DIPLOMA IN FOOD PREPARATION

AND COOKING | PATISSERIE

8064-02

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UNIT INDEX:

Page 3- 19 -Unit 202 – Understanding Business Success

Pages 20- 25- Units 207 – Food Safety
Page 26-35 - Unit 215 - Prepare, Cook And Finish Cake, Sponge And Biscuit
Products
Page 36- 45- Unit 216 - Prepare, Cook And Finish Pastry Products

Page 46- 49 - Unit 217 - Prepare Cook And Finish Dough Products
Page 50-54- Unit 218 - Prepare cook and finish hot desserts.
Page 55-56 - Unit 219 -Prepare, Cook And Finish Cold Desserts
Page 57-62 - Unit 220- Prepare, Cook And Finish Simple Chocolate Products

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UNIT 202
UNDERSTANDING BUSINESS SUCCESS

WHAT IS A BUSINESS?
A business is the activity of making ones living or making money by producing or buying
and selling products (such as goods and services).
A business is a repeatable process that creates and delivers.
Something of value that other people want or need at a price.

They`re willing to pay to that satisfies the customer`s needs and expectation. So that the
business brings in enough profit. Enough profit to make it worthwhile for the owners to
continue operation. Business can be for profit entities or they can be non-profit organisations
that operate to fulfil a charitable mission or further a social cause.

Importance of Knowledge of Laws in the Hospitality Industry

The hospitality industry encompasses arts, entertainment, recreation, accommodation and
food services. Industry laws relate to guests and employees, and include legislation on
employee health and safety, labour laws, environmental protection, hygiene, alcohol
licensing regulations, negligence, privacy and contracts. It is important for industry
entrepreneurs and managers to know these laws to promote employee welfare, ensure
adequate service to guests, manage business exposure to risk, and maintain complete
compliance with state and federal laws.

Employee Welfare
Service providers ought to be well-versed with all labour laws, given the unique employment
attributes in the hospitality industry. Unique challenges exist due to the nature of the work
and the variety of employees that exist in the industry. There are permanent and seasonal
workers regulated differently under the law. The hospitality industry also takes on underage
workers who work part-time and have specific protections under the law. Considering that
the hospitality industry tends to operate 24 hours a day, throughout the year, entrepreneurs
and managers have to guard against violation of wage and overtime laws, which guard
against overworking and underpaying employees. It is also important to know about the
occupational health and safety laws that protect employees at work.

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Client Service
Operators in the industry are expected to ensure clients' welfare and are legally liable when
they fail to meet it adequately. Client services range from food preparation and service;
ensuring general hygienic conditions, and offering adequate security to prevent criminal
activity, which includes assuring the safety of guests and protecting their privacy and
confidentiality. Operators need to know their legal duties and refrain from placing clients at
risk of injury, illness, embarrassment or loss due to ignorance or negligence.

Risk Exposure
Because offering hospitality spans a wide array of services, it is important to know all the
laws that apply to manage the industry's exposure to risk. Hospitality industry service
providers face the risk of lawsuits based on breach of contract arising out of relationships
with suppliers and guests, tortious claims such as when a guest gets injured due to
negligence, and bankruptcy when the business is not making enough to pay the bills. The
industry is also vulnerable to risks arising out of gambling and liquor licensing laws that
regulate when and where alcohol can be served and the legal drinking age, as businesses can
be held liable even when it is their guests who breach the law. Therefore, industry
entrepreneurs and managers need awareness of laws to avoid exposure to risk that can lead to
disruption or even closure of the business.

Legal Compliance
State and federal laws prescribe standards for every industry, and in the hospitality realm,
there are a number of relevant laws that service providers must follow. Laws on guest-tenant
relationships, maintenance of public health through the creation of smoke-free zones and
food hygiene standards apply directly to the industry. Legislation on consumer safeguards,
such as protection from misrepresentation and false advertising, as well as disability
discrimination due to lack of access, also affect the industry. Service providers require
comprehensive knowledge of all applicable laws to effectively manage all the legal issues
that arise in the course of operating their business.

Employment Law
One of the key legal arenas for an organization is employment law. Human resources take on
much of the responsibility in staying on top of the ever-changing employment law
environment. The way in which you compensate, hire, manage and interact with employees
encompasses various legal risks. Discrimination by company leaders, for instance, could lead
to lawsuits and even criminal claims against those involved. Ensuring you follow all legal
requirements in the way you hire and manage is critical to long-term success.

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Ethical Responsibilities
The ethical expectations of a business are often discussed in conjunction with the legal
environment. The line between laws and ethics is often very fine. Some activities carry
ethical risks, but don't necessarily violate laws. A common example is environmental
expectations informally held by communities and customers. While your company may not
always face legal repercussions if it doesn't actively recycle and preserve natural resources, it
risks negative backlash from activist groups and community leaders.

Personal Protection Equipment

Restaurant owners must provide appropriate protective equipment for employees. For
example, kitchen workers involved in food preparation might be exposed to cutting and
laceration hazards using knives and handling sharp blades. In certain circumstances, it might
be necessary for the employer to provide steel mesh or Kevlar gloves as hand protection to
comply with OSHA (Occupational safety, health Act) regulations.

Preparing for Hazards

OSHA regulations recognize the potential for certain workplace hazards, such as excessive
heat, and requires employers to adequately prepare to address potential hazards. For
restaurants, a hot kitchen environment can pose a potential heat hazard by causing health
problems such as heat exhaustion and heat stroke. Although OSHA regulations do not set
standards on what constitutes a hot working environment, employers are still required to
protect employees from heat-related hazards. OSHA does provide a heat index that indicates
what level of protective measures must be taken when a working environment reaches heat
ranges between 91 degrees up to 115 degrees or higher.

Liability
Your business is responsible for harm that its products or services may inflict on customers.
If you sell food, you must take precautions to ensure it will not make people sick. If you
operate a taxi service, you must make sure your drivers are safe and sober, so they do not
hurt customers by causing accidents. Being mindful of customer safety is a legal obligation,
but it also makes good business sense: Customers who are hurt as a result of your negligence
are unlikely to become repeat customers, and negative publicity about your negligence can
multiply the damage to your business.

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Data Security Concerns
Online operations can expose a company to threats related to data security. Web companies
collect private information from customers such as names, email addresses, street addresses
and credit card numbers to carry out transactions that malicious web users may attempt to
access. Losing sensitive customer information can hurt a business's reputation. Web hackers
can also attempt exploit security flaws to crash websites, so web stores may not always be
accessible to consumers.

IMPLICATIONS OF NON-COMPLIANCE WITH REGULATIONS TO A HOSPITALITY

BUSINESS

Fines
Perhaps the first and most obvious consequence is the possibility of the organisation being
fined for non-compliance. Fines for the most serious safety breaches are now routinely in the
hundreds of thousands of pounds. Coupled with the need to pay not only your own legal
costs but also those of the prosecution, non-compliance with legislation is a costly exercise.

Imprisonment
Individuals can be imprisoned for breaches of health and safety law, with sentences of up to
six months in the Magistrates’ Courts and up to two years in the Crown Courts.
Even individuals that avoid a custodial sentence will have to live with the stigma of a
criminal conviction, which could restrict their ability to work in certain industry sectors or
travel abroad.
Remember, both employers AND employees can be prosecuted under criminal law,
sometimes simultaneously.

Loss of Reputation
Any organisation which fails to comply with legislation runs the risk of a loss of reputation
and with it the loss of customers.
Increasingly, companies look carefully at the safety record of potential business partners and
requests for details of any safety convictions have become standard on tender questionnaires.
The damage caused to an organisation’s reputation by a criminal conviction could last longer
than the initial financial outlay.

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Loss of Current or Potential Staff
If you were applying for a job with a company whom you found had been prosecuted under
Health & safety legislation, or who been found to have broken employment or human rights
law, would you think twice?
You probably would not want to work for an organisation which had a poor record in these
areas and so your expertise and knowledge would be lost to the company.

Down Time and Loss of Productivity

Breaches of certain laws often result in an organisation having to cease production until the
errors have been rectified. This loss of production will inevitably result in a loss of income
which, in a worst-case scenario, could result in the company going out of business.
You may now be able to see how important it is that an organisation remains compliant with
all legislation. With the emphasis on health and safety that comes with facilities
management, coupled with other areas such as employment and human rights laws, the
Facilities Manager plays a key role in enabling the organisation to remain compliant.

Legal responsibilities for employees and employers:

All employees must:

• Comply with relevant laws and protect their own safety and health, as well as the
safety and health of anyone who may be affected by their acts or omissions at work.
• Ensure that they are not under the influence of any intoxicant to the extent that they
could be a danger to themselves or others while at work.
• Cooperate with their employer with regard to safety, health and welfare at work.
• Not engage in any improper conduct that could endanger their own safety or health or
that of anyone else.
• Participate in safety and health training offered by their employer.
• Make proper use of all machinery, tools, substances, etc. and of all Personal Protective
Equipment provided for use at work.
• Report any defects in the place of work, equipment, etc. which might endanger safety
and health.

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All Employers Must:
• Provision and maintenance of safe and hazard-free systems of work e.g. equipment
• The elimination or mitigation of any hazard or potential hazard;
• Ensuring the safety of employees and absence of risks to their health in connection
with the production, processing, use, storage of chemical substances
• Determining the risks to the health or safety of persons relating to any work that is
performed; establishing what precautionary measures should be taken to protect the
health and safety of persons; and providing the necessary means to apply such
precautionary measures.
• Providing the necessary information, instructions, training and supervision;
• Not permitting any employee to do any form of work or to operate any plant or
machinery, unless the precautionary measures contemplated above, or any other
precautionary measures have been taken;
• Taking all necessary measures to ensure that the provisions of this Act are complied
with Enforcing such measures;
• Ensuring that all work is performed under the general supervision of a person trained
to ensure that precautionary measures taken by the employer are implemented

Consequences Of Not Applying Good Health And Safety Practices

Lifting/Handling
The second-most common workplace injury is lifting/handling accidents, clocking in at 22
percent of all non-fatal injuries.
Injuries from lifting and handling heavy items tend to revolve around muscle strains. Back
pain, neck pain, arm pain, and leg pain can all result of a lifting or handling injury. These
injuries usually occur over a stretch of time where you are frequently handling heavy goods,
but it is possible to injure yourself from a one-off heavy item lifting situation. Your
workplace ought to provide training for handling heavy goods, as well as relevant lifting
apparatus where needed.
Prevention:
• Training on how to lift heavy goods
• Using apparatus to help lifting, where available
• If you think lifting equipment should be in place for a task, speak to your employer.
Employees are often the best eyes and ears for potential risks!
• Ask for help with lifting heavy items

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Slips, Trips and Falls
Accidents of this nature are the most common among non-fatal injuries to employees,
accounting for 29 percent of the most common non-fatal accident kinds. It’s hardly
surprising, given the nature of such accidents — nearly every workplace has the capacity to
develop a slip or trip hazard! A spilled drink in the office, a curled rug corner in a shop, or
something bigger like an oil or chemical spill in a factory. These things happen, but the
problem arises when the spills and trip hazards aren’t addressed immediately, turning the risk
into a cause.
This is when an accident becomes a work accident, as a failure to follow or implement a
process (i.e. the workplace is at fault for not having a necessary routine to address the spill or
trip hazard before an accident materialised).
Prevention:
• Signs for slippery areas
• Danger tape to highlight any potential trip hazards, such as steps or uneven flooring
• Non-slip footwear
• Signs to signal any recent spills
• Adequate lighting
• A process in place that has spills tended to immediately

Your failure to install adequate health and safety procedures can result in serious injuries or
fatalities. A work-related illness or injury can not only put an employee out of work for a
while and impact their quality of life; it may also damage your business’s productivity,
finances, and reputation – all of which can be difficult to recover from. other failures include
loss of reputation and prosecution.
The simplest way of keeping your premises safe is to carry out a risk assessment of your
buildings and site. This will help to identify anything of a serious nature that has the
potential to cause harm.

Importance of Knowledge of Laws in the Hospitality Industry

A working knowledge of laws governing the hospitality industry isn't just a nice bonus piece
of knowledge. Employees, managers and other staff members need to know enough about
the various hospitality laws or innkeepers’ laws as they are sometimes referred to in state
law, to avoid breaking them. This goes for hotels and other lodging places, restaurants, and
also bars, country clubs, spas, convention facilities and any other places that serve food or
provide places for overnight stays. Failing to follow local, state and federal laws can result in
fines, lawsuits and negative publicity, all of which can be disastrous to a hospitality firm.
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Protecting Your Reputation
Knowledge of hospitality regulations protects your business's reputation. Of course, unsafe
or unsanitary conditions affect your reputation, but there are many other laws you need to
follow as well. For example, hotels have to provide access to disabled patrons, and if your
business fails to comply, you could face lawsuits, protests and negative publicity. Similarly,
discriminating against people on the basis of sex, race, religion, disability status or age can
draw unwanted negative attention. Staff members should be trained to understand what
constitutes discrimination so they're aware of their legal obligation to respect diverse
workers and patrons.

Honouring Agreements and Fair Marketing

Workers in the hospitality industry may be members of unions, and some unions have
specific agreements with employers governing wages, working conditions and benefits. Your
management staff needs to honour these agreements, as well as any contracts you've signed
with customers, vendors and contractors. Similarly, hotels must adopt fair and honest
marketing practices. Deceptive marketing is illegal. For example, if you advertise one price,
then an employee refuses to offer that price to a patron, you could be sued for deceptive
marketing. Advertising an "as low as" price could be considered a form of "bait and switch"
advertising if that price seems to never be available and customers are instead guided to
higher-priced accommodations.

Record-Keeping for Hospitality Laws

You may at times be overwhelmed by the amount of record keeping in the hospitality
industry. Yet, such records could become quite valuable resources if you need to prove
adherence to any of the numerous hospitality laws. Food businesses have to maintain tip
sheets indicating the tips employees receive at tip-out, and all hospitality businesses must
keep accurate and up-to-date employment agreements and payroll tax paperwork. Employees
who know and understand the hospitality laws can keep more accurate records and will be
less likely to throw away or delete important documentation. Without proper record-keeping,
your business could get into trouble with a variety of governmental agencies, over or
underpay employees and even miss out on important tax deductions.

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IMPORTANCE OF HEALTH AND SAFETY FOR OUR GUESTS
Guests are open to a variety of risks when staying at a hotel. While it’s impossible to
highlight every risk they’re open to, we’ve picked some of the more important ones to
discuss. You’re able to prevent these risks through good management, supervision and
effective training.
1.Slips, trips and falls: Your duty of care places responsibility on you to maintain the
property to a reasonable standard. This includes fixing dangerous conditions and taking steps
to protect guests. It’s important to remember that you can be held liable for injuries to guests
even if it’s out of the negligence of an employee.
2.Food safety: It’s important to avoid food contamination to prevent the spread of salmonella
or E. coli. Encourage proper food handling to avert lawsuits, compensation claims and
general loss of reputation for your brand.
3.Liquor liability: Any business that serves alcohol is open to potential risks of injury both
on and off your property. Providing your employees with appropriate training is essential to
mitigate these risks. You should also remember to consider licensing and identifications.
4.Bedbugs: While this isn’t the sexiest of topics, it’s a common fear shared by hotel owners
and goers worldwide. An infestation can lead to many health risks including uncomfortable
itches and welts. Consider precautions sure as extensive cleaning and vacuuming daily and
between guests. In case of infestation, throw away offending materials (towels, sheets, etc.)
and encase the mattress in protective covers. Carry regular checks recognizing the signs of
bed bug eggs as early as possible.
5.Transportation: It’s not uncommon for hotels to provide transportation for their visitors. In
these cases, problems may occur when accidents happen. It’s important to train drivers on
the correct procedures and regulations when driving company property. Remember to
conduct all the necessary checks when screening drivers including licenses, background,
education, training etc.

5 Tips For Keeping Your Guests’ Safe

Here are some of the best practices to create a balance between keeping visitors having fun
and keeping them safe:
1.Training staff: The first step to securing safety is to train your employees on how they can
recognise and eliminate risks around the building. Hotels are generally held to a high
standard so it’s important to train staff on your procedures and processes.
2.Educating guests: That leads us nicely to the next tip which is to educate your guests on
potential risks and how to avoid them. Ensure that they understand their safety and security
responsibilities.

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3.First Aid: Because injuries can happen at any time, it’s important to make first aid
accessible to everyone on the property. Remember to place first aid boxes close to areas with
high risks of injuries including the gym and swimming pool.
4.Uniform: By providing your staff with appropriate uniforms, you’re eliminating the risks
of work-related injuries. Remember that your maintenance staff will require different attire
from their colleagues working with food. Providing these reduces the possibility of
transferring dangerous substances to your guests.
5.Communication: Because practices and procedures are different at every establishment,
training and signage are important to ensure guests and employees are familiar with the
processes at your property (in general and at times of emergencies). Remember to install
signage at entrances, fire exits, parking lots and more.

Emergency Procedures
All employers are obligated to ensure staff are trained in workplace emergency procedures.
This may include what to do in case of a fire, earthquake, or other emergency; identifying
locations of emergency exits; and processes to follow to evacuate the building in the case of
an emergency. These procedures are site specific and should be a part of the training for all
new employees. In addition, regular drills or reviews of procedures are important to ensure
that if an actual emergency occurs, everyone is able to react accordingly and safely.
Orientation to any new job site, even if temporary, should always include the following
information:
Location of emergency exits
Location of first aid supplies or the procedures to call for an attendant
Location of fire extinguishers
Evacuation procedures and muster stations
Any hazards present on the site

(https://protect.iu.edu/emergency-planning/procedures/building-evacuation.html)

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Factors That Influence Profitability

Increasing revenue return:

1. Return on return is a measure of profitability based on the amount of revenue generated.
2. Revenue return may also simply be referred to as revenue.
Example: any form of income generated by the business.

Knowing Break-Even Point:

The break-even point of a business is the amount of income required to pay for all of a
business’s expenses.
Example: if your monthly expenses total to R50,000 then the income required to reach your
break-even point is R50,000. Any less is a loss and any more is a profit.

Increasing Operational Efficiency And Performance:

Operational efficiency can be defined as the ratio between an output gained from the
business and an input to run a business operation.
Example: your kitchen staff contributes 10 hours per shift and in that time, you expect a
certain number of tables/plates to be served within that time. You have an expectation of the
time required to complete a task during service. If an expeditor is not efficiently
communicating between the restaurant and kitchen, then orders will not be processed
efficiently, and the performance of the team as a whole will be affected.

Reducing Costs:
Some expenses may not be entirely necessary or should be reduced. You may even hold too
much inventory related to slow moving menu items. In cases such as these, decisions need to
be made by management to reduce costs.
Example: your restaurant is open from 7am to 10pm, breakfast service is not busy at all
during weekdays. A decision may be made to open from 10am to 10pm on weekdays to
reduce the costs required to keep the restaurant running during periods when sales are low.

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Ways Of Increasing Revenue

Staff training:
Upskilling your staff is a medium to long term method of increasing revenue by increasing
the quality of service.
Example: sending waitrons to customer service training, which will improve customer
satisfaction and may result in return customers.

Marketing:
Promoting your business via social, printed and digital media.
Example: mass printing flyers, television advertising and a company website.

Increasing competitiveness:
Both pricing and product quality influence how competitive you are.
Example: having a similar menu to a competitor, to remain competitive you have to ensure
that either your pricing or product is superior.

Increase perceived value:

Perceived value is a customer's own perception of a product or service's merit or desirability
to them, especially in comparison to a competitor's product.
Example: a customer may already have the price of a certain menu item in mind based on
previous experience, based on the quality of your product in comparison, they may be
willing to pay more for your product if it is superior to your competitor.

Up-sell at every opportunity when interacting with guests:

Convincing customers to buy more expensive products.
Example: convincing a customer to buy a cappuccino instead of a filter coffee.

Increase sales of branded merchandise or local partners:

Promotion of merchandise of both the business and its affiliates.
Example: Using a particular brand of condiments on tables.

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Respond to guest requests:
Having a suggestion box as well as taking into consideration any customer complaints and
advice.

Ways To Increase Operational Efficiency And Performance

Standard operating procedure:

A standard operating procedure is a set of step-by-step instructions compiled by an
organization to help workers carry out routine operations.
Example: cleaning procedures, emergency evacuation plans.

Evaluate performance:
An organisation may develop methods of measuring the performance of its employees, to
weed out any employees that are under skilled or inefficient.
Example: kitchen checklists and scheduled performance evaluations.

Influence or use technological improvements:

A business that wants to be efficient in this day and age will require technological
improvements to maintain competitiveness.
Example: changing from a manual cash register to a sophisticated POS system.

Training of staff:
Refer to *Staff Training
Implementation of better supervision practices:
Having a proper hierarchy as well as having systems in place to allow employees in
supervisory positions to efficiently manage staff.

Upgrading of equipment and supplies:

Improvement of equipment may help improve efficiency when performing tasks and
improving supplies may improve the quality of your product.
Example: new stoves may alleviate risks of improperly cooked food and improving your
supply of meat may improve the quality of your meat dishes.

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Outsource when appropriate:
Not all tasks within an organisation need to be performed by employees, especially if they
are infrequent tasks. Something like IT or accounting can definitely be outsourced within the
restaurant industry.

Identify The Main Costs Associated With A Hospitality Business

Fixed costs:
Expenses that do not change month on month.
Example: rent, insurance, internet and software expenses.

Staff or labour costs:

Expenses related to sourcing and paying for labour.
Example: Salaries, wages, PAYE, UIF and staff training.

Rent:
Expenses related to the rental of land or buildings.

Equipment costs:
Costs related to the purchase of equipment required to operate the business.
Example: stoves, refrigeration and handheld cooking utensils.

Variable costs:
Expenses that vary month on month.
Example: inventory purchases, utilities, commissions.

Food and beverage stock costs:

Expenses related to the purchase of inventory, including transport costs.

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Utilities:
Expenses related to the public services received and required to operate the business as well
as keep the business property running.
Example: Water & electricity.

Maintenance costs:
The costs associated with keeping equipment and machinery in good condition, by regularly
inspecting and repairing when necessary.
Example: costs related to the upkeep of your stoves i.e. gas inspections, cleaning and repairs.

Sundries:
Expenses that do not warrant a category of their own as they are infrequent or outside of
your business norms.
Example: flowers, toiletries and straws

Even with less expensive technology and marketing tools, running a business cost money,
and those costs increase regularly. To help keep your profits up, you need to control
expenditures such as time management, reducing waste, monitor and evaluate costs within
the business, manage and reduce the use of power and utilities such as water, electricity and
gas, time management, replace obsolete or update old equipment.

It is very important to monitor a wide range of “performance indicators” in your business, in

order to ensure that appropriate and timely decisions and plans can be made.

Given that sales, profit margins and cash flow are the lifeblood of any business, owners
should place particular emphasis on receiving regular reports on these areas of the business.

Knowing the financial position becomes even more important as the business grows,
especially if your plan is to grow the business substantially.

Lack of a precise and timely knowledge of the current financial position can lead to business
failure and have other consequences for the directors/owners.

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People Skills That Contribute to Business Success

Communication
If you’re not touching base with the members of your leadership team at least once a day,
you’re missing an opportunity to get ahead of any potential challenges. Studies have also
shown that regular facetime with the boss improves job satisfaction, thereby reducing
turnover. Take every opportunity you can to give your title a face and a personality with the
people you’re leading. They need to know you see them, and they need to see you in return.

Personal Attention
This could be as simple as a quick check-in question like, “Are you all settled into your new
house?” or asking about a hobby or the family. Be prepared to spend a few minutes with
each team member talking about non-business topics that speak to that person’s values.
Personal attention conveys caring, and people like to be seen and understood.

Active Listening
When you ask about the family or the vacation, really listen to the answer. Active listening is
the art of silencing your brain and not thinking about your response while the other person is
talking. Instead, commit to asking at least one additional follow-up question based on the
other person’s answer, repeating back to them some part of what they said. That requires that
you be fully engaged in the conversation. If you’re a good listener, your team will consider
you more likable and trustworthy and be more apt to come to you with issues before they
negatively impact the company.

Empathy
You know that empathy means being able to put yourself in someone else’s shoes, but don’t
get bogged down trying to figure out too many of those details. Instead, when faced with
difficulty communicating, ask for direct feedback. Empathy helps you tailor your
management style to your team members—building trust and opening up the lines of
communication.

Sharing
Interpersonal relationships are a two-way street, so remember to share a bit about you in the
process. Don’t over-share but do allow glimpses into your personal life. Let your team see
that you’re human; it’s an insight into your values and personality that could help your
leadership team follow you more readily because they know you personally.
They are also a few other people skills contributions such as having professional work
practice and attitude, being a team player and being guest focused.
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Why is product knowledge important and how does it successfully contribute to a
business?
Product knowledge is an essential sales skill. Understanding your products' features allows
you to present their benefits accurately and persuasively. Customers respond to enthusiastic
sales staff that are passionate about their products and eager to share the benefits with them.
It also helps respond to guest requests or queries, helps meet or exceed guest expectations,
provides confidence with engaging with guest, provides an opportunity to sell and increase
revenue and also increases brand awareness and reputation.

Why is teamwork important?

Creating a successful team environment in the hospitality industry is essential to an efficient
and profitable business. Teamwork, team structure, and communication are key elements in
creating a successful team. Individual and team roles need to be clearly defined, goals, and
objectives need to be achievable, and need to have feedback and development constructive.
Communication needs to be clear and concise, and always conveyed in a friendly, respectful,
and professional manner.

Why is technology a vital aspect in the hospitality industry?

Information Technology has played an important role in the hospitality and tourism industry
over the last decade. Technology has helped reduce costs, enhance operational efficiency,
and improve services and customer experience. ... This helps reduce labour costs, but also
helps avoid customer service issues. Some hospitality examples are ICT (information
communication technology). Such as cell phones, wireless networks, internet, social
networking’s. Other examples include CCTV, room booking facilities, software apps,
electronic point of sales, faster payment systems, room booking systems and digital
monitoring of equipment. Businesses’ use of personal data from consumers is at risk and
recommends key strategies and principles to properly protect consumer data, build trust and
simultaneously grow their businesses. Such risks will cause legal action, loss of data
breaches, misuse of important, financial or business sensitive data, bad publicity, loss of
reputation, loss of guest confidence and brand damage.

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UNIT 207
FOOD SAFETY

INTRODUCTION

Food hygiene is critical in the management of food. It ensures the safety of food from
production to consumption. Food can become contaminated at any point during slaughtering
or harvesting, processing, storage, distribution, transportation and preparation.
Lack of adequate food hygiene can lead to foodborne diseases and death of the consumer.
Part of the problem stems from the fact that a lot of agricultural areas are becoming
contaminated by over-use of fertilizers and groundwater pollution. Once food has reached
the supermarket or the restaurant it should have been tested and scrutinized to the point
where it is undoubtedly safe for us to consume. This is often not the case and so knowledge
of food hygiene is necessary. It is easy enough to debate why we are no longer able to
combat these illnesses as well as we used to, how something in our lifestyles has made us
less resilient and how perhaps the over-use of antibiotics has stripped away some of our
natural immunity, however, the occurrence of food-borne illnesses is something that we have
to learn to live with and from which we must protect ourselves.

1.) Hygienic Practices

Key Rules Food Handlers Must Follow

• Practice high standards of personal hygiene as listed

• Wear clean uniforms
• Use separate storage areas for raw foods. If this is not possible, NEVER store raw
foods above cooked foods, as raw foods can drip onto cooked foods and
contaminate them.
• Different types of foods should be stored in separate containers and on different
shelves in the refrigerator.
• Cool cooked foods as quickly as possible. Food cooked in large batches should be
divided into smaller containers so that it will cool more quickly
• Use separate preparation areas, utensils and equipment for raw and cooked food
• Wash salad vegetables and fruit thoroughly before cooking or serving
• Perishable food must be stored at a temperature below 7°C
• Food that is kept hot must be held at a temperature above 82°C
• Frozen food to be thawed should be placed in the refrigerator and allowed to
defrost slowly
• Defrosted food should be cooked and eaten as soon as possible. NEVER refreeze
food that has already been defrosted
• Ensure the temperatures of fridges and freezers are correct
• Cover food
• Keep food within the safe temperature zones
• Keep pets and live animals out of the kitchen
• Do not re-use any disposable items
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How To Ensure Food Does Not Get Infected

• Persons who are ill should not work with food

• All food handlers must observe the practices of personal hygiene
• Rodents and insects must be strictly controlled
• Equipment and utensils must be clean and sanitary
• Food must be stored outside the `danger zone` i.e. below 7°C and above 63°C
• Kitchen walls, floors, etc. must be washed and sanitised daily
• Food supply must come from uncontaminated sources

Prevention Of Bacterial Infection By Cross-Contamination

• Ensure food is obtained from reliable suppliers

• Handle foods as little as possible: use tongs, palette knives, plastic gloves, etc
• Ensure utensils and work surfaces are clean and sanitised
• Pay attention to the handling of raw eggs, poultry, meat and fish
• Wash raw fruits and vegetables
• Clean as you go
• Keep foods covered as much as possible
• Have boards and knives coloured for particular foods, for example red for meat, blue for
fish, green for fruit and vegetables and white for cheese and bread
• Take care when reheating prepared foods
• Main kitchen and pastry equipment should be kept separate

2.) Types Of Micro-Organisms

Micro-organisms are divided into six groups, three of which can directly affect food:

1. PROTAZOA: Single celled organisms.

2. ALGAE: Green slimy appearance in stagnant water (harmless).
3. VIRUSES: They must live in a host - plant or animal.
4. BACTERIA: Wide variety (discussed in detail below).
5. YEASTS: Wild and cultivated.
6. MOULDS: Can be seen with the naked eye, e.g. mould on bread.

Yeast And Moulds

Yeast and mould are organisms that are of great importance to the food industry. These two
species, which both belong to the Fungus family, are very different from bacteria. Bacteria
are more commonly associated with food-borne illnesses. Hundreds of yeast and mould
species exist.

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Moulds

These are simple micro-organisms, which appear like whiskers on foods, especially sweet
foods, meats and cheese. To grow, they require warmth, air, moisture, darkness and food.
They are killed by heat and sunlight. Moulds can grow where there is too little moisture for
yeast and bacteria to grow, and will be found on jams and pickles.
Although not harmful, they do cause food to taste stale and to be wasted - the top layer of a
jar of jam should be removed if it has mould on it.
Correct storage in a dry, cool store prevents moulds from forming.
Not all moulds are destructive; e.g. some are used to flavour cheese (Stilton, Roquefort) or to
produce antibiotics (penicillin and streptomycin).

Yeasts

These are single-celled plants or organisms larger than bacteria, which grow on foods
containing moisture and sugar. Foods containing only a small percentage of sugar and a large
percentage of liquid, such as fruit juices and syrups, are liable to ferment because of yeasts.
Although they rarely cause disease, yeasts do increase food spoilage, so food items should be
kept under refrigeration. Yeasts are also destroyed by extreme heat. The ability of yeast to
feed on sugar, break down carbohydrates and ferment is the basis of the beer and wine-
making industry.

Bacteria

Bacteria are single-celled microscopic living organisms that can exist either as independent
(free-living) organisms or as parasites (dependent on another organism for life). They are
more commonly known as ‘germs’. There are millions of types of bacteria and while most
bacteria are harmless, there are a few that can cause severe illness if allowed to multiply and
grow under certain conditions. They vary in size and are found in water, soil and air, on our
skin, in our mouths and on almost all fresh foods. 78

It is very important for food handlers to know what these conditions are, so that they can be
avoided.
The problem occurs because you cannot see, taste or smell bacteria in food. Therefore you
must practice very strict standards of hygiene to prevent their growth.

3.) Bacteria

• They are everywhere in our surroundings and as most bacteria cannot move
themselves they are transferred to something by coming into contact with it.
• Some bacteria become spores which can withstand high temperatures for long periods
of time (up to six hours) and once favourable conditions return the bacteria will again
multiply.
• Some bacteria produce toxins outside their cells which then mix with the food. The
food itself is poisoned and symptoms of food poisoning follow within a few hours.
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 • Other bacteria cause food poisoning by virtue of large numbers of bacteria in food
entering the digestive system, multiplying further and setting up an infection.
• Certain bacteria produce toxins which are resistant to heat. Foods in which toxins have
been produced may still cause illness, even though the food is heated to boiling point
and boiled for half an hour.
• Bacteria multiply by dividing in two, under favourable conditions, once every twenty
minutes. Therefore one bacterium can multiply in ten to twelve hours to between one
million and thousand-million bacteria.
• Not all bacteria are harmful. Some are useful, such as those used in cheese production.
Some cause food spoilage, such as souring milk.
• Some bacteria which are conveyed by food cause diseases other than food poisoning,
known as food-borne illness.
• Typhoid and paratyphoid are diseases caused by harmful bacteria carried in food and
water. Scarlet fever and tuberculosis may be caused by drinking milk that has not been
pasteurised.
• The time between eating the contaminated food (ingestion) to the beginning of
symptoms (onset) depends on the type of bacteria which has caused the illness.

Bacterial Growth

In order to multiply, bacteria need four things:

• Warmth
• Food
• Moisture
• Time

1. WARMTH

Food poisoning bacteria multiply rapidly at body temperature, 37°C. They grow between
temperatures of 7°C and 63°C. This is a similar heat to a badly ventilated kitchen and for this
reason foods should not be kept in the kitchen. They should be kept in a refrigerator.
Lukewarm water is the ideal heat for bacteria to grow in. Hot water must be used for
washing up. Boiling water will kill bacteria in a few seconds, but to destroy toxins, boiling
for half an hour is necessary. To kill heat-resistant spores, four to five hours of boiling is
required.
Bacteria are not killed by cold although they do not multiply at very low temperatures: in a
deep freeze they lay dormant (passive) for long periods. If food has been contaminated
before being made cold, on raising the temperature the bacteria will multiply.

2. FOOD

The foods that provide bacteria with the right conditions for growth are generally moist
foods such as meat, dairy and egg products as well as moist cereal products like steamed
rice.

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 3. MOISTURE

Bacteria require moisture for growth: they cannot multiply on dry food. Ideal foods for their
growth are jellies, meats, custards, creams and sauces.

4. TIME

Under ideal conditions one bacterium divides into two every twenty minutes. In six to seven
hours millions of bacteria will have been produced. Particular care therefore is required with
foods stored overnight.

Key Sources Of Bacteria

o Raw food such as meat, fish, poultry, eggs and dairy

o foods
o Food items
o Food handlers
o Rubbish
o Surfaces
o Equipment

Types Of Bacteria

Certain types of bacteria are good for us (e.g. can aid in digestion of foods), yet other types
are harmful for us and some do neither.

1. BENEFICIAL BACTERIA: Aid man in the production of food items such as cheese,
buttermilk, yoghurt, sauerkraut and pickles. Also aid in the production of antibiotics and
compost.
2. BENIGN BACTERIA: Are neither beneficial nor harmful to man. The majority of
bacteria belong in this group.
3. SPOILAGE BACTERIA: Are capable of decomposing our food supply and causing
economic loss on all levels.
4. PATHOGENIC BACTERIA: Are capable of causing illness. This group is very important
to us from a public point of view and therefore requires our attention throughout this lesson.

PATHOGENIC BACTERIA

• INFECTIVE: Where the bacteria is present in the food, are consumed by the person
and then multiplies in the intestines, causing illness.
• TOXIC: The bacteria release toxic substances into the food, which when consumed,
poisons the person.

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 • Food poisoning is the result of mishandled food. The severity and time taken to
display symptoms vary according to the following:
• The type of organism causing the illness.
• The age or health of the person consuming the food.
• The number of bacteria/the amount of toxin consumed.

SPORES

The majority of bacteria possess a fragile and thin wall around the cell. This cell is called a
vegetative cell.
Some rod-shaped bacteria contain spores that are thick-walled and tough. Spores are able to
withstand cold, heat, drought and other adverse conditions, which the thin-walled vegetative
cells cannot endure. These are formed when the cells are faced with adverse conditions, such
as high temperature, once suitable conditions are re-established the spores germinate to form
new cells. This fact is important to remember for chefs as it directly relates to bacterial
growth or multiplication, on warm foodstuffs.

Close examination of the simple cell reveals that it is composed of the following
components:

• CELL WALL: This gives the cell its shape and retains the constituents.
• CELL MEMBRANE: Used for filtering in food molecules and discharging waste
products.
• NUCLEUS: Where the genetic material of the cell is stored.
• CYTOPLASM: A semi liquid proteinaceous substance, which contains starch, fat and
enzymes.

REPRODUCTION

When thin-walled bacteria multiply, they split in two. This process repeats itself many times,
as long as conditions are favourable.

(https://www.newfoodmagazine.com/article/28829/food-safety-business/)

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UNIT 215
PREPARE, COOK AND FINISH CAKE, SPONGE AND BISCUIT
PRODUCTS

INTRODUCTION

Cakes are enjoyed after a meal, for afternoon tea or on special occasions. To make good
cakes and cake products, it is necessary to know a wide range of recipes and to understand
the principles of their preparation. Practice is essential to develop the lightness of touch
required to produce products of a high standard.
Sponge cakes are made from the three ingredients that no baker can do without:

EGGS
SUGAR
FLOUR

Some sponges may contain butter as well. Classically made sponges (Genoise in French) do
not contain baking powder or bicarbonate of soda; their volume and light texture come solely
from the air whisked into the eggs.

FORMULA BALANCE

All cake and sponge recipes are based on a formula, which determines the ratios of sugar,
flour and eggs.
• A heavy or rich cake contains equal parts eggs (225g or 4 eggs), sugar (225g) and
flour (225g) in weight. This recipe is the commonly used recipe for a standard half-
pound cake.
• A medium-bodied cake contains 225g eggs, 140g sugar and 140g flour.
• A light-bodied cake contains 225g eggs, 115g sugar and 115g flour.

INGREDIENTS

EGGS

In any sponge formula, the weight of the eggs is always used as the basis for determining the
quantity of the remaining ingredients. Whole eggs can be replaced wholly or in part, by egg
yolks or egg whites. Cakes with more egg yolk will have a denser sponge, with finer pores.
A cake with more egg white will produce a lighter sponge with a larger pore structure.
Increasing the yolk content in an already rich or heavy cake will have a detrimental effect.
The yolks will reduce the available water content, making it difficult for the sugar to
dissolve.

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Pasteurised egg yolks and whites are becoming more popular in the industry, not only from
the health and sanitation standpoint, but also because they are so easy and efficient to use,
reducing labour, spoilage and breakage.

EGG WHITES

When whipping begins, the egg whites trap large pockets of air and the proteins begin to
coagulate (start to attach to one another to form a sort of net).
If whipping is stopped too soon, the liquid that contains un-coagulated protein will slowly
drain away, causing the air pockets to burst and the foam to collapse. If whipping goes on for
too long, the coagulation will go so far that the liquid will start to seep out and the mixture
will separate and lose volume. Egg whites are more stable when whipped at a slower rate.
If there is even a trace of fat in the mixing bowl or on the whisk, or any egg yolk (which
contains fat) has got into the white by mistake, the effect is likely to be disastrous.
Once egg whites have been beaten to the right degree, they can stand the presence of fat.
Therefore beaten egg white can be used to give a light texture to sponge cakes, soufflés and
similar products that contain fat.
Sugar is often added to egg whites for flavour and the whipping of the egg whites also assists
in the even dissolving of the sugar. While this can double the time it takes to whip the whites
into a foam, the sugar strengthens the foam by absorbing some of the trouble-making water.
Cream of tartar can also be added to assist in the stabilisation of the egg whites.

Once egg whites have been beaten to the right degree they can stand the presence of fat.
Therefore beaten egg white can be used to give a light texture to sponge cakes, soufflés and
similar products that contain fat.
Sugar is often added to egg whites for flavour and the whipping of the egg whites also assists
in the even dissolving of the sugar. While this can double the time it takes to whip the whites
into a foam, the sugar strengthens the foam by absorbing some of the trouble-making water.
Cream of tartar can also be added to assist in the stabilisation of the egg whites.

SUGAR

Castor sugar, should always be used in sponge and cake preparations, to ensure the sugar
dissolves easily and quickly, however, granulated sugar can also be used. The proper amount
in relation to the other ingredients is also important. Too little sugar, in addition to affecting
the taste and colour, can make a cake tough by throwing the formula off-balance. The
condition will also cause the crust to darken unfavourably and give the sponge a dense
texture.
Besides the obvious effect of making cakes and biscuits sweet, sugar also contributes to:
• TENDERNESS AND MOISTNESS: This comes from sugar’s ability to absorb
liquid in the mixture, so preventing some of the proteins in the flour from forming
gluten and reducing evaporation of moisture.
• LIGHTNESS: When fat and sugar are creamed together, the sugar crystals create air
pockets in the fat.
• BROWNING: This happens very effectively in high-temperature cooking when sugar
is in the mixture.
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 • BROWN SUGAR: Brown sugars give a richer colour and flavour than white and are
particularly suitable for fruitcakes and gingerbreads.
• CREAMED MIXTURES: For creamed mixtures, always choose castor or soft brown
sugar, as this is easier to cream, ensuring a lighter texture. Sometimes honey, golden
syrup or treacle is used in place of all or some or the sugar. Sugar aids in the formation
of crust colour, breaks up the butter and enables the mixture to incorporate air when
creaming the butter, sugar and eggs.

FLOUR

The flour used in sponge must have a good balance between starch and protein. Some gluten
is necessary to bind and hold the structure, but too high a percentage makes the batter
rubbery and hard to work with, resulting in a tough and chewy sponge. Flour which has a
high content of starch, such as cake flour, will produce a light and tender sponge. All dry
ingredients need to be sifted before mixing and combining with the wet ingredients. Flour
should be folded in with a spoon or spatula, and should never be added whilst the machine is
running.

BUTTER

Butter added to sponge will not only improve the flavour, but will also improve the quality
of the finished product.
• Fat adds flavour to cakes
• It enriches and adds tenderness to the cake
• It has an opening effect on the cake structure and
aerates the cake when creaming with the sugar
• It enhances the general appearance
• It also improves the keeping quality of the cake
• Fat breaks down the gluten into shorter strands, coating the flour in fat prevents the flour
from absorbing water hindering the formation of gluten.

It is not recommended to use margarine in baking as it contains water and vegetable fat.
Margarine cannot be used with any chocolate as it contains too much moisture and the
combination of chocolate and water causes the chocolate to cease (split).
Margarine is vegetable fat that is mixed with water, emulsifiers, colouring and flavouring
and then solidified.

SHORTENING

• All hard fats are shortenings, meaning that they are capable of producing a crumbly ‘short’
crust.
• However it is the white cooking fats that have claimed the name.
• White cooking fats may be made of blended vegetable oils or a mixture of vegetable or
animal fats.

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COCOA POWDER AND CHOCOLATE

Unsweetened cocoa powder can be substituted for flour in an equal weight. Chocolate can be
added to sponge, but the sugar weight must be adjusted. To add melted chocolate to a batter,
temper the chocolate with a little bit of the mixture, and then fold it back into the remaining
batter. Using this method, the best results are achieved with cakes containing a chemical
leavening agent rather than with traditional egg-leavened sponges.

TOUGHENERS

Flour, milk and eggs contain protein. Protein provides structure and toughens the cake. Too
little protein and the cake may collapse; too much protein and the cake may be tough and
course-textured.
Eggs add structure to the cake by the coagulation of albumen. They also add richness, colour
and flavour.

TENDERISERS

Sugar, fat and egg yolks shorten gluten strands, making the cake tender and soft. These
ingredients also improve a cake’s keeping quality.

MOISTENERS

Liquids such as water, milk, juice and eggs bring moisture to the mixture. Moisture is
necessary for gluten formation and starch gelatinisation as well as for improving a cake’s
keeping quality.

DRIERS

Flours, starches and milk solids absorb moisture, giving body and structure to the cake.
Flour is essential in the formation of the cake structure as it imparts strength to the structure
through the development of the gluten network.

LEAVENERS

Cakes rise because gases in the batter expand when heated. Cakes are leavened by the air
trapped when fat and sugar are creamed together, by carbon dioxide released from baking
powder and baking soda and by trapped air in beaten eggs. All cakes rely on natural
leaveners – steam and air – to create the proper texture and rise.

FLAVOURINGS

Flavourings such as extracts, cocoa, chocolate, spices, salt, sugar and butter provide cakes
with the desired flavours. Acidic flavouring ingredients such as sour cream and fruit also
provide the acid necessary to activate bicarbonate of soda. Cake ingredients should be at

29 | P a g e
room temperature before mixing begins. If one ingredient is too cold or too warm, it may
affect the batter’s ability to trap and hold the gases necessary for the cake to rise.

RAISING AGENTS

These react with other ingredients in the mixture to produce bubbles of carbon dioxide and
so help give the baked product volume and lightness. Yeast, a raising agent used extensively
in baking breads and other dough products, also creates carbon dioxide.

BICARBONATE OF SODA

This is an alkali white powder that when combined with an acid produces small carbon
dioxide air pockets and acts as a raising agent. It can be mixed with tartaric acid or lemon
juice.

BAKING POWDER

Baking powder is a dry chemical leavening agent. It is made with a mixture of bicarbonate of
soda, an acid such as tartaric acid and a filler such as cornflour or rice flour to absorb any
moisture during storage. It works by releasing carbon dioxide gas into the batter or dough,
which creates air pockets that expand.

PREPARATION METHODS FOR SPONGES

1. WARM FOAMING METHOD

The eggs and sugar are placed in a bowl over a pot of simmering water and whisked until the
sugar dissolves and the mixture reaches 43˚C. The eggs are not meant to cook but simply be
heated. Once the sugar has dissolved, the bowl is removed from the heat and whisked at high
speed until creamy and light in colour. By heating the eggs with the sugar, it allows the
mixture to achieve maximum volume faster, creates a more stable foam mixture due to the
sugar being completely dissolved and the protein in the eggs has become more elastic.
If butter is added, it is poured in a slow thin stream whilst whisking. Thereafter, the dry
ingredients are folded in.

2. COLD FOAMING METHOD

The eggs and sugar are mixed in a bowl. The sugar will then dissolve in the oven during the
baking process and will cause bigger air bubbles in the finished sponge. This is particularly
suitable for sponges that are going to be soaked with a liqueur or syrup, like tiramisu or
trifle.

3. OTHER FOAMING METHOD

In this method, the eggs are separated before the whisking process begins. The egg yolks and
whites are usually whisked with half of the sugar each and then the two light mixtures are

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folded together. This creates a much lighter texture in the sponge. You will find that recipes
based on this method do not contain any raising agents.

4. EMULSIFIER METHOD

This is one of the most convenient, quick and widely used methods in industry. It relies on
an emulsifier, a product available from most baking suppliers. The emulsifier is a product
that will hold the air bubbles formed in the mixing process trapped in suspension. The
process involves whisking for a particular length of time with all the ingredients. As the
mixture uses baking powder and does not rely on the air as the leavening agent, the sponge
does not need to be baked immediately and will be a lot more stable in the oven. Includes
most basic cakes and sponges.

BISCUITS AND COOKIES

Biscuits or also commonly known as cookies are prepared in many different methods, shapes
and flavours around the world.
The word cookie derives from the Dutch word ‘koekje’ which translates into ‘little cake’.
The term was coined around the 1600’s. The word biscuit is the British term for cookies.
Using cookies as the contemporary definition, cookies can include anything from the
traditional chocolate chip to twice-baked biscotti.
Each type of cookie requires different techniques and shaping which include rolling, cutting,
moulding, scooping, piping, stencilled, etc. The ingredients listed in a recipe have been
carefully selected and balanced so that the different flours, fats, sugars, liquids and flavours
all blend and react with each other correctly.

PREPARING BISCUITS AND COOKIES

Biscuits may be produced by the following methods:

1. RUBBING IN e.g. shortbread
2. FOAMING e.g. sponge fingers
3. CREAMING e.g. choc chip biscuits
4. BLENDING e.g. brandy snap mixture

1. RUBBING IN

This is probably the best-known method and is used in producing some of the most famous
biscuits, such as short bread.

The method is exactly the same as making short pastry:

• Rub the fat into the flour, by hand or by machine, adding the liquid and the sugar and
mixing in the flour to produce a smooth biscuit paste.
• Do not overwork the paste, otherwise it will not combine properly and as a result you will
not be able to roll it out.

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2. FOAMING

This is where foam is produced from whisking egg whites or egg yolks or both. Single foam
refers to one whisked mixture, e.g. meringue, whereas a double foam mixture involves the
adding of one whisked mixture to another whisked mixture, e.g. sponge fingers. Great care
must be taken not to over mix the product.

3. CREAMING

This is where the fat and sugar are beaten together until light and the eggs and dry
ingredients are added slowly. This is a very common method of biscuit and cookie
preparation and is used for chocolate chip biscuits, gingerbread men, etc.

4. BLENDING

In several biscuit types, the method only requires the chef to blend all the ingredients
together to produce a smooth paste. This is usually for the stencilled or shaped biscuits, like
tuille or brandy snaps.

TYPES OF BISCUITS AND COOKIES

SCOOPED AND DROPPED BISCUITS

Scooped cookies are made from dough’s and batters that are firm enough to easily shape.
Scoops or spoons can be used to measure out the dough accurately and to ensure an even and
uniform size and shape. These mixtures can also be shaped into logs and sliced. Dropped
biscuits typically spread as they bake, so allow enough room for them to expand without
touching each other. Arrange the biscuits in neat rows for even baking. Most dropped or
scooped biscuits are baked at 180°C, until the bottoms are golden brown and the biscuits are
baked through, but still moist inside.

ROLLED AND CUT BISCUITS

These are made from stiff dough’s that are often chilled before being rolled and cut. Roll out
the dough onto a lightly floured surface, using the same technique as for rolling out pastry.
For some biscuits, the surface can be dusted with icing sugar instead of flour. Very rich and
delicate biscuit batters can be rolled between two sheets of greaseproof paper. When you
have finished rolling, the dough should be even and generally about 2mm to 4mm thick. Be
sure that the dough does not stick to the surface as you roll it.

Cutters of various shapes and sizes can be used, or the dough can be cut and shaped with a
knife. As you work, dip the blade or the cutter into a small amount of flour to prevent it
sticking. Transfer the biscuits to a baking sheet and bake at about 180°C until they start to
turn golden brown. Shaped biscuits are often glazed or iced. These coatings should only be
applied when the biscuit is completely cold.

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MOULDED AND/OR SLICED BISCUITS

These are made from a relatively stiff dough. Sliced biscuits are prepared and then shaped
into a log. The log can be pressed into ovals or squares. The logs are wrapped in greaseproof
paper or cling film, and chilled for several hours until firm. Once firm, they are then sliced
into even and uniform thicknesses.
Moulded biscuits can be formed by hand, stamped or pressed into carved or cast moulds.
When you are ready to bake the biscuits arrange the biscuits in neat rows and allow room for
spreading. Once baked, the biscuits should be cooled on a wire rack.

TWICE-BAKED BISCUITS

The dough is shaped into a flattish log, which is baked. Once baked, the logs are sliced and
allowed to cool slightly. The slices are then returned to the oven at a much lower temperature
to lightly toast and dry. Biscotti and rusks are prepared in this way.

PIPED BISCUITS

These are shaped as soon as the dough is made, so all your equipment must be ready before
you start. When the dough is properly mixed, it is transferred to a piping bag with an
appropriate nozzle and the biscuits are piped into the required shapes. Pipe the shapes in neat
rows, allowing space for spreading. Toppings like nuts or glacé cherries are pressed into the
raw biscuit dough before it is baked.

STENCILLED BISCUITS

These are made from a very soft batter. The batter can be made ahead of time and only
stencilled when needed for baking. Stencils can be purchased or cut from sturdy cardboard or
thick plastic. Silicone paper or mats must be used, or a baking tray that has been greased,
floured and chilled. Lay the stencil on the mat and drop a spoonful of the batter into the
stencil. Spread it into an even layer using an offset palette knife. Remove the stencil and
continue until the tray is full. These biscuits do not spread but allow enough room between
biscuits so that the stencil will not damage the already shaped biscuits. Bake carefully,
keeping an eye on the biscuits, as they cook very quickly.

They must be removed from the baking sheet immediately, and moulded if required. They
can be moulded by laying them over rolling pins, wine bottles, spoon handles, cups, etc.

BAR COOKIES

The batter is poured or pressed into a baking tray or pan. The cookies can also be layered
depending on the type of batter being used. Once the batter is baked and allowed to cool
slightly, the biscuit sheet is then cut into equal sizes and allowed to cool completely on a
cooling rack. Examples include brownies and Florentines.

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TEXTURE

Some biscuits are crisp; others are intentionally soft and/or chewy. Some biscuits spread out
flat during the baking process, others hold their shape. In order to produce the desired
texture, to correct mistakes, or to modify biscuit recipes, it is important that you understand
the role played by each ingredient.

CHEWY TEXTURE

A chewy biscuit needs a high moisture content, which is provided by eggs and other liquids.
Eggs must be in a higher proportion to the other ingredients, while the fat content must be
lower. The gluten must be allowed to develop, by a slightly longer mixing time than for
‘short’ biscuits.

CRISP TEXTURE

For a biscuit to be crisp, the dough must be low in moisture. The cookies should be small
and thin to allow them to dry properly as they bake. These biscuits must be high in both
sugar and fat content. Crisp biscuits can become soft if incorrectly stored, especially if they
contain hygroscopic (a substance that has the ability to attract and hold moisture) ingredients
like ground nuts, which absorb moisture from the air. These biscuits must be stored in an
airtight container.

SOFT TEXTURE

Soft biscuits (cake-like) are found at the other end of the scale to crisp biscuits. They require
a batter with a large amount of liquid and a low sugar and fat content. Soft biscuits and
cookies are generally thick and large, which allows for the additional retention of moisture.
They usually contain syrup, honey or molasses (invert sugars), which are hygroscopic
sweeteners. Soft cookies must be stored in an airtight container, otherwise they will dry out.
Storing moist biscuits and cookies in a container with a few slices of apple will greatly
prolong their shelf life.

BAKING BISCUITS AND COOKIES

Regardless of what method is used to get the biscuits onto the baking tray, it is extremely
important that they are of a uniform size, and that they are placed in rows. This will promote
even baking and reduce waste.
Biscuits are mainly baked at 180°C and should be allowed to rest for a few minutes once
they come out of the oven before transferring them to a cooling rack.

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COOLING BISCUITS AND COOKIES

Biscuits and cookies should be removed from the baking tray as soon as they are removed
from the oven so as to avoid further baking and browning. The biscuits and cookies should
be placed on a cooling rack to allow for even cooling.
Some biscuits and cookies may be too soft to be removed immediately from the baking tray
and must be allowed to cool slightly on the tray before being removed so as to avoid any
damage to their shape.

https://www.goodto.com/recipes/mary-berry-s-two-tone-heart-biscuits

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UNIT 216
PREPARE, COOK AND FINISH PASTRY PRODUCTS

PASTRY

INTRODUCTION

Pastry is the foundation of a wide variety of preparations. Pastry is a mixture of flour, fat,
sugar and sometimes a liquid and eggs depending on the type of pastry. All pastries
essentially have the same ingredients; however, different methods and techniques are applied
in order to achieve a different final product. Pie dough, short dough, puff pastry are only a
few examples.

1.) PRINCIPLES OF PASTRY MAKING

• Air incorporated during the preparation

method, expands during cooking. The expanding air stretches the elastic gluten of the flour.
• Products which have fat in them are more tender and less chewy. The fat will also allow
colour to form on the crust of the product.
• Moisture helps with the gluten development. The gluten coagulates and sets the framework
of the pastry.
• The starch grains on the surface are turned to dextrose in baking, thus giving a brown
colour to the pastry.

2.) TYPES OF PASTRY

There are a variety of pastries. They all use flour but other ingredients may differ.
1. Shortcrust Pastry
2. Sweet Pastry
3. Suet Pastry
4. Choux Pastry
5. Puff pastry
6. Other Pastries

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SHORTCRUST PASTRY
Shortcrust pastry is a type of pastry often used as the base for tarts, quiches or pies. There is
no leavening agent in this pastry and therefore the pastry does not rise. Shortcrust can be
used to make both sweet and savoury pastries. Cake flour is ideal to make Shortcrust pastry.
Shortcrust is made by combining equal parts fat and flour, which are bound together to create
a loose mixture, ice water is then added to allow the mixture to bind. The dough is then
rested in a bowl and covered and placed in the fridge. The fat used can be butter or lard or a
combination of both. The butter allows for a richer flavour and the lard ensures a better
texture.

OTHER TYPES OF SHORTCRUST PASTRY

• PÂTE Á FONCER: Pâte à foncer is French shortcrust pastry that includes egg. Egg and
butter are worked together with a small quantity of sugar and salt before the flour is added
into the mixture. Ice water is then added to bind the mixture.
• PÂTE BRISÉE: Pâte brisée is similar to pâte à foncer, but is lighter and more delicate due
to an increased quantity of butter — up to three fifths the quantity of flour.

Products that can be produced from Short Pastry:

• Fruit flans
• Curd tart (lemon, orange and pineapple)
• Fruit Barquettes and tartlets
• Baked apple dumplings
• Shortbread
• Cornish pasties

Possible reasons for faults which may occur in Short Pastry:

1. HARD TEXTURE
• Insufficient fat used
• Too much water used
• Incorrect type of flour used

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2. SOFT/CRUMBLY
• Insufficient water used
• Too much fat used, especially lard

3. BLISTERED
• Too little water.
• Water added unevenly
• Fat not rubbed in evenly

4. SOGGY
• Too much water used

5. SHRUNKEN
o No holes poked in the bottom
o Not enough resting time
o Using a glass pan
o Overworking dough
o Stretching the dough to fit pan
o Using a high temperature for baking

SWEET PASTRY
This is a combination of flour, fat and eggs in place of the water. This produces a richer
taste. The paste is slightly more difficult to handle than a short pastry, as it tends to fall apart.
Also known as Pâte sucrée (sweetcrust pastry, sweet dough or sweet paste) is made with the
addition of sugar which sweetens the mix and hinders the gluten strands, creating a pastry
that breaks up easily in the mouth.
Products that can be produced from Sweet Pastry:
• Tarts
• Flans

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Possible reasons for faults in Sweet Pastry:
1. HEAVY AND SOGGY
• Addition of too many eggs
2. TOUGH
• Over mixing of the mixture

SUET PASTRY
Suet pastry is a mixture of flour, baking powder, chopped beef or lamb suet, salt and water
which is cooked by steaming. Self-raising flour can be used instead of flour and baking
powder. During cooking the suet melts at a temperature between 45˚C-50˚C, into a paste,
producing a characteristic richness and body with a soft eating texture. It forms the basis of
various sweet and savoury puddings.

Products produced from Suet Pastry:

• Steamed steak and kidney pies
• Mince pies
• Steamed fruit pudding
• Christmas pudding
• Steamed/suet pudding (cherry, date, fig or currant)
• Dumplings

Possible reasons for faults in Suet Pastry:

1. TOUGH PASTE
• Too much handling or overcooking of the paste
• Insufficient suet
• Excessive cooking
2. SOGGY AND HEAVY PASTE
• Insufficient cooking/temperature too low

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CHOUX PASTRY

Choux pastry is a pre-cooked batter. It is made by mixing butter and water in a saucepan
over a medium heat until the butter is melted. The flour is then added and mixed until
combined and then the flour is allowed to slightly cook out. The mixture is then transferred
to a mixer with a paddle attachment, the eggs are then added and allowed to mix in with the
mixture.
When the mixture is finished and the desired consistency achieved, it is then piped into the
desired shapes and baked. The initial baking temperature is 190˚C for five minutes, which
allows for the pastry to have a rapid rise. The temperature is then reduced to between 150˚C-
160˚C. At this stage, it is important to have moisture in the oven as the steam allows the mix
to rise; however, this just assists in the process as the high-moisture content of the batter will
be the main cause of the rise.
When cooked, the paste more than doubles in size, with a soft, hollow centre. Choux pastry
batter can be frozen raw and the baked cooled down product can also be frozen.

Products which can be produced from Choux Pastry:

• Chocolate éclairs
• Profiteroles
• Beignets/Dauphine potatoes
• Croquembouche

Possible reasons for faults in Choux Pastry:

1. POOR VOLUME
• Not enough eggs in mixture
• Mixture too hot when adding eggs
• Oven temperature too low
• Eggs poorly mixed into the paste
• Flour is not cooked

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2. GREASY PASTRY
• Insufficient water according to recipe e.g. water and fat left boiling on the stove,
causing evaporation of the liquid
• Overcooking the basic mixture
3. COLLAPSED/SUNKEN PASTRY
• Insufficient baking
• Paste too soft - may require prolonged cooking time

PUFF PASTRY

Puff pastry falls under the category of being a laminated dough. Laminated dough is a
preparation consisting of many thin layers of dough separated by butter, produced by
repeated folding and rolling. Puff pastry, Danish dough and croissants are all laminated
dough’s.
Preparing this dough is much more elaborate and time consuming than preparing other
pastries. Puff pastry is composed of two elements:
• A “dough packet”, the détrempe
• A ‘butter packet”, the beurrage

Preparing a classic puff pastry requires the pastry to be uniform in size and thickness. The
pastry must be evenly rolled out and the corners must be kept square throughout the lock-in
process (lock-in refers to the butter being incorporated between the dough layers). The
beurrage is placed inside the détrempe to form the separate layers. It is imperative that the
layers remain distinct and are correctly layered; this will ensure that the pastry rises and that
the texture is flaky.
When the dough is baked, the fat melts and steam is formed from the water in the dough, this
creates air pockets between the layers in the pastry and ultimately leavens the dough, giving
rise to the many layers of pastry.
Creating the correct number of layers in puff pastry is also very important and lends to the
success of the final product. With too few layers, the steam will escape, and the pastry will
not rise. Folding the dough too many times can cause the layers of dough and fat to
incorporate and not remain separate layers, which will prevent the dough from rising.

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Products that can be produced from Puff Pastry:
• Bouchées
• Vol-au-vents
• Mince pies
• Cream pies
• Jam puffs
• Sausage rolls

Possible reasons for faults in Puff Pastry:

1. NOT FLAKY
• Baking temperature too low
• Too few or too many turns
• Use of fats which are too soft for purpose
• Too much/too little fat used in the recipe
• Poor rolling techniques, rolling out the pastry to a thickness of less than 2mm

2. FAT SEEPS OUT

• Fat being rolled in is too hard and cold
• Baking temperature too low
• Not enough folding

3. SHRINKAGE DURING BAKING

• Too much pressure during folding
• Not enough resting

4. UNEVEN RISE
• Poor rolling technique/incorrect folding
• Insufficient resting times
• Uneven oven temperatures
• Dusting flour not removed
42 | P a g e
OTHER TYPES OF PASTRIES

STRUDEL PASTRY

This is an example of a very fine pastry, the success of which is derived from one basic
factor: it is stretched to a thickness which makes it crispy, light and delicate.
A strong flour such as bread flour is used and vinegar is used in the dough to allow the
gluten (which gives the dough its elasticity) to develop.
Strudel dough is stretched to a paper-thin quality. It is allowed to rest for an hour before
stretching it out. If properly made and rested in a warm place, it will stretch over an entire
pastry bench.

PHYLLO PASTRY

A whisper-thin pastry dough which, when layered and baked, produces a crisp, golden-
brown, flaky crust. It has many uses but is popularly used for Baklava, which is a rich, sweet
pastry made of layers of phyllo filled with chopped nuts together with syrup or honey.
Both strudel and phyllo pastry are stretched and pulled until almost transparent to produce a
very thin pastry which, when baked, creates a crisp, light and delicate texture.

HOT WATER PASTE

This is a savoury short pastry used when preparing pies. The addition of hot water to the lard
and flour produces a firm, plastic-like pastry suitable for pies. Air is incorporated into the
flour when the fat is rubbed in until a sandy texture is reached. The pastry is shaped when
hot.

4.) GENERAL RULES FOR PASTRY MAKING

• Use good quality flour.
• Keep as cool as possible.
• Introduce as much air as possible during the making of the dough.
• Allow pastry to relax after making.
• Roll lightly with short, quick forward strokes.

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• Acids such as lemon juice, cream of tartar and vinegar can be added to puff pastry. Acid
assists in the stretching capability of the flour (the acid must be added in small quantities).
• Bake at the correct oven temperature.
• Brush a little egg wash (beaten egg, perhaps with a little milk or water), between two layers
of pastry when you want a good seal. Brushing the top of the pastry with egg wash just
before baking will give a golden, shiny finish. This is called glazing.

PREPARING PASTRY
• •With any type of pastry, you should sieve the flour first, which helps get air into the
flour.
• Here are some other points that will help you make good pastry:
• oUse a cool area of the kitchen or plan your time so that you can make the pastry
when the kitchen is cool.
• Take the pastry fat or butter out of the refrigerator half an hour or so in advance. This
lets it soften, but not so much that it becomes oily during the mixing.
• Use the tips of your fingers, held well above the surface, so that the flour falls back
into the bowl and traps more air in the mixture. Using the tips of your fingers also
helps keep the fat away from the warmth of your hands.
• You should end up with a sandy-textured mixture rather like breadcrumbs. There
should be no loose flour left.
• Do not over-mix or over-work the dough. Mix until just combined.
• Do not add too much water to short pastry or be tempted to use extra egg with sweet
pastry, or you will get a sticky dough. What seems a dry, very sandy mixture will
blend into a smooth paste when it is rolled.
• Place the paste in a refrigerator to rest before rolling, before cutting or shaping and
before baking. Around 10 minutes at each stage is usually sufficient. The pastry
should be covered as a hygiene precaution and to stop it from drying out.
• With suet pastry, the baking powder is sieved with the flour and salt. Mix the suet in
well, add the water and lightly mix to form a paste.

PREPARATION METHODS

RUBBING IN: This describes the process of blending in the fat and flour by lifting your
fingertips above the mixing bowl and rubbing the four and fat together until it resembles a
crumble. Used for Short and Sweet pastry.

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MIXING: This is a simpler process, e.g. mixing the chopped Suet with the flour.

RESTING: Leaving Short and Sweet pastry in the fridge before and after rolling. This gives
the starch in the flour time to absorb the liquids more evenly. It also helps the fat to firm up
so the pastry keeps a better shape and cuts more easily and shrinks less when cooking.

ADDING FAT TO FLOUR: Fats act as a shortening agent. The fat coats the proteins with
flour which has the effect of shortening the gluten strands, which are then easily broken
when eaten. The development of gluten in strong flour during the production of puff pastry is
very important as it needs long strands to trap steam that creates air pockets, which makes
the paste rise.

https://www.almanac.com/recipe/easy-peach-strudel-phyllo-dough

45 | P a g e
UNIT 217
PREPARE COOK AND FINISH DOUGH PRODUCTS

DOUGH

INTRODUCTION
The baking of bread dates back to the Stone Age, when people first learned to grind seeds,
such as millet and barley –in mills made from stone. Heavy, unleavened bread was cooked
on heated stones, hence the Stone Age.
Over the centuries, the process of milling grains was improved. With the aid of wind
powered fans and sieves, people developed ways of removing the bran and husks of the
grains, producing finer textured flour. The Romans and Greeks furthered advanced
cultivation of grains and continued the process of flour refinement.
Baking bread has always had an important place in the European home. Local regions of
various countries produce breads that differ in both flavour and shape. Although today most
bread is baked commercially, bread making is still an art practiced by hobby cooks and
professionals alike.
The simplest kind of bread, flat bread, is just a baked dough of flour and water. This is
sometimes called unleavened bread, meaning that it has not risen. Leavened or raised breads
are more popular and yeast is used to give lightness and flavour.
Flour, yeast, water and salt are worked together to create a dough. However, using the
correct technique, correct amount of time at the correct temperature all play a role in the
development of gluten. Selecting good quality ingredients will result in a superior final
product.

1.) TYPES OF FLOUR USED IN BREAD MAKING

Flour forms the crumb and structure of bread.
• All-purpose flour
• Bread flour
• Cake flour
• Whole-wheat flour
• Rye flour

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OTHER FLOURS USED IN BREAD MAKING

• GRANARY FLOUR: A blend of brown and rye flours and malted wheat grain. The malted
grain gives this bread its characteristic sweet and slightly sticky flavour and texture.
• BROWN FLOUR: This flour contains about 85% of the original grain, with some of the
bran and wheat germ extracted. It produces a lighter loaf than 100% wholemeal flour, while
still retaining a high percentage of wheat germ, which gives bread so much of its flavour.
• WHEAT GERM FLOUR: Wheat germ flour can be brown or white but must contain at
least 10% added wheat germ. Wheat germ is highly nutritious and this bread is considered
very healthy. Wheat germ bread has a pleasant nutty flavour.
• SEMOLINA: Made from coarsely ground durum wheat. Durum is a variety of wheat that
has a higher protein and gluten content, hence why it is more commonly used for farinaceous
dishes such as pasta and can also be used to make gnocchi. Protein content is 11-12%.

2.) LEAVENERS
Leaveners or leavening agents are substances used which create air bubbles that cause baked
goods to rise. They also help achieve a light, aerated and tender texture to the final product.

YEAST
The yeast used in baking is a common strain of yeast that is used as a leavening agent in the
baking of breads and other bakery products. The yeast converts fermentable sugars that are
present in the dough, into carbon dioxide and ethanol. The yeast not only assists in the
leavening of the bread but also provides flavour and texture.
There are three types of yeast available:
• Active dry yeast
• Instant dry yeast
• Compressed/fresh yeast

BAKING POWDER
Baking powder is a dry chemical leavening agent. It is made with a mixture of bicarbonate of
soda, an acid and a filler such as cornflour or rice flour to absorb any moisture during
storage. It works by releasing carbon dioxide gas into the batter or dough, which creates air
pockets that expand.

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BICARBONATE OF SODA
It is an alkali white powder that when combined with an acid produces small carbon dioxide
air pockets and acts as a raising agent. It can be mixed with tartaric acid or lemon juice.
Care must be taken to ensure that salt and spices are weighed accurately as these ingredients
are critical to recipe balance. Too high a concentration of salt or spices seriously retards
(hinders or prematurely halts) yeast activity and may even destroy the yeast cells.

WATER
A simple but very effective raising agent which, when heated, turns into steam and expands
to around sixteen-hundred times its original volume.

3.) INGREDIENTS
There are many hundreds of variations on the basic bread recipe: milk can be used instead of
water and fat, salt, sugar or eggs can also be added. These all interact with each other and the
yeast in particular ways and can affect the final result. Other ingredients can be used that will
add more flavour, spices, dried fruit, butter (as fat) and yoghurt.

FATS
Fat is also used in the production of dough because it forms an essential constituent of the
lamination structure of certain dough products.
Fats assist in the following way:
• They increase the elasticity of the dough.
• They give a more tender crumb.
• They increase the shelf-life.
• It adds flavour.
• Fats can also inhibit the action of yeast, therefore yeast that is used in enriched dough’s will
take longer to rise.

EGGS
• Eggs are mainly used for enriched doughs.
• They are not commonly used in artisan bread.

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SUGAR
Sugar is sometimes used to sweeten dough, but the main reasons are the contributions it
makes to:
• TENDERNESS AND MOISTNESS: This comes from sugar's ability to absorb liquid in the
mixture, so preventing some of the proteins in the flour from forming gluten and reducing
evaporation of moisture.
• LIGHTNESS: Yeast needs sugar so that it can ferment and create gas bubbles in the dough.
But too much sugar uses up some of the liquid needed by the yeast.
• BROWNING: This happens very effectively in high temperature cooking when sugar is in
the mixture.

WATER AND MILK

Yeast needs water, or a liquid containing water, to do its task. In some bread’s and many of
the sweeter dough products, the liquid is milk, or a combination of milk and water. The milk
adds flavour (water and dried milk powder can also be used).

SALT
In the mixing stages of dough, salt is either added at the beginning or at the end of the
process depending on the type of bread being made. For normal breads such a regular white
loaf, the salt can be added with the other ingredients in stage one, however, when making
artisan breads, the salt is added in stage four. By adding the salt in stage four, it allows the
carbon dioxide to develop larger gas pockets and further develops the gluten.
Salt plays an important role in bread making:
• It regulates the rate of fermentation.
• It improves colour and flavour.
• It helps with the development of the crust.

Too much salt has a negative impact on the fermentation process. Salt must never get into
direct contact with yeast as it kills the yeast cells.

49 | P a g e
UNIT 218
PREPARE COOK AND FINISH HOT DESSERTS

INTRODUCTION
Hot desserts are more likely to be baked using basic pastry ingredients and usually set with
eggs.

EGG CUSTARD
Egg custard has a paler colour and more delicate flavour and is not as thick as commercial
powder/ready-made custard. It can be thickened by cooking on the stovetop and adding corn
flour, e.g. Crème Anglaise or custard sauce.
• Basic egg custard sets by coagulation of the egg protein.
• Egg white coagulates at approximately 60°C.
• Egg yolks at 70°C.
• Whites and yolks mixed will coagulate at 68°C.
• If the egg protein is overcooked, it will separate and split, becoming unattractive and poorer
in quality.
• It will shrink and water will be lost from the mixture, causing undesirable bubbles in the
custard.

EGG CUSTARD BASED DESSERTS

The egg custard mixture provides the chef with a versatile and basic set of ingredients, which
covers a wide range of desserts. Some examples of desserts produced from this mixture are:
• Crème caramel
• Bread and butter pudding
• Diplomat pudding
• Cabinet pudding
• Queen of puddings
• Crème beau rivage
• Baked egg custard
• Crème Brulèe
50 | P a g e
TYPES OF HOT DESSERTS
PANCAKES

Ingredients include flour, eggs and milk. Use a good quality non-stick pan. Heat the pan with
a little oil, pour out the excess oil and add the batter (just enough to cover the base of the
pan). When bubbles start to appear, toss the pancake to turn it over. You can use a palette
knife to turn it. Stack the cooked pancakes flat on a plate.

Fillings for Pancakes:

• Sautéed fruits
• Vegetables
• Hot chocolate sauce
• A sprinkle of lemon juice and castor sugar
• Maple syrup

CRÊPES
This is the French word for pancakes. Many restaurants which specialise in pancakes either
use the word crêpe or Crêpe Suzette to describe the classic French orange flavoured dessert.
Key points:
• Use a Crêpe pan.
• The pan should be wiped clean with a dry cloth immediately after use.
• Very little oil or fat should be used when frying crêpes as free surface fat will be absorbed
into the crêpes.
• Crêpes should be cooked in a hot pan. If added to a cool pan, the risk of sticking increases.

STEAMED OR BAKED PUDDINGS

The ingredients are usually flour, eggs and fat. During baking or steaming the air in the
mixture expands to give it a lighter texture. Some recipes use baking powder or self-raising
flour. Some use suet when pudding is steamed. Other ingredients include syrup, dried fruits,
treacle, lemon, chocolate and vanilla.

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EVE’S PUDDING
Baked sponge over a base of apple. Variations: chocolate sauce is poured over unbaked
sponge during baking and the sauce sinks in; when cut, the sauce floats up from the bottom.

EGG-BASED SET
Made with egg custard (milk, egg, sugar) which sets the mixture during baking, e.g. bread
and butter puddings (buttered slices of bread layered with fruit), cabinet pudding (squares of
sponge with cherries, sultanas and currants).

CEREAL-BASED MILK PUDDINGS

For rice puddings, rice is boiled with milk, placed in a pie dish and lightly browned under the
grill. Semolina and sago puddings are cooked this way. English rice pudding is steamed;
French rice pudding is baked.

FRUIT-BASED, BAKED/ STEWED FRUIT

Fruit based-cooking includes apples baked in their skin in the oven, the centre filled with
honey and nuts (served hot or cold), prunes and apricots stewed in a little water and sugar
until soft and pears and peaches poached in red/white wine.

Quality points for fresh fruit used in desserts and pastry work:
• Whole and fresh appearance (for maximum flavour the fruit must be ripe but not over ripe).
• Firm according to the type and variety.
• Clean and free from traces of pesticides and fungicides.
• Free from external moisture.
• Free from an unpleasant foreign smell or taste.
• Free from pests or disease.
• Sufficiently mature. It must be capable of being handled and travelling without damage.
• Free of any defects characteristic of the variety in shape, size and colour.
• Free of bruising and any other damage due to weather conditions.

52 | P a g e
POACHED FRUIT
The poaching liquid can be sugar-based with either fruit, water or wine. Poaching tenderizes
the fruit and makes it more palatable by imparting more flavour to it. Fruits are poached
whole and depending on the liquid used, will take on its colour. Fruits usually poached are
pears, apples, peaches, figs, pineapples and oranges.

COMPOTES
Similar to poached fruits, compotes are prepared much in the same way, only the fruit is
allowed to fall apart and lose its shape. Several different fruits (fresh, dried or frozen) will be
stewed. Compotes should be served hot, used as a filling or accompaniment or as a garnish.

FLAMBÉED FRUITS
Flambéed desserts are prepared tableside or on a guéridon (side table) by a waiter. Their
presentation is impressive because of the height of the cooking flame. Flambéed desserts use
fresh fruit and a liquor or spirit to ignite the flame. Fruits usually flambéed include oranges,
pineapples, cherries and bananas.

GRATINS
This is a French dessert of fresh fruits laced in flavoured syrups and topped with sabayon.
The fruits are placed in a large baking dish and the sabayon, which has been mixed with
cream, is grilled until it is light brown.

STRUDEL
A famous Austrian pastry, phyllo pastry is filled with apples, raisins and flavourings, rolled
into a long log and baked until golden brown. This can then be served with a custard or
cream.

SOUFFLÉS
Soufflés are a textured, sauce-type mixture which includes egg whites as a firming and
aerating agent. The mixture can be flavoured with a fruit purée. The mixture is then poured
carefully into a ramekin and placed in the oven and allowed to rise.

53 | P a g e
PIES, TARTS, SWEETS AND SHORT PASTRY
Fillings include apple, rhubarb, apricots and plums. Pies have a pastry top, while with tarts
the filling is not covered. Other fillings include jams, lemon, syrup and minced meat.

PASTRY CREAM (CRÈME PÂTISSERIE)

Serves as a filling for many pastries such as cream puffs, éclairs, napoleons, cakes and pies
etc. It is thickened with Cornstarch, which is absorbed by the egg and allows it to be cooked
to boiling point without curdling.

OTHER PASTRY CREAMS INCLUDE CHANTILLY CREAM

Whipped cream with sugar and flavourings.

BAVARIAN CREAM - Custard-like cream which is set with gelatine.

GANACHE - Milk, cream or other liquid is added to chopped chocolate, stirred to form a
paste and used as a filling for tortes and pralines.

https://biancazapatka.com/en/mini-apple-pies/

54 | P a g e
UNIT 219
PREPARE, COOK AND FINISH COLD DESSERTS

TYPES OF COLD DESSERTS

FRUIT

Always use fresh fruit when possible. If this is not available, canned or dried products can be
used instead.

TRIFLE

Sponge, jellies and fruit base (mixture of fruit, cut into bite-sized pieces) with sherry and
covered in custard and whipped cream.

COLD RICE DESSERTS

Made from dessert rice which has been boiled with milk, allowed to cool and used as a base
for fruit (pear, pineapple). They are finished with apricot or similar glaze for an attractive
appearance.

JELLIES

Flavoured with fruit and/or wine and set with gelatine. There is a wide range of
commercially made jelly powders. Water is added and the mixture is chilled until set.

FLANS AND TARTS

Made from short or sweet pastry, these are a shell or base of pastry filled with custard, fruit
and/or various other ingredients. Tartlets are smaller than flans, usually the size of a single
portion. A flan can be cut into 4, 6 or 8 wedge-shaped pieces. Sponge cake can used as base
for flans.

MERINGUE

In a stainless steel bowl, egg whites are beaten to a stiff peak and castor sugar is added. The
texture may be hard or soft depending on the ratio of sugar to egg whites.
Pavlova, Baked Alaska and Soufflé’s are cold desserts which include meringue.

MOULDED CREAM
Mousses, Bavarois and cream based mixtures, are set with gelatine and turned out for
service. Egg provides the strength for the mixture to hold its shape.

55 | P a g e
MOUSSES

Mousses are made from whipped cream, beaten egg yolks, beaten egg whites and
flavourings; they can be served as individual desserts or as fillings for tortes and pastries. If
made correctly, it will cream like a light foam to the palate.

ICE CREAMS

Coupés or sundaes are one or more types of ice-cream which, together with a fruit or nut
garnish and a sauce such as fudge or chocolate, are served in a glass or silver dish.

PARFAIT

Parfaits are made from a crème anglaise base that has a lightly whipped cream folded into it.
Flavours may be added. Parfaits are frozen in glasses or moulded in terrines.

ICE CREAM BOMBES

Originally, ice cream bombes were spherical or dome shaped. Bombes are generally made
with layers of ice cream. When the bombe is cut it reveals the intricate layers.

SEMIFREDDO

Is an Italian specialty made with a semi to completely frozen mousse – usually frozen in
moulds and sliced for serving.

SORBET

Sorbets are made from sugar syrup bases with the addition of fruit, fruit juice and sometimes
alcohol. All the ingredients are mixed and frozen, stirred and frozen again to a semi solid
state.

GRANITA’S

Made with sugar syrup, fruit or fruit juice, the density of the sugar syrup is lower than that
which is used to make sorbets. The granita is raked during freezing, giving it a crushed ice
texture.

FROZEN YOGHURT

Yoghurt flavoured with different fruits or liquors is a tasty, non-fat version of ice cream and
has emerged as a popular low fat dessert due to increased public concern over nutrition and
healthy eating.

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UNIT 220
PREPARE, COOK AND FINISH SIMPLE CHOCOLATE
PRODUCTS

CHOCOLATE SAUCE

The success of any chocolate sauce depends entirely on the quality of the chocolate. It is
ideal to use a good quality couverture chocolate or cocoa powder to ensure a smooth, rich
sauce. More cream or milk than chocolate will be added to ensure a thin and pourable
consistency. Chocolate sauce can have a bitter flavour to it, or sugar can be added to sweeten
it. It can be served either hot or cold.

CHOCOLATE GANACHE

This is a combination of chocolate and cream and is very versatile in the pastry kitchen. It is
often used as a filling, as a basis for truffles, or as a topping/coating. Once prepared, it can be
whipped until it pales in colour and thickens considerably. It can then be piped if so desired.
The ratio of chocolate to cream depends on the type of chocolate:
• DARK CHOCOLATE: 1 part chocolate-1 part cream
• MILK CHOCOLATE: 1 part chocolate-2 parts cream
• WHITE CHOCOLATE: 1 part chocolate-2 parts cream

(https://www.foodnetwork.com)

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WHAT IS CHOCOLATE?
Chocolate is a food made from cacao beans. It is used in many desserts like pudding, cakes,
candy, ice cream, and Easter eggs. It can be in a solid form like a candy bar or it can be in a
liquid form like hot chocolate. Commercial chocolate has sugar and sometimes milk added.
Dark chocolate has less sugar, and a more bitter taste. It was originally used to make
drinking chocolate. Chocolate can also make S'mores.
There are three main types of chocolate: white chocolate, milk chocolate and dark chocolate
White chocolate tastes much sweeter than the other two types, because it has more of the
sweeter ingredients in it. White chocolate does not have any cocoa in it. It is mostly made of
cocoa butter. Milk chocolate is sweet, but not as sweet as white chocolate. Milk chocolate
has some cocoa. Dark chocolate is the least sweet and has the strongest chocolate flavour. It
also has the least amount of sweet ingredients which is what makes it a bit bitter. Dark
chocolate has up to 60-85 percent cocoa.

How to Make Chocolate: From Cacao Bean to Chocolate

Cocoa beans are stored in silos or warehouses in their original sacks. Imported raw cocoa is
subject to strict quality control. Laboratory technicians ensure that the beans are healthy,
perfectly fermented and dried, and have suffered no damage during transport. Silos, measuring
from 40 to 120 feet in height can store up to 1000 tons or more. The raw cocoa is sucked up
by powerful vacuums and fed into the silos.
The storage area must be isolated from the rest of the building to protect the sensitive beans
from strong odours that might be absorbed. Good air circulation and a cool temperature are
important, and the humidity regularly checked. You must be able to identify the beans
according to their particular type and origin in order to control the flavour by blending beans
for roasting.
Step 1: Cleaning
The process of making chocolate starts with the cocoa beans being passed through a machine
that removes dried cocoa pulp, pieces of pod and other extraneous material. The beans are
carefully weighed and blended according to specifications. Finally, the last vestiges of wood,
jute fibres, sand, and even the finest dust are extracted by powerful vacuum equipment. The
separated cocoa bean husks are passed on to the chemical industry which extracts valuable
compounds.
Step 2: Roasting
To bring out the characteristic chocolate aroma, the beans are roasted in large rotary
cylinders. Depending upon the variety of the beans and the desired end result, the roasting
lasts from 30 minutes to two hours at temperatures of 250 degrees Fahrenheit and higher. As

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 the beans turn over and over, their moisture content drops, their colour changes to a rich
brown, and the characteristic aroma of chocolate becomes evident. Although all steps are
important, proper roasting is one of the keys to good flavour.
Fun Fact: Cocoa butter can be kept for years without spoiling
Step 3: Shell Removal
The cocoa beans are cooled quickly and their thin shells, which have become brittle by
roasting, are removed. A giant winnowing machine that passes the beans between serrated
cones, so they are cracked rather than crushed. In the process, a series of mechanical sieves
separate the broken pieces into large and small grains while fans blow away the thin, light
shell from the meat or "nibs." Here's where the first secrets of the chocolate manufacturer
comes in. The nibs are blended, combining as many as 8-10 varieties. It is control of these
subtle mixtures that maintain constant quality and brings out the flavour of each particular
variety of chocolate.
Step 4: Nibs are Ground
The nibs, which contain about 53 % cocoa butter, pass through refining mills and are ground
between large grinding stones or heavy steel discs creating a cocoa paste. The paste is
subjected to hydraulic pressure, and the cocoa butter flowing out is a pure and valuable fat
with a marked aroma; after filtering and purifying it looks very much like ordinary butter.
The cocoa butter has important functions. It not only forms part of every recipe, but it also
later gives the chocolate its fine structure, beautiful lustre and delicate, attractive glaze. The
heat generated by grinding causes the cocoa butter or fat to melt and form a fine paste or
liquid known as chocolate "liquor". When the liquid is poured into moulds and allowed to
solidify, the resulting cakes are unsweetened or bitter chocolate.
Fun Fact: Liquid Chocolate can be converted to hundredweight blocks for storage
Step 5: Cocoa is separated from Cocoa Butter
Up to this point, the manufacturing of cocoa and chocolate is identical. The by-product of
cocoa, cocoa butter, is the essential component of chocolate… about 25% of the weight of
most chocolate bars.
To make cocoa powder chocolate liquor is pumped into hydraulic presses weighing up to 25
tons, and when the pressure is applied, 80% cocoa butter is removed. The fat drains away
through metallic screens as a yellow liquid, and then is collected for use in chocolate
manufacturing. Cocoa butter, unique among vegetable fats, is a solid at normal room
temperature and melts at 89 to 93 degrees Fahrenheit… just below body temperature. With
proper storage conditions, cocoa butter can be kept for years without spoiling.
The "cake" which is left may eventually be made into cocoa powder by being further
crushed, milled and finely sifted. Three or five vertically mounted steel rollers rotate in
opposite directions. Under heavy pressure, they pulverize the tiny particles of cocoa and

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 sugar down to a size of approx. 30 microns. (One micron is a thousandth part of a
millimetre!)

Most manufacturers add non-fat milk, flavours, sugar and other ingredients. The resulting
product will contain between 10 and 22% cocoa butter. In the "Dutch" process, cocoa is
treated with an alkali and develops a slightly milder flavour and has a darker appearance.
The alkali acts as a processing agent rather than as a flavour ingredient.
Fun Fact: Formulas for blending beans, conching techniques and time intervals,
temperatures and proportions of ingredients are secrets
Step 6: Other ingredients are added to the Chocolate Liquor
Milk chocolate is made by adding milk, sugar, cocoa butter and other ingredients to the bitter
chocolate liquor. At this point, Chocolate is prepared in according to individual recipes. The
blending of the various types of cocoa pastes and other ingredients determine the ultimate
taste. The ingredients go into a mixer with rotating, kneading arms until the result is a
homogeneous, paste-like mixture with a pleasant taste, but it still feels gritty to the palate.
Step 7: Conching machines knead the Chocolate Paste
This process develops flavours and changes the texture during controlled temperatures. It’s
the last and most important refining process, which allows the separate flavours of the
individual ingredients to combine. Conches [the paddles of the early machines resembled
conch shells] are equipped with heavy rollers that plough back and forth through the
chocolate paste, anywhere from a few hours to several days. Contemporary technologies can
grind the chocolate particles extremely fine, which can reduce conching times. Swiss and
Belgian chocolates are conched as much as 96 hours. Some chocolates are not conched at all,
or for only 4 to 12 hours.
Under regulated speeds and temperatures, these rollers can produce different degrees of
agitation and aeration to create distinct chocolate flavours. The process can eliminate any
remaining bitterness by aerating the chocolate and expelling volatile acids. Additional cocoa
butter and lecithin are added which help to achieve the characteristic velvet smoothness. And
as the ultimate homogeneity of the ingredients is developed, a soft film of cocoa butter
begins to form around each of the extremely small particles. The chocolate no longer seems
sandy, but dissolves meltingly on the tongue. It has attained the outstanding purity which
gives it its reputation. The last stage of conching Swiss or Belgian chocolate is a magnificent
sight… huge paddles rolling slowly through great vats of chocolate, smooth and creamy and
thick.
Circular conches use a rotary movement and can hold 9 tons of chocolate. They are the most
efficient of the conch machines in some manufacturing setups, there is an emulsifying
operation that either takes the place of conching [or supplements conching]. Emulsifying is
breaking up sugar crystals and other particles in the chocolate mixture to give it a fine,
velvety smoothness. The machine works like an eggbeater.
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 Fun Fact: Confectionery manufacturers use ten-pound blocks

Step 8: Chocolate is tempered by Heating, Cooling & Reheating

This thickens the chocolate and imparts the right flow properties for filling the moulds. This
complex operation is performed in the tempering plant and is necessary to give the final
chocolate product a delicate composition, a uniform structure and a well-rounded flavour.
The storage life is also increased in this way.
The still warm conched chocolate is placed in a tempering machine so that it can be slowly
and steadily cooled. Cooling chocolate at a fixed rate keeps the flavour from being
compromised and prevents separation when the chocolate is poured into bar moulds. Proper
tempering also results in a silky sheen and crisp "snap" when broken… another sign of a
superior quality chocolate bar. The tempered chocolate is poured into moulds of many sizes,
from individual sized bars to a ten-pound blocks used by confectionery manufacturers.
Step 9: Liquid Chocolate is Temporary Stored
A necessary step, conches are always filled with the largest amounts of chocolate for
efficiency, the moulding machines can only accept small amounts of chocolate paste at one
time, in order to shape it into bars, chocolates and other products. Chocolate is frequently
shipped in a liquid state to other food manufacturers, or it can be stored for short periods of
time. For longer periods, it is solidified, usually in the form of hundredweight blocks. These
blocks must be reheated before further processing so that they liquefy again.

Different types of chocolate decorations

A decorative piping of chocolate makes for a pretty garnish on top of a tart, cake or
individual dessert. There are classic patterns to follow and repetition and practice are the key.
It’s just like learning to draw using chocolate.

(Unknown Image, 2020)

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What are Inclusions in Chocolate?

Inclusions are extra ingredients added to chocolate, intended to improve the chocolate’s
overall impact, either flavour-wise or aesthetically.
Sometimes a maker or chocolatier adds inclusions for both flavour and visual appeal, much
more common these days considering that we “eat with our eyes.” One of the most common
inclusions is vanilla. However, vanilla is so ubiquitous that it has become somewhat neutral
territory in chocolate, and therefore is not generally considered a part of the “inclusion”
category. In fact, to be considered as a contender in the Good Food Awards‘ Chocolate
“Inclusion” category, a bar must include a flavouring ingredient other than vanilla.

General categories for inclusions are as follows, with examples in parentheses:

• Fruit (sun-dried cranberries, freeze-dried strawberries, apple bits)
• Extracts (spearmint flavouring, bitter orange extract, ginger oil)
• Herbs & Spices (peppermint leaves, ground cardamom, peppercorns)
• Salt (sea salt, flake salt, salt crystals)
• Nuts & Nibs (roasted or raw nibs, whole nuts, praline)
• Miscellaneous (olive oil, caramel, rose petals)
• Chocolate has since become a popular food product that millions enjoy every day,
thanks to its unique, rich, and sweet taste
• Chocolate consumption has long been associated with conditions such as diabetes,
coronary heart disease, and hypertension.
• Chocolate is believed to contain high levels of antioxidants.
• Some studies have suggested chocolate could lower cholesterol levels and prevent
memory decline.
• Chocolate contains a large number of calories.
• People who are seeking to lose or maintain weight should eat chocolate only in
moderation.

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