Table 2 demonstrates the correctness score for ChatGPT
using seventy multiple choice questions (MCQs) that had involved
various technology specialization courses with different difficulty levels.
MCQ questions were selected from Table 1 courses (Programming for
Machine Learning with Applications 15 (2024) 100513
ChatGPT Answer Comment on Result
The memory address 32 maps to cache block 0 in this Wrong
direct-mapped cache configuration. Expected Response: 4
Engineers, Digital Logic Design, Computer Architecture and Cyberse­
curity) as well additional courses that include, Computer Networks,
Pervasive Computing, and Infrastructure and Technology. Each course
uniformly comprised of 10 questions with a distribution of 3–4–3 for
beginner, intermediate and advanced level questions respectively.
Hence, the overall dataset for MCQ questions had comprised of beginner
(30 %), intermediate (40 %) and advanced (30 %) questions.
Overall, it was shown that ChatGPT had obtained a correctness score
of 64.3 %, suggesting an error rate of 35.7 % for the dataset used. As a
total of the incorrect responses given, 12.9 % (9) were related to inter­
mediate level questions, 11.4 % (8) were related to advanced questions,
and 11.4 % (8) had related to beginner level questions. From the find­
ings made, it could not be speculated whether ChatGPT performs better
for trivial and beginner level questions compared to intermediate and
advanced questions that require understanding the question, and
reasoning rather than simply recalling information for the test cases
used. However, an analysis of the incorrect questions per course reveals
that the course with the most incorrect answers was in Digital Logic
Design with an accuracy of 0.1 (9 from 10 were incorrect answers),
followed by Computer Architecture with an accuracy of 0.5 (5 from 10
were incorrect answers), and Pervasive Computing with an accuracy of
0.5. This key finding clearly demonstrates that ChatGPT had weaknesses
in logic-based courses, as evident for the case of Digital Logic Design and
Computer Architecture, in which the accuracy rates were 0.1 and 0.5,
respectively.
a) Impact of ChatGPT on Program Learning Outcomes, Course Learning
Outcomes and Educational Frameworks
As a well-established and common practice, programs and course
specifications must include the targeted learning outcomes. This is what
students should achieve by end of courses or programs. This is also what
should be monitored, among others, to implement the continuous
improvement models of programs and courses. Programs might adopt a
standard set of learning outcomes identified and recommended by
professional accreditation bodies such as ABET (ABET, n.d.) or they can
have their own set of tailored learning outcomes. However, for courses,
the learning outcomes are designed by the providing institution and
commonly developed by a dedicated curriculum committee, reviewed
and approved by the relevant specialization department. The course
learning outcomes are typically mapped back to program learning out­
comes or ABET student learning outcomes. Hence, any impact on the
course learning outcomes results with a consequent impact on the pro­
gram or student learning outcomes. It was noted that ChatGPT has the
potential to help instructors to generate course and program/student
learning outcomes in addition to course materials and content for an
academic or training programs. However, instructors are not recom­
mended to take ChatGPT responses as is, but to re-formulate those
learning outcomes and educational frameworks to provide more
emphasis on critical thinking and analysis. Following on from this
argument, students would become more engaged in the critical parts of
the learning process, and more importantly thinking critically and uti­
lizing ChatGPT for doing the heavy lifting. As Ferrer (n.d.) mentioned,
the ChatGPT’s user is the one who should be “doing the thinking and
guiding the AI to perform the tasks” he/she needs.
This section develops a quantitative analysis to assess the relation­
ship between ChatGPT responses for open and MCQ questions for
different technology courses with the ABET Student Outcomes (SOs). In
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O. Tayan et al.
order to examine the possible impact of LLMs on ABET SOs, we are
required to examine the course details and mappings of CLOs onto SOs.
Table 3 shows the mapping of CLOs and their assessment types to ABET
SOs for a typical hypothetical undergraduate course, namely computer
networks, as it can be considered as a course for academic programs
relating to the Computing Accreditation Commission (CAC) framework
(ABET, n.d.).
The computer networks course is provided as an example to demon­
strate the relationship between assessment questions (as examined using
examples in Tables 1 and 2) with affected SOs. Table 4 states the ABET
SOs related to technology related courses, provided by the Computing
Accreditation Commission (CAC) criterion (ABET, n.d.).
Next, Table 5 illustrates the consequent impact of each course CLO
with open and MCQ assessments on the ABET SOs, while Table 6 shows
the overall impact for the course with such assessments. A simple
assumption used in this study is that the projected impact (high/me­
dium/low) is derived based on the number of CLOs that relate to each
ABET SO. An assumption used for our rubric was that 0–1 CLO mappings
to a particular SO would be considered as low impact, whereas 2–3 CLO
mappings to a particular SO would be considered as medium impact, and
4+ CLOs mapped onto a particular SO would be considered as high
impact for that course. It is acknowledged that the overall effect on the
SOs would need to extend our method to consider the combined impact
of all program courses on the SOs rather than just one course that was
provided here for demonstration purposes. A comprehensive analysis of
all courses for a given academic program and their impact on the ABET
SOs is out of the scope of this paper due to feasibility and limitation
constraints. Moreover, the individual weightings of CLOs and their
assessment question weightings is out-with the scope of this paper.
Hence, Table 3 identifies assessment types corresponding to CLOs,
which are related to ABET SOs (from Tables 3 and 4), in which it was
evident that LLMs used in various assessments have had a consequent
impact on the performance of those courses relative to the established
ABET SOs. The analysis here has considered one sample course. How­
ever, the similar concept and consequent impact also applies to other
courses in a given academic program. In short, this analysis has
demonstrated the impact of ChatGPT and other similar LLMs on
educational frameworks such as ABET. Section 5 discusses implications
and provides recommendations for how LLMs, such as ChatGPT, can be
applied responsibly with educational programs to improve the
achievement of SOs or program learning outcomes (PLOs).
a) Testing AI detectors with ChatGPT
This section studies the capability of two AI detectors to detect AI
generated content, which is something that course instructors would
require for assignments where AI tools are not encouraged. In particular,
the Turnitin Feedback Studio (TFS) (Turnitin, n.d.) and recently devel­
accuracy = (true − positives + true − negatives) / (true − positives + true − negatives + false − positives + false − negatives)
oped ZeroGPT. (ZeroGPT, n.d.) were chosen for this study. In particular,
TFS software was selected due to its market leader status in academic
plagiarism and integrity checking, after having recently added new AI
detection capabilities, whilst ZeroGPT was considered ideal for com­
parison purposes as a recent and free AI detection software that has
gained increasing popularity and speculation concerning its AI detection
capabilities. Table 7 presents eighteen essay-type assignments, most of
which were directly related to technology-based courses. Responses to
those questions were obtained using one of four testing approaches: (i)
content that is directly generated by ChatGPT following the input
prompt/question, (ii) ChatGPT generated content published on another
6
Machine Learning with Applications 15 (2024) 100513
site, (iii) original published articles (non-AI generated), and partially AI-
generated content (ChatGPT generated with 50 % of human modifica­
tion). Hence, results in Table 7 relate to detection capabilities and cor­
rectness for the case of AI generated content, non-AI generated (original)
content, and partially generated AI-content.
From Table 7, it can be observed that in Approach (A) where results
were directly generated from ChatGPT as in case 1 to 10 (whether
directly through prompts or third-party sites) for a mean word count of
1078 words, TFS software had reliably detected 8 cases of AI generated
content, with the exception of the zero and non-response given for low
word-counts. For those similar cases for Approach (A), ZeroGPT confi­
dence results had wavered between 31.35 % (case no. 10) to 89.07 %
(case no. 4). The mean and median detection rates for TFS were 86.33 %
and 100 %, respectively, compared to a mean and median of 61.41 %
and 58.93 %, respectively for ZeroGPT. Standard deviation result for
ZeroGPT was lower for ZeroGPT as compared to TFS, which can be
explained since one of the low word-count test cases resulted with 0 %
for TFS. Thus, it is suggested that TFS maintains superior performance
for cases of ChatGPT-generated content where the word count was
above the threshold of about 350 words.
Next, in Approach (B) (cases 11–20) concerning originally published
articles with a mean word-count of 7847 words, TFS had correctly
detected 0 % AI content (for all except in one case with 4 %), whilst
ZeroGPT had estimated a result between 0 and 3.45 % for AI generated
content. The mean, median and standard deviation for TFS were 0.4,
0 and 1.29, respectively, as compared to ZeroGPT with 2.1, 2.74 and
1.81, respectively. Hence, TFS had slightly outperformed ZeroGPT for
large test sample sizes involving original works.
Approach (C) had examined the AI-detection performance for
ChatGPT generated content with partial (50 %) human modification (e.
g., cases 21–30) with a mean word count of 745 words as typically found
in short reports. Since Approach (C) had investigated non-binary content
types (e.g., partially AI and partially human generated), experimental
results also had to rely on the textual classification results provided by
each software. An AI-detection result of 50 % or more was assumed as a
true-positive if no conclusive classification was provided by the soft­
ware. Following the experiments conducted, it was noted that TFS had
erroneously signalled AI-generated content for case#21, whilst all
remaining cases were detected correctly, yielding an detection rate of
0.9. On the other hand, ZeroGPT had evaluated those test cases between
16.15 % - 90.68 % with three erroneous cases, yielding an overall
detection rate of 0.7. Additionally, the mean detection rates for TFS and
ZeroGPT were 79 % and 45 %, respectively. Those results had demon­
strated the superiority of TFS for cases involving mixed human and AI-
generated content.
Finally, assuming that the accuracy of the AI-detectors can be
determined by the number of correct predictions out of the total number
of predictions as in the formula,
therefore, the overall accuracy of TFS and ZeroGPT for AI-detection is
0.93 (27 out of 30) and 0.8 (24 out of 30), respectively. In conclusion,
following the test cases performed in this study, it was evident that the
accuracy of TFS had outperformed ZeroGPT in Approach A and
Approach C that had involved completely AI-generated content and
partially AI-generated content, respectively, only with a tied result in
Approach B that had involved 100 % original content.
a) Benchmarking of International Universities and Institutions
To deal with the proliferation of ChatGPT and other AI LLMs in the
O. Tayan et al. Machine Learning with Applications 15 (2024) 100513

Table 2
Use Cases of ChatGPT using samples of Multiple-Choice Questions (MCQs).
No. Question Difficulty Specialization Course ChatGPT Comment
Level Response

1 DNS, Telnet and P2P protocols are found in which of the following layers? Beginner Computer Networks A Correct
a) Application layer
b) Presentation layer
c) Data-link layer
d) Transport layer
2 Network speed is highly affected by: Beginner Computer Networks D Correct
a) Link type
b) Transmission media
c) Network traffic
d) All of the above
3 _________ is the measure of how much information can flow from one place to another. Beginner Computer Networks A Correct
a) Bandwidth
b) Throughput
c) Time To Live (TTL)
d) None of the a
4 The checksum value for this message "1,110,011,011,010,101″is: Intermediate Computer Networks D Correct
a) 11,100,110
b) 01,010,101
c) 10,111,011
d) 01,000,011
5 If an Ethernet packet has destination MAC of FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF, this means that it is a ______ Intermediate Computer Networks C Correct
a) Multiplecast packet
b) Unicast Packet
c) Broadcast packet
d) None of the above
6 Which of the following isn’t true about PPP protocol Intermediate Computer Networks B Correct
a) No need for multiple access protocol
b) No error detection
c) No flow control
d) No need for explicit MAC addressing
7 In cellular networks, UMTS: Intermediate Computer Networks A Wrong
(a) is an example of a 2.5 G system
(b) operates upto 14 Mbps
(c) operates upto 3 Mbps
(d) has data-rates similar to the EDGE service
8 In wireless networks, CSMA/CA is used instead of CSMA/CD because of: Advanced Computer Networks D Correct
a) Wireless packet is too small to collide.
b) Wireless media is open, and there is no collision.
c) Collision is rare to occur in wireless communications
d) Signal strength and fading can affect the collision detection
9 RIP, OSPF and BGP fall under which category: Advanced Computer Networks A Correct
a) routing protocols
b) ICMP protocols
c) IP protocols
d) link-layer protocols
10 The hidden-terminal problem occurs as a result of: Advanced Computer Networks D Wrong
a) decreased signal strength
b) low BER
c) high SNR
d) multipath propagation
11 Which of the following collections defines a LIST? Beginner Programming D Correct
a) {‘a’, 1, ‘Monday’, 3.14}
b) (‘a’: 1: ‘Monday’: 3.14)
c) [‘a’: 1: ‘Monday’: 3.14]
d) [‘a’, 1, ‘Monday’, 3.14]
12 Which of the following is a correct function prototype? Beginner Programming C Correct
int highest(x, y);
double lowest(int, x);
int highest(int, int);
double lowest(x, y);
13 Which of the following are correct function prototypes for a function that returns the max value Beginner Programming A and B Wrong
between two int values? Expected:
A. int max(int num1, int num2) B
B. int max(int, int);
C. int max(num1, num2);
D. max(int num1, int num2);
14 In the list myList = [[1, 2, 3], [‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’], [1.1, 1.2, 1.3]], how is the element ‘1.1′ accessed? Intermediate Programming C Correct
a) myList[3][1]
b) myList[3][0]
c) myList[2][0]
d) myList[2][1]
15 What is the output of the following program? Intermediate Programming B Correct
#include 〈iostream.h〉
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Table 2 (continued )
No. Question Difficulty Specialization Course ChatGPT Comment
Level Response

void main()
{ int i = 0, sum = 0;
while (i < 3)
{
sum += i;
cout << sum << “ “;
}
}
0123
013
3210
The program will not exit the loop (i.e. infinite loop)
16 What is the value of value after execution of the following code fragment?int a, b, c, d, value;a = 4; Intermediate Programming C Correct
b = 12; c = 37; d = 51;value = d% a * c + a% b + a;

a) 51
b) 59
c) 119
d) 127
17 Which of the following isnot a valid string declaration? Intermediate Programming B Correct
char myString[] = "Taibah";
char myString[] = {’T’, ’a’, ’i’, ’b’, ’a’, ’h’};
char myString[] = " ";
char myString[] = {’T’, ’a’, ’i’, ’b’, ’a’, ’h’, ’\0′};
18 In C++, which code fragment does not set all elements to 0 (assume we have a 2D array)?int ar[2] Advanced Programming D Correct
[2];ar[0][0] = ar[0][1] = ar[1][0] = ar[1][1] = 0;int ar[2][2];for(int i = 0; i<2; i++)

for(int j = 0; j<2; j++)

ar[i][j] = 0;
int ar[2][2] = {0};All of the above initialize all of their elements to 0.
19 Identify the correct statement which passes an array to the myArray() function:void myArray Advanced Programming B Correct
(int *ar);int array[4] = {0,2,4,6};
a) myArray(array[]);
b) myArray(array);
c) myArray(*array);
d) myArray();
20 If a program compiles fine, but it produces an incomplete result, then the program suffers from Advanced Programming B Correct
__________.
A. a compilation error
B. a runtime error
C. a logic error
D. all of the above
21 A + A’B can be simplified using De’Morgan’s Theorem into: Beginner Digital Logic Design B Correct
(a) A + B’ (b) A + B
(c) 1 (d) A.B
22 The lower and upper range for a 6-bit two’s-complement number is: Beginner Digital Logic Design A Wrong
(a) − 8 and +7 (b) − 16 and +15 Expected:
(c) − 32 and +31 (d) − 64 and +63 C
23 A combinational logic circuit that detects odd inputs in the range from 0 to 11 requires: Beginner Digital Logic Design B Wrong
a) 2 inputs
b) 3 inputs
c) 4 inputs
d) 5 inputs
24 In logic design, A sequential circuit that outputs a ‘1′ when the sequence ‘1111′ is detected has: Intermediate Digital Logic Design D Wrong
a) 2 states
b) 3 states
c) 4 states
d) 5 states
25 The lower and upper range for a 6-bit two’s-complement number is Intermediate Digital Logic Design A Wrong
(a) − 8 and +7 (b) − 16 and +15
(c) − 32 and +31 (d) − 64 and +63
26 A full-adder can be constructed from: Intermediate Digital Logic Design C Wrong
a) two half-adders and an AND gate.
b) two half-adders and an OR gate.
c) two half-adders and an XOR gate.
d) one half-adder and two XOR gates.
27 Which of the following causes overflow when using 2′s Complement Addition: Intermediate Digital Logic Design B Wrong
a) 0100 + 0110
b) 1110 + 1101
c) 0010 + 0011
d) 1110 + 0101
28 In computer logic, which of the following devices contains a Lookup Table (LUT): Advanced Digital Logic Design A Wrong
(a) PLD (b) 4-bit counter with parallel load
(c) FPGA (d) Johnson Counter
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Table 2 (continued )
No. Question Difficulty Specialization Course ChatGPT Comment
Level Response

29 The expression (A’3 B3 + X3 A’2 B2 + X3 × 2 A’1 B1 + X3 × 2 × 1 A’0 B0) relates to the case Advanced Digital Logic Design A Wrong
(where Xi indicates Ai = Bi): Expected:
(a) A = B (b) A > B (c) A < B (d) None C
30 Which of the following identifies the characteristic equations for the D, T and JK type flip-flops? Advanced Digital Logic Design B Wrong
D: Q(t + 1) = D, T: Q(t + 1) = TQ’ + T’Q, JK: Q(t + 1) = JQ’ + K’Q Expected:
D: Q(t + 1) = D, T: Q(t + 1) = T’Q’ + TQ, JK: Q(t + 1) = JQ’ + K’Q A
D: Q(t + 1) = D’, T: Q(t + 1) = TQ’ + T’Q, JK: Q(t + 1) = JQ’ + K’Q
D: Q(t + 1) = D, T: Q(t + 1) = TQ’ + T’Q, JK: Q(t + 1) = J’Q + KQ’
31 Which of the following instruction falls within R-type instructions? Beginner Computer D Correct
a) sw b) lw c) addi d) sub Architecture
32 Diversity of devices and fast response times are required for: Beginner Computer B Wrong
(a) Servers (b) Dependability Architecture Expected:
(c) Storage devices (d) Embedded systems D
33 Which components are used during the Instruction-Fetch process: Beginner Computer C Correct
(a) Data-memory, Adder and Program Counter (PC) Architecture
(b) Data-memory, Adder, PC and Register File
(c) Instruction-memory, Adder and PC
(d) Instruction-memory, Adder, PC and Register File.
34 Which of the following cases results with no overflow: Intermediate Computer B Correct
a) Subtracting a positive operand from a negative operand Architecture
b) Subtracting two positive or two negative operands
c) Adding two positive operands
d) Adding two negative operands
35 Which of the following devices are not used by branch instructions (beq): Intermediate Computer C Correct
(a) Sign-Extend (b) Register-file Architecture
(c) Data-memory (d) Adder & ALU
36 Which of the following features is not found in the RISC instruction set as compared to CISC? Intermediate Computer C Wrong
a) Fewer total instructions Architecture
b) Fewer instructions executed per program
c) Simple addressing modes
d) Load-Store architecture for data transfers
37 Which of the following code fragments will result with a branch to A when $s1=9 and $s2=8?slt Intermediate Computer B Wrong
$t0, $s1, $s2 Architecture
a) bne $t0, $zero, A
slti $t0, $s1, 9
a) bne $t0, $zero, A
slti $t0, $s1, 9
a) beq $t0, $zero, A
slt $t0, $s1, 10
a) beq $t0, $zero, A
38 Which of the following rows in the table corresponds to the sw-instruction: Advanced Computer B Wrong
Architecture Expected:
A
39 The high-level language instruction represents which assembly code-fragment below: Advanced Computer D Correct
g = h + A[10]; Architecture
where g is in $s1, h is in $s2 and the Base-Address of A is in $s3
(a) lw $t0, 32($s3) (c) lw $t0, 16($s3)
add $s1, $s2, $t0 add $s1, $s2, $t0
(b) lw $t0, 10($s3) (d) lw $t0, 40($s3)
add $s1, $s2, $t0 add $s1, $s2, $t0
40 The order of steps involved in floating-point addition are: Advanced Computer C Wrong
(a) Add significands, align decimal points by shifting the number with larger exponent and Architecture Expected:
normalize the result D
(b) Normalize numbers, align decimal points by shifting the number with smaller exponent and
add the significands.
(c) Align decimal points by shifting the number with larger exponent, add significands and
normalize the result
(d) Align decimal points by shifting the number with smaller exponent, add significands and
normalize the result
41 WSN algorithms need to be centralized as the processing is carried out on different nodes. Which Beginner Pervasive Computing C Correct
WSN design challenge does concept this relate to?
(a) heterogeneity (b) real-time computation
(c) distributed processing (d) large-scale coordination
42 The following statement “rather than requiring humans to switch on a light when someone enters Beginner Pervasive Computing B Wrong
the room, the environment is smart. It contains devices which monitor people entering the room Expected:
and switches on the light for authorised people automatically” is an example of: A
(a) iHCI (b) eHCI
(c) Pure eHCI (d) C2C interaction
43 Non-command vision-based human-motion analysis systems generally have four stages that does Beginner Pervasive Computing B Wrong
not include. Expected:
(a) motion segmentation (b) Object classification D
(c) Interpretation (d) None of the above
44 The definition that “the quality of the user-interface of an appliance is relatively unimportant in Intermediate Pervasive Computing A Wrong
determining its adoption by users if the perceived value of the appliance is high” relates to:
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Table 2 (continued )
No. Question Difficulty Specialization Course ChatGPT Comment
Level Response

(a) H2C (b) Pure eHCI

(c) Heckel’s Inverse Law (d) Heckel’s Law
45 Which of the following distributed-system viewpoints includes policies and roles? Intermediate Pervasive Computing B Correct
(a) Network view (b) Enterprise View
(c) User View (d) Service/Platform View
46 The ISO standard human-centred design (HCD) life-cycle involves how many sets of activities. Intermediate Pervasive Computing A Wrong
a) five (b) four (c) three (d) two
47 In a Geospatial Information System (GIS), geocoding is used to: Intermediate Pervasive Computing C Correct

(a) Create geometrical objects

(b) Create geo-attributes that form the spatial context
(c) Derive the location from the spatial context
(d) Derive the spatial context from the location
48 Publish-and-Subscribe interaction is used in which of the following distributed service invocation Advanced Pervasive Computing C Correct
coordination models:

(a) Remote Procedure Calls

(b) Layered model
(c) Event-Driven Action model
(d) Shared data repositories
49 In a spatial-awareness context, location determination methods do not include: Advanced Pervasive Computing A Wrong

(a) Proximity analysis

(b) Triangulation
(c) Multi-lateration
(d) Transmitted signal power
50 Zeroconf network discovery automates the following tasks: Advanced Pervasive Computing D Correct
(a) choosing network addresses (b) giving oneself an address
(c) discovering names and discovering service addresses (d) All of the above
51 Which of the following is used for interconnecting LANs? Beginner Infrastructure and C Correct
Technology
(a) Computer Telecommunications Networks.
(b) Local area networks
(c) Backbone Networks
(d) Ethernet Networks.
52 Which of the following network topologies has all devices attached to one cable as in Ethernet? Beginner Infrastructure and A Correct
Technology
(a) Bus
(b) Ring
(c) Tree
(d) Mesh
53 The definition of Patents is: Beginner Infrastructure and B Correct
Technology
(a) Mechanisms that generate a program to do a specific task.
(b) Give the owner the exclusive right to the manufacture and use of a new design or method.
(c) Give the owner control over the duplication of copyrighted intellectual property.

Grant ownership rights for a limited time.

54 Select the correct classification of ERP business and IT infrastructure benefits: Intermediate Infrastructure and A Correct
Technology
(a) Business benefits include; support for cross-functional processes and global transactions
(b) IT infrastructure benefits include; support for cross-functional processes and global
transactions
(c) Business benefits include; centralized database on a client-server architecture and regular
software updates from vendor.
(d) None of the above.
55 Business processes are based on—————————–. Intermediate Infrastructure and C Correct
Capital. Technology
Human resources.
Standard operating procedures (SOP).
None of the above.
56 If a program exceeds its allocated space, the operating system creates a virtual memory on ……. Intermediate Infrastructure and A Correct
(a) Hard disk. Technology
(b) RAM.
(c) ROM.
(d) EEPROM.
57 Select the correct order of computer-systems from highest to lowest MFLOPS: Intermediate Infrastructure and B Correct
Technology
(a) Microcomputers, midrange systems, mainframes, supercomputers.
(b) Supercomputers, mainframes, midrange systems, microcomputers.
(c) Microcomputers, supercomputers, mainframes, midrange systems.
(d) Mainframes, supercomputers, midrange systems, microcomputers
58 Select the correct order of computer-systems from highest to lowest MFLOPS: Advanced Infrastructure and B Correct
(a) Microcomputers, midrange systems, mainframes, supercomputers. Technology
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Table 2 (continued )
No. Question Difficulty Specialization Course ChatGPT Comment
Level Response

(b) Supercomputers, mainframes, midrange systems, microcomputers.

(c) Microcomputers, supercomputers, mainframes, midrange systems.
(d) Mainframes, supercomputers, midrange systems, microcomputers.
59 Loss of the information on a laptop averages $180,000, Company identifies 9 occurrences in the last Advanced Infrastructure and A Correct
12 years where a laptop had been lost, calculate the Annual Expected Losses (AEL). Technology
(a) $135,000
(b) $250,000
(c) $270,000
(d) $90,000
60 Firewalls and VPN encryption are used for security at which OSI layer: Advanced Infrastructure and C Wrong
(a) application-layer Technology
(b) host-security layer
(c) network-layer
(d) perimeter-layer
61 Which of the following methods checks the validity of a message? Beginner Cybersecurity A Wrong
a) Digital signature Expected:
b) Protocol C
c) Message Digest
d) Decryption algorithm
62 Which of the following terms describes taking someone else’s idea or creation and using it for their Beginner Cybersecurity C Wrong
own advantage? Expected:
a) Intellectual property rights D
b) Piracy
c) Plagiarism
d) All of the above
63 Which term from the following best describes how the principle would be broken if a computer was Beginner Cybersecurity B Correct
no longer accessible?
a) Confidentiality
b) Availability
c) Access control
d) All of the above
64 What kind of malware does not replicate or clone itself through infection? Intermediate Cybersecurity A Correct
a) Trojans
b) Worms
c) Viruses
d) Rootkits
65 Which of the following describes the different forms of scanning? Intermediate Cybersecurity B Correct
a) Client, Server, and network
b) Network, vulnerability, and port scanning
c) Port, network, and services
d) None of the above
66 Which of the following methods concerns hiding information inside a picture: Intermediate Cybersecurity B Correct
a) Image Rendering
b) Steganography
c) Rootkits
d) Bitmapping
67 Which of these is the port number (default) for many web servers, including apache? Intermediate Cybersecurity A Correct
a) 80
b) 20
c) 87
d) 40
68 Which of the following is the least strong security encryption? Advanced Cybersecurity C Correct
a) WPA
b) WPA3
c) WEP
d) WPA2
69 Which of the following terms is the least strongest security protocol? Advanced Cybersecurity C Correct
a) SFTP
b) SSL
c) SMTP
d) HTTPS
70 What is the purpose of using a proxy server for a hacker? Advanced Cybersecurity D Correct
a) Create a ghost server on the network
b) Create a stronger connection with the target
c) For obtaining remote access connection
d) Hiding malicious activity on the network

education sector, a benchmark presented in Table 8 was conducting to
explore the institutional level policies that have emerged among the top
universities worldwide. Table 8 demonstrates that currently there is no
common agreement between the top universities on the issue of allowing
or banning such AI tools, nor has their boundaries for use been elabo­
rated upon in most cases. From the top fifteen universities investigated,
no institutional-level policy was found, three universities had explicitly
banned use of such tools, while five had deferred the case to course-level
policy making. The next section of this paper considers the findings from
Table 7, together with the findings on the effects of AI chatbots course
assessments to derive some possible recommendations for responsible
use with suggested boundaries on their use cases.

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Table 3 Table 5
Mappings of Assessment types, CLOs and ABET SOs. Computer Networks CLO mappings with ABET SOs.
CLO CLO Alignment Teaching Assessment Computer Networks ABET Student Outcomes
ID. with ABET Strategy Method CLO Code (CAC Criterion)
SO
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
1 Explain foundational 1.1 Lectures Written
1 √
concepts of data Exams
2 √
networks including Quizzes
3 √
components, layers,
4 √
protocols, services,
5 None
applications and tools.
6 √
2 Recall the services and 1.1 Lectures Written
7 None
functions provided by Exams
each layer in the Internet Quizzes
protocol stack.
3 Describe the working 1.1 Lectures Written
Table 6
principles behind key Exams
Impact of course open and MCQ questions on ABET SOs.
network technologies Quizzes
and protocols Overall Impact for course on the SOs ABET Student Outcomes (CAC Criterion)
4 Solve calculations 1.2 Lectures Written
relating to packet delay, Lab demos Exams 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
throughput, and channel Quizzes Computer Networks High Med – – –
efficiency according to
different network
protocols
5 Design and implement 1.2 Lectures Project
network protocols, Lab demos
a) General Policy Recommendations related to Higher Education
including network Case studies Technology Courses
applications and reliable
data transfer protocols. Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended that higher
6 Formulate a plan to 1.2 Lectures Written
education technology institutions consider the following policy con­
assign IP addresses to Lab demos Exams
interfaces in computer Case studies Lab cerning the use of ChatGPT or other LLMs for academic courses:
networks activities
7 Work independently or 1.5 Group Project 1. LLMs should be used as a complementary tool to support students in
as part of a team under a Discussions the learning process, rather than replacing the role of course
designated team leader
instructors.
to implement a network
application 2. Course instructors should guide students how to use such LLMs
responsibly, providing clear instructions on how and when they can
be used as a resource.
3. Students and instructors are required to use LLMs in an ethical
Table 4
ABET Student Outcomes for the CAC criterion.
manner and refrain from activities that could lead to compromising
academic integrity.
SO ABET Commission Student Outcome (SO)
4. In most cases, responses provided by the GPT AI-based architecture
Code
provides general knowledge, rather than accurate, detailed, and up-
1.1 Computing Analyze a complex computing problem and to to-date information. Hence, students are encouraged to verify re­
Accreditation apply principles of computing and other
Commission relevant disciplines to identify solutions.
sponses obtained from ChatGPT or other LLMs’ with reputable
1.2 Design, implement, and evaluate a computing- sources.
based solution to meet a given set of 5. Students and course instructors should recognise that GPT archi­
computing requirements in the context of the tectures are unable to offer critical thinking in their responses, and as
program’s discipline.
such, students should be encouraged to engage in critical thinking
1.3 Communicate effectively in a variety of
professional contexts. and problem-solving.
1.4 Recognize professional responsibilities and 6. Course instructors and students should acknowledge that the accu­
make informed judgments in computing racy of information retrieved is reliant upon the frequency of updates
practice based on legal and ethical principles. to the ChatGPT database. For instance, the ChatGPT-3/3.5 archi­
1.5 Function effectively as a member or leader of a
team engaged in activities appropriate to the
tecture has only been updated until September 2021.
program’s discipline. 7. Course instructors and students should recognise that AI-based
chatbots can be biased and retrieve non-objective responses.
Hence, user queries can in some cases result with non-accurate or
Recommended policies & discussion inappropriate responses that may need to be reported.

This section discusses general recommendations leading to policy
development for higher education technology courses. Primary benefi­
ciaries include course instructors, program managers, students and
institutional policy makers based on informed outcomes from the above
findings, experiments, benchmarks and the related literature. Following
the general policy recommendations section, specific policies are then
classified into those related to delivery of academic courses (e.g.,
involving faculty members, program heads, developers of academic
programs and administrators) and students participating in those academic
courses.
In the following sections, specific policies are derived relating to the
delivery of academic courses (section 5(b)) and students attending those
courses (section 5(c)).
a) Policy Guidelines on Responsible use of AI Tools for the Delivery
of Academic Courses
Program Heads and administrators should consider the impact of AI
tools on the program and course level pedagogy given that AI tools are

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Table 7
Summary Results of AI detector capabilities for AI generated content, non-AI generated content and partially AI-generated content.
Case Assignment or Report Test Approach Chat-GPT Statistical Turnitin Zero-GPT
No. Response & Metrics Feedback AI-detection
Word-Count Analyses Studio (TFS) rate
AI-detection

1 In the 8-action grid, are we guaranteed to find the optimal path? Approach (A) Result-file No result given 61.58 %
Explain briefly? Content generated 189 words 1. Input Files (non-classified) AI/GPT
directly from Chat- Mean word (true-positive)
2 The “Manhattan distance” between two states (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) GPT Result-file count: 1077.7 0% 44.74 %
on the grid is: |x2 − x1| + |y2 − y1| Assume that we are using A* 281 words Median word (false-negative) AI/GPT
search and we use this distance as an heuristic. • In the 4-action grid, count: 708.5 (true-positive)
are we guaranteed to find the optimal path? Explain briefly? 2. TFS results
3 In cyber security, explain each stage of the security life cycle Result-file Mean: 86.33 % 100 % 75.55 %
(prevent, detect, react, and deter)? 348 words Median: 100 % (true-positive) AI/GPT
Range: 100 (true-positive)
4 Essay on “Arguments for and against Messi being the Greatest Result-file St.Dev: 98.16 100 % 89.07 %
Footballer Ever” 393 words 3. Zero-GPT (true-positive) AI/GPT
results (true-positive)
5 Essay on “Sustainable Tourism and Its Impact on the Environment” Result-file Mean: 61.41 100 % 79.21 %
617 words Median: 58.93 (true-positive) AI/GPT
Range: 57.72 (true-positive)
6 Report on “AI and Education: How Artificial Intelligence is Changing Result-file St.Dev: 25.51 100 % 47.48 %
the Classroom” 800 words (true-positive) Mixed, some
AI/GPT
(false-negative)
7 Essay on “Role of AI in Leveraging University Students’ Creativity Result-file 77 % 56.28 %
and Innovation” 948 words (true-positive) Mixed, some
AI/GPT
(false-negative)
8 Essay on “Role of AI in Healthcare: Benefits and Challenges” Result-file 100 % 41.86 %
951words (true-positive) Mixed, some
AI/GPT
(false-negative)
9 Essay on “Exploring the Impact of Corporate Wellness Programs” Result-file 100 % 88.49 %
1350 words (true-positive) AI/GPT
(true-positive)
10 Article on “ChatGPT: AI for Education” Result-file 100 % 31.35 %
5800 words (true-positive) AI/GPT
(true-positive)
11 Article on “E-Payment System to Reduce Use of Paper Money for Approach (B) 0% 3.13
Daily Transactions”, (Tayan et al., 2022) Original published 2289 words 1. Input Files (true-negative) Human-written
articles Mean word (true-negative)
12 Article on “Context-Aware Framework for Enhanced Smart Urban count: 7847.3 0% 1.68
Pollution Monitoring and Control”, (Tayan, 2022) 3072 words Median word (true-negative) Human-written
count: 5730.5 (true-negative)
13 Article on “Concepts and Tools for Protecting Sensitive Data in the IT 2. TFS results 0% 1.01 %
Industry: A Review of Trends, Challenges and Mechanisms for Data- 4116 words Mean: 0.4 % (true-negative) Human-written
Protection”, (Tayan, 2017) Median: 0 % (true-negative)
14 Article on “A Secure IWT Watermarking Technique using QR Range: 4 0% 4.46
Decomposition and 2D Henon Maps” (Kabir & Tayan, 2021) 4347 words St.Dev: 1.29 (true-negative) Human-written
3. Zero-GPT (true-negative)
15 Article on “Design and Architecture of a Location and Time-based results 0% 3.36 %
Mobile-Learning System:” (Tayan et al., 2017) 4996 words Mean: 2.1 % (true-negative) Human-written
Median: 2.74 % (true-negative)
16 Article on “Authenticating Sensitive Speech-Recitation in Distance- Range: 5.74 0% 0%
Learning Applications using Real-Time Audio Watermarking” ( 6465 words St.Dev: 1.81 (true-negative) Human-written
Tayan et al., 2016) (true-negative)
17 Article on “Towards user-centric explanations for explainable 4% 2.34 %
models: A review“ (Hassan et al., 2021) 6886 words (true-negative) Human-written
(true-negative)
18 Article on “Performance Evaluation of a Document Image 0% 0%
Watermarking Approach with Enhanced Tamper Localization and 7776 words (true-negative) Human-written
Recovery” (Laouamer & Tayan, 2018) (true-negative)
19 Article on “Analyzing the Crowd Evacuation Pattern of a Large 0% 5.74
Densely Populated 11,246 words (true-negative) Human-written
Building” (Alginahi, Mudasser, Kabir, Tayan, 2019) (true-negative)
20 Article on “Security Analysis of Smartphone and Cloud Computing 0% 0%
Authentication Frameworks and Protocols” (Siddiqui et al., 2018) 11,680 words (true-negative) Human-written
(true-negative)
21 Role of AI in Smartcities Approach (C) Result File 0% 27.96 %
Partially ChatGPT 1. Input Files (false-negative) Human written
generated & modified 351 words Mean word (false-negative)
22 How can AI be used in Cybersecurity Research topics text (50 %) Result File count: 745.4 52 % 16.15 %
522 words Median word (true-positive) Human-written
count: 606 (false-negative)
2. TFS results
(continued on next page)

13
O. Tayan et al. Machine Learning with Applications 15 (2024) 100513

Table 7 (continued )
Case Assignment or Report Test Approach Chat-GPT Statistical Turnitin Zero-GPT
No. Response & Metrics Feedback AI-detection
Word-Count Analyses Studio (TFS) rate
AI-detection

23 Role of Technology and AI in Mitigating Climate Change Result File Mean: 79 % 100 % 78.94 %
Median: 100 % (true-positive) AI/GPT
551 words Range: 100 (true-positive)
24 The Impact of Renewable Energy and Technology in Achieving Result File St.Dev: 29.16 100 % 90.68 %
Sustainability Goals 569 words 3. Zero-GPT (true-positive) AI/GPT
results (true-positive)
25 Essay on “Sustainable Tourism and Its Impact on the Environment” Result-file Mean: 45.13 % 100 % 86.48 %
605 words Median: 39.8 % (true-positive) AI/GPT
Range: 74.53 (true-positive)
26 Report on “AI and Education: How Artificial Intelligence is Changing Result-file St.Dev: 27.83 100 % 38.59 %
the Classroom” 819 words (true-positive) Some AI/GPT
(true-positive)
27 The Role of Technology in Leveraging Research & Innovation Result File 55 % 16.28 %
Developments at an Emerging Higher Education Institute 939 words (true-positive) Human-written
(false-negative)
28 Essay on “Role of AI in Healthcare: Benefits and Challenges” Result-file 83 % 50.8 %
983 words (true-positive) Some AI/GPT
(true-positive)
29 Benefits of Technology in Early Warning Systems in Natural Result File 100 % 40.93 %
Disasters 1018 words (true-positive) Some AI/GPT
(true-positive)
30 How can Technology and AI be Employed to improve Quality Result File 100 % 24.53 %
Assurance and Gain Accreditation for Academic Programs 1097 words (true-positive) Human-
written, parts
AI/GPT
(true-positive)

increasingly ubiquitous and proliferating. The following points identify
some guidelines for possible technology adoption whilst ensuring ethical
use:
Ø Academic Departments and course instructors are encouraged to
periodically review their program learning outcomes (PLOs) and
course learning outcomes (CLOs) and evaluate which CLOs are likely
to be affected by the proliferation of AI based tools.
Ø Academic Departments and course instructors are encouraged to
review their current course assessment criteria and rubrics to eval­
uate if the criterion requires updates in light of the technological
advances of AI tools in education.
Ø Academic Departments and course instructors are required to
develop or update course policies/guidelines on the use of such
technologies and to what extent their use is permissible in course
assessments and activities, such that achievement of core learning
outcomes is not compromised.
Ø Courses that are significantly affected, such as courses based on
students’ English composition or technical writing abilities, reflected
in CLOs and assessment criteria, may consider banning AI tools for
that course and provide deeper engagement with students, and
monitoring student progress more closely so as to discourage use of
AI tools for selected assessments and core learning outcomes (LOs).
Ø Additionally, course instructors may have frequent discussions with
students, communicate course guidelines, discuss the limitations of
such tools for their particular course and its negative impact on
student development and learning goals, whilst incentivizing student
learning and assessment attempts that are independent from using AI
tools. In such cases, student writing could be supervised (by
observing student writing progress during the term) or by requesting
selected assignments to be hand-written only to discourage use of AI
generated content for assessments.
Ø Courses that are not affected or only slightly affected (e.g. minimum
or no impact on PLOs) may choose to encourage the use of such
technologies in particular cases provided that ethical and academic
integrity policies are adhered to.
Ø In the above two cases, it is important that the instructor commu­
nicates whether such tools are permissible and to what extent they
can be used from the start of the course. The instructor should also
explain the limitations of its use, when independent resources and
composition must be sought, and the boundaries of acceptable use
versus non-acceptable use.
Ø Instructors should note that current AI based tools cannot cite work
correctly, nor can it accurately determine the references used in the
generated content. Therefore, instructors could use this to caution
students why AI-generated content alone is insufficient, inaccurate
and that students should rely more on their own citations/refer­
encing using available resources.
Ø In some cases, course instructors may test their own assignments as
prompts to AI tools to gain an insight of expect AI-generated results.
Moreover, instructors may consider encouraging use of such tools for
some assessments in order to teach students to develop more in-
depth prompts/discussions on key topics, and hence, promote stu­
dent dialogue and develop deeper student learning and critical
thinking skills. Students can then be assessed on their abilities to
develop critical thinking and reasoning skills rather than just
regurgitating standard answers on the topic. This may include stu­
dents’ ability to comment of the strengths and weaknesses or as­
sumptions of answers generated by such tools.
Ø Course instructors are encouraged to use AI detection tools, such as
Turnitin Feedback Studio (TFS) and ZeroGPT where necessary to
discourage use of AI tools for assessments that are not designed for
use with AI tools.
a) Policy Guidelines on Responsible use of AI Tools by Course
Students
Use of AI based tools by students for completing their coursework has
its advantages and disadvantages. Its main advantage is that enables
students to obtain quick information on any topic in a well-written
manner and enables students to improve their written language and
composition. Other notable advantages of the ChatGPT as an LLM in
higher education technology courses includes access to personalized
learning, supplemental and self-paced learning, as well as quick answers
and easy access. However, the use of such tools comes with its conse­
quences and limitations. For example, it may affect student learning and
provide difficulties when assessing students’ actual abilities. Use of such

14
O. Tayan et al. Machine Learning with Applications 15 (2024) 100513

Table 8
Summary of institutional policies used among top 15 universities worldwide.
Rank University Policy Reference/Citation

1 Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT)
2 University of Cambridge
3 Stanford University
4 University of Oxford
5 Harvard
6 Caltech
6 Imperial College London
8 University College London
9 ETH Zurich
10 University of Chicago
11 National University of
Singapore (NUS)
12 Peking University
13 University of Pennsylvania
14 Tsinghua University
15 University of Edinburgh
No institutional level policy, only refers to Faculty in-class policies used. (CMS/W, 2023)
Not permitted (University of Cambridge,
2023)
Permits Faculty instructors to set their own policies regulating generative AI tools. In the absence of (Stanford University, 2023)
faculty course policies, the institution considers its use as not permitted: use of or consultation with
generative AI shall be treated analogously to assistance from another person.
Not permitted (University of Oxford, 2023)
Encourages faculty to allow the use of CGPT and similar AI tools in some (unspecified) cases with points (Harvard Business School, n.
for best practices. Citation of such tools is required. d.)
Refers for Faculty course policies. Provides resources and general guidelines for faculty members. (Kumar, 2023)
Permitted use.
Not permitted (Imperial College London,
2023)
Allows transparency and ethical use of the tool in some cases (University College London,
2023)
No specific policy found. Copy-pasting the output is not acceptable. (ETH Zurich, 2023)
Provides guidelines with no specific institutional policy (Keith, 2023)
Permitted use with guidance to be provided on its use. (National University of
Singapore, 2023)
No official policy found, but use of the technology is not readily available in China. (Peking University, 2023)
Refers to the academic integrity code and encourages faculty to establish their own course policy. (University of Pennsylvania,
2023)
No official policy found, but use of the technology is not readily available in China. (Lili, n.d.)
Original work is required and AI tools can only be used in specific cases based on course LOs and course (The University of
policy. Edinburgh, 2018)

tools may result with students having completed a course and bypassing
key course learning outcomes. An over-reliance of such tools may result
with students being deprived of developing foundational skills. Addi­
tionally, the mentioned tools do not produce accurate results; they are
subject to biases from the training data used, they are poorly equipped in
providing references and cited work, and their use raises academic
integrity concerns. Hence, the use of LLMs in higher education tech­
nology courses raises several alarming issues that needs to be addressed,
including student over-reliance on LLMs, incorrect evaluation of
learning performance, privacy concerns and biased or inaccurate results.
In the absence of a clear course policy regarding the use of AI tools,
students are encouraged to ask permission for using such tools in as­
signments and acknowledge what parts were generated by such tools.
Under no circumstances should students be allowed to submit non-
original work as their own work, which is clearly regarded as plagia­
rism and as an academic violation. Students must observe that unau­
thorized use of AI based tools including submission of AI-generated work
in assessments and exams is considered as an academic violation and is
not permitted. This also includes copy and pasting AI-generated content
as one’s own work. In all cases, it is well understood from exiting uni­
versity policies that submitting AI-generated content as your own work
is considered plagiarism (or at least academic dishonesty), and hence, is
prohibited and would lead to disciplinary procedures being taken.
Discussion
In short, while ChatGPT and AI-based LLMs can provide valuable
support and resources in higher education courses, such tools should not
be considered as a replacement for course instructors or traditional
teaching instruction. In this study, it was found that AI-based LLMs such
as ChatGPT were not always accurate or up-to-date, and therefore stu­
dents should not become over-reliant on them to allow for positive de­
velopments in their critical thinking skills. Additionally, students should
be informed about the potential weaknesses and limitations of AI-
chatbots and remain engaged in discussions, critical thinking exercises
and seek guidance from course instructors on the use of such tools.
Hence, this note of caution, together with the general and specific pol­
icies from Section 5a - Section 5c should be used to guide the responsible
use of ChatGPT and other AI-based chatbots in higher education
technology courses, whilst promoting a balanced approach that har­
nesses the benefits of those tools and respecting the crucial role of
human instructors.
Conclusions
Recent studies have explored some of the potential benefits, limita­
tions and challenges of ChatGPT and other AI based LLM tools, which
are expected to have a profound impact in various sectors including
Higher Education. This study on the contrary has focussed on the impact
of ChatGPT, as one such AI LLM tool, on course assessments and learning
outcomes, with the goal of addressing four key research questions using
quantitative, and qualitative evaluation techniques as well as bench­
marking. A total of 120 qualitative and quantitative test trials were
performed with ChatGPT as part of the evaluation in this study.
First, the performance of ChatGPT in various types of assessments
were analyzed using experimental trials and datasets related to
technology-based courses. Assessments had included open type and
MCQ type questions, which had demonstrated ChatGPT’s superior per­
formance for basic questions, while producing notable errors in more
advanced questions including logic-based questions. Second, a quanti­
tative comparison between Turnitin Feedback Studio software and
ZeroGPT, which had demonstrated TFS’s superior performance in
detecting AI generated content for test cases involving complete or
partially generated AI content, whilst ZeroGPT had produced similar
results for test cases that had involved original content. Finally,
benchmarks of fifteen of the top global universities were presented and
their non-unified policy making with regards to the acceptable use of AI
tools in education was shown. This benchmarking was used together
with the findings on the impact of AI tools on course assessments and
learning outcomes to derive a number of recommendations and
boundaries on the use of such tools in education from the perspective of
course instructors, program designers and students.
Potential limitations of the proposed research including opportu­
nities for future work were noted, and can generally be categorized by
the research scope, accuracy, qualitative or quantitative analysis, and
sampling size. As a result, it was observed that limited sample sizes in
some trials performed in addition to the limited space restrictions had
ensured that some tests were non-exhaustive and had served mainly to

15
O. Tayan et al.
illustrate key concepts rather than accurately deriving anticipated
impact results. Additionally, the sample sizes used played a role in the
accuracy of the trial results, in which more samples produced increased
accuracy within the analysis. Hence, a trade-off had existed between
feasible data collection sample sizes and space restrictions on one hand,
and accuracy on the other hand. Moreover, some trials were performed
using a (non-exhaustive) qualitative analysis which had involved a de­
gree of subjective interpretation such as in the case of determining
impact of assessment types involving ChatGPT on related ABET SOs.
However, such tests were significant and had enabled the determination
of clear insights and recommendations on the role of LLMs such as
ChatGPT in curriculum design and international educational
frameworks.
The general and specific policies described in this study can be used
to drive a number of future strategies concerning the use of AI-chatbots
in academic courses, particularly following the new and anticipated
releases of ChatGPT and other chatbots with enhanced features and
capabilities. Examples of some future directions include:
- provision of multimodal support through the use of speech-to-text
and image inputs, thereby providing enhanced accessibility for stu­
dents with special needs.
- availability of multilingual support and translation for international
and non-English speaking students.
- implementation of an adaptive learning approach that adapts to in­
dividual student’s needs at the level of each student. With adaptive
learning, chatbots may play a future role in guiding students through
practice questions and explaining answers.
- provision of real-world problem-solving by employing ChatGPT or
other chatbots for analyzing data sets using available APIs and by
generating possible approaches or solutions to such problems.
- facilitate collaborative-learning between students by simultaneously
interacting with chatbots and engaging in group discussions.
On a similar note, future research areas could also investigate several
aspects that had emerged from the experiments conducted in this study.
First, experimentation could be extended to cover additional datasets
and test cases, particularly with regards to comparing AI software
detection capacities for the cases involving AI generated content only,
original content only, and mixed content ratios. Second, the extent of
impact on student/program outcomes provided by standard educational
frameworks could be investigated qualitatively or otherwise. Third, the
open type and MCQ questions could be extended for qualitatively
analyzing the impact of AI tools on non-technology related courses,
which were considered within the scope of this paper. Finally, the rec­
ommendations derived on the use of AI tools in education within this
paper could lead to a follow-up where researchers and policy makers to
consider improving on the stated policies or adapting those which are
considered applicable.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Omar Tayan: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Methodology,
Project administration, Supervision, Writing – original draft. Ali Has­
san: Resources, Software, Validation, Writing – original draft. Khaled
Khankan: Investigation, Writing – original draft. Sanaa Askool:
Investigation, Writing – review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
16
Machine Learning with Applications 15 (2024) 100513
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
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