1 Notation

We opt for the following notation in the first section:

• MA is the midpoint of BC.
• LA is the intersection of the bisector of ∠BAC with BC
• JA is the altitude from A to BC.

• IA A-excenter
• I is the incenter
• G is the centroid

• H is the circumcenter
• O is the circumcenter
• d(X, Y Z) is the distance from X to the line Y Z.

1
2 Euclidean Geometry
Lemma 2.1.
∠ABC = 2∠BCA ⇐⇒ b2 = c(c + a)
Lemma 2.2. ∠BIC = 90◦ + 21 A
Lemma 2.3. ∠BAH = ∠CAO
Lemma 2.4 (Midpoint Theorem). MB MC k BC and MB MC = a/2.
Lemma 2.5 (Converse Of Midpoint Theorem). If X ∈ AB and MB X k BC,
then X = MA .
Lemma 2.6. H is the incenter of the orthic triangle.
Lemma 2.7 (Reflecting The Orthocenter). Let X be the reflection of H over
BC and let Y be the reflection of H over MA . Then X, Y ∈ (ABC) and AY is
a diameter of (ABC).
Lemma 2.8 (The Incenter-Excenter Lemma). Ray AI meets ABC at L 6= A.
Let IA be the reflection of I over L. Then,
1. L is the center of BIC, and IA ∈ (BIC).
2. Rays BIA and CIA bisect the exterior angles of 4ABC.
Theorem 2.9 (Miquel’s Theorem). Points D, E, F lie on BC, CA, AB. Then,
M = (AEF ) ∩ (BF D) ∩ (CDE) exists and is called the Miquel point.
Lemma 2.10 (Tangency Criterion). Let P be a point in the plane. Then, the
following are equivalent:
1. P A is tangent to (ABC).
2. OA ⊥ AP .
3. ]P AB = ]ACB.
Lemma 2.11. Let X be the midpoint of the arc BC of (ABC) not containing
A, and define Y and Z similarly. Then I is the orthocenter of 4XY Z.
Lemma 2.12 (Three Tangents). MA JB , MA JC and the line through A parallel
to BC are all tangents to (AJB JC ).
Lemma 2.13 (Right Angles on Incircle Chord). 4DEF is the contact triangle
−→ ←−−−→
of 4ABC. BI ∩ EF = N . Then, BN ⊥ CN and N ∈ MA MB .
Lemma 2.14 (Simson Line). Let P ∈ (ABC) be an arbitrary point. Then the
pedal triangle 4XY Z of P is degenerate.
Lemma 2.15 (Power Of A Point). Consider a circle ω and an arbitrary point
P.

2
 1. The quantity Powω (P ) is positive, zero, or negatives according to whether
P is outside, on, or inside ω.
2. If l is a line through P intersecting ω at X and Y ,

P X · P Y = |Powω (P )|

3. If P is outside ω and P A is tangent to ω, then

P A2 = Powω (P )

Lemma 2.16 (Converse Of Power Of A Point). Let A, B, X, Y be four distinct

←→ ←→
points in the plane and let P = AB ∩ XY . Suppose that either P lies in both the
segments, or in neither. If P A · P B = P X · P Y , then A, B, X, Y are concyclic.

Lemma 2.17 (Radical Center). Let ωi (i = 1, 2, 3) be three circles with corre-

sponding centers Oi .
1. If O1 , O2 and O3 are not collinear, the pairwise radical axes intersect at a
point, called the radical center.
2. Otherwise, if they are collinear, the three radical axes will be pairwise
parallel, or maybe even the same line.
Lemma 2.18 (Radical Center Of Intersecting Circles). Let ω1 , ω2 be two circles
with centers O1 , O2 . Select points A, B ∈ ω1 and C, D ∈ ω2 . Then the following
are equivalent:
1. A, B, C, D lie on a circle with center O3 not on line O1 O2 .

2. Lines AB and CD intersect on the radical axis of the two circles.

Lemma 2.19. Let P be a point in the interior of 4ABC. Suppose that BC is
tangent to (ABP ) and (ACP ). Then, line AP bisects BC. That is, A, P, MA
are collinear.

Lemma 2.20 (Coaxial Circles). Three distinct circles Ω1 , Ω2 , Ω3 pass through

a common point. Then, their centers are collinear if and only if they share a
second common point.
Lemma 2.21 (Tangents To The Incircle). If 4DEF is the contact triangle of
4ABC, then AE = AF = s − a.
Lemma 2.22. Suppose the incircle is tangent to BC at D and the A-excircle
is tangent to BC at E. Then BX = CD and BD = CX.
Lemma 2.23. 4IA IB IC has orthocenter I and orthic triangle 4ABC.

Theorem 2.24 (Pitot Theorem). Let ABCD be a quadrilateral. The following

statements are equivalent:

3
 1. AB + CD = BC + DA.
2. A circle can be inscribed inside the quadrilateral.
3. The interior angle bisectors concur.
Lemma 2.25. Let AM , BE and CF be three concurrent cevians. Then, EF k
BC if and only if M = MA .
Lemma 2.26 (Homothetic Triangles). Let 4ABC and 4XY Z be non-congruent
triangles such that AB k XY , BC k Y Z and CA k ZX. Then, lines AX, BY
and CY concur at some point O, and O is the center of a homothety mapping
4ABC to 4XY Z.
Theorem 2.27 (Nine-Point Circle). Let N9 denote the midpoint of OH. Then,
MA , MB , MC , JA , JB , JC as well as the midpoints of AH, BH and CH lie on a
circle centered at N9 with radius R/2.
Lemma 2.28 (Euler Line). G ∈ OH and G divides OH in a 2 : 1 ratio.
Lemma 2.29. In cyclic quadrilateral ABCD, points X and Y are the ortho-
centres of 4ABC and 4BCD. Then, AXY D is a parallelogram.
Lemma 2.30 (Monge’s Theorem). Consider three disjoint circles in the plane,
no two congruent. For each pair of circles, we construct the intersection of their
external common tangents. Then these intersections are collinear.
Theorem 2.31 (Cevian Nest). Let AX, BY and CZ be concurrent cevians.
Let XD, Y E and ZF be concurrent cevians in 4XY Z. Then lines AD, BE
and CF are concurrent.
Definition 2.32 (Gergonne Point). If 4DEF is the contact triangle, lines
AD, BE and CF concur at a point, known as the Gergonne Point of the triangle.
Definition 2.33 (Nagel Point). Let X be the point where the A-excircle touches
the side BC. Define Y and Z similarly. Then, lines AX, BY and CZ concur
at the Nagel Point of the triangle.
Definition 2.34 (Schiffler Point). The Euler Lines of triangles ABC, BIC, CIA
and AIB are concurrent at the Schiffler Point of 4ABC.
Lemma 2.35. In a parallelogram ABCD, AC 2 + BD2 = 2(AB 2 + BC 2 ).
Lemma 2.36. (AOJA ), (BOJB ) and (COJC ) intersect at a point other than
O.
Lemma 2.37 (Radical Axis of Cyclic Quadrilaterals). If two cyclic quadrilat-
erals share two points, then the radical axis of their circumcircles is the line
through those two points.
Lemma 2.38. Let ABCD be a quadrilateral with perpendicular diagonals inter-
secting at a point E. Then the reflections of E in the sides of the quadrilateral
are concyclic.

4
Lemma 2.39.
1
d(MA , OH) = (d(B, OH) + d(C, OH))
2
Theorem 2.40 (Eight-Point Circle Theorem). In a quadrilateral with perpen-
dicular diagonals, the midpoints of the sides as well as the feet of the altitudes
from the midpoints to the opposite sides are concyclic.
Lemma 2.41 (AIME (ii) 2015/11). Let l be the line through O, perpendicular
to OA. l ∩ AB = P and l ∩ CA = Q. Then the points B, P, Q, C are concyclic
Lemma 2.42 (Vietnam TST 2003/2). If 4DEF is the contact triangle of
4ABC, the four lines IA D, IB E, IC F and OI concur, because there is a ho-
mothety between 4DEF and 4IA IB IC .
Lemma√ 2.43. If a cyclic quadrilateral with sides a, b, c, d is inscribable, it’s
area is abcd.
Lemma 2.44. 4IA IB IC has
• nine-point center O
• orthocenter I
• Euler line OI
Lemma 2.45 (Viviani’s Lemma). In an equilateral triangle of side length a, let
M be an arbitrary point inside the triangle and let D, E, F be the projections of
M to the corresponding sides. Then, if h denotes the length of the altitude from
A to BC,
h = MD + ME + MF
Lemma 2.46. Let AX, BY , CZ be cevians concurring at P . Then,
PX PY PZ
+ + =1
AX BY CZ
Lemma 2.47 (RMO 2012/5). Let BX be a cevian of 4ABC, and let M the
intersection of the angle bisector of ∠BAC and the perpendicular bisector of
BX. Then M ∈ (ABX) and is the midpoint of the arc BK not containing A.
Lemma 2.48. In 4ABC, let P ∈ AB and Q ∈ AC with p = AP : P B and
q = AQ : QC. Then,
[AP Q] pq
=
[ABC] (p + 1)(q + 1)
Lemma 2.49 (Pedal Circle Property). Let P be a point inside 4ABC and let
P 0 be it’s isogonal conjugate. If 4XY Z and 4X 0 Y 0 Z 0 are the pedal triangles
of P and P 0 respectively, then the six points X, Y, Z, X 0 , Y 0 , Z 0 are concyclic.
Lemma 2.50 (Moldova JTST/3). Let ABC be a triangle with a right angle at
A. Then, the C-symmedian bisects the altitude from A to BC

5
Lemma 2.51 (AMC 2018 12B/13). Let ABCD be a square with side length a,
and let P be a point inside the square. Let G1 , G2 , G3 and G4 be the centroids of
triangles ABP , BCP , CDP and DAP , respectively. Then there is a homothety
centered at P sending Gi to the midpoint of the corresponding side of the square.
The homothety is of magnitude 3/2.

Lemma 2.52 (Prasolov 2.20). Let A1 be the midpoint of minor arc BC of the
circumcircle of 4ABC, and similarly define B1 and C1 . Then, the diagonals
connecting the opposite vertices of the hexagon formed by the intersection of the
sides of 4ABC with 4A1 B1 C1 are concurrent at the incenter of 4ABC and
are parallel to the corresponding sides of 4ABC.

Lemma 2.53 (Prasolov 2.23). The tangent to the circumcircle of 4ABC at A

intersects line BC at E. The internal bisector of ∠BAC intersects BC at D.
Then 4AED is isosceles, wtih AE = AD.
Remark 2.54. From now on, we shall use the acronym ”FOTP” to mean
”Focus on the proof”.

Lemma 2.55 (Prasolov 2.33). Triangle ABC has ∠B = π/3 and angle bisectors
ADandCE intersecting at I. Then OD = OE. (FOTP)
Lemma 2.56 (Prasolov 2.34). In isosceles triangle 4ABC, ∠B = ∠C = 40◦ .
The bisector of ∠B intersects AC at D. Then BD + DA = BC. (FOTP)

Lemma 2.57 (Prasolov 2.35). On chord AB of circle Γ (with center O), a

point C is taken. Let (AOC) and (BOC) intersect Γ at D and E, respectively.
Then, D, C, E are collinear (due to Lemma 2.20), and BC = CD.
Theorem 2.58 (Blanchet’s Theorem). P ∈ AJA , and D = BP ∩ CA, E =
CP ∩ AB. Then, ∠DJA A = ∠EJA A.

Lemma 2.59. 4XY Z is the contact triangle of 4ABC if and only if BX =

CX and CY = AY and AZ = BZ.
Lemma 2.60. The Euler Line of the contact triangle of 4ABC passes through
the circumcenter of 4ABC. This can be proved by inverting with respect to the
incircle of 4ABC, see Lemma 6.8

Lemma 2.61. The Nagel Point of 4ABC is the Symmedian Point of it’s con-
tact triangle.

6
Lemma 2.62 (More Simson Line). Let P ∈ (ABC) be an arbitrary point, and
let X be the foot of the perpendicular from P to BC. Similarly define Y and
Z. Let line P X meet (ABC) again at a point K. Also, let the Simson Line
intersect line AH at point L. Let K 0 be the reflection of K in BC. Then,

1. LAKX is a parallelogram.
2. K 0 is the orthocenter of 4P BC.

3. AHP K 0 is a parallelogram.
4. LHXP is a parallelogram.
5. The Simson line bisects P H.

7
Lemma 2.63 (Duality Of Orthocenters and Excenters). 4ABC is the orthic
triangle of 4IA IB IC , and the orthocenter is I.
Lemma 2.64 (Diameter Of Incircle). The incircle of 4ABC is tangent to BC
at D. If DE is a diameter of the incircle and ray AE meets BC at X, then
BD = CX and X is the tangency point of the A-excircle with BC. Suppose
XY is a diameter of the A-excircle. Then, D ∈ AY . Also, IMA k AE.

8
Lemma 2.65 (Midpoint Of Altitude). Let the incircle touch BC at D and let
the A-excircle touch it at X. Then, lines DIA and XI concur at the midpoint
of the altitude from A.

9
Lemma 2.66 (An Incircle Concurrency). Let the contact triangle be 4DEF .
Then, EF , AMA and ray DI concur.

10
Lemma 2.67 (Properties Of The Symmedian). Let the tangents to (ABC) at
B and C intersect at X. Let AX meet (ABC) again at K and BC at D. Then,
AD is the A-symmedian and

1. KA is the K-symmedian of 4KBC.

2. 4ABK and 4AM C are directly similar.
3. We have
BD  c 2
=
DC b
4. We have
AB AC
=
BK CK
5. (BCX) passes through the midpoint of AK.

6. BC is the B-symmedian of 4BAK and the C-symmedian of 4CAK.

7. BC is the interior bisector of ∠AM K, and M X is the exterior bisector.

11
Lemma 2.68 (Circle Inscribed in Segments). Let AB be a chord of a circle Ω.
Let ω be a circle tangent to chord AB at K and internally tangent to ω at T .
Then ray T K passes through the midpoint M of the arc AB not containing T .
Moreover, Powω (M ) = M A2 = M B 2 .

12
Lemma 2.69 (Curvilinear Incircle Chords). Let D ∈ BC. Suppose a circle
is tangent to AD at L, BC at K, and also to (ABC). Then the incenter of
4ABC lies on line LK.

13
Lemma 2.70 (Mixtillinear Incircles). Let the A-mixtillinear incircle of 4ABC
be tangent to AB, AC and (ABC) at K, L and TA respectively. Define TB
and TC similarly. Denote by D and E the contact points of the incircle and
A-excircle on BC, respectively.

1. The midpoint of KL is I, the incenter of 4ABC.

2. Lines TA K and TA L pass through the midpoints of the arcs AB and AC
not containing TA .

3. Line TA I passes through midpoint of arc BC not containing A.

4. ATA and AE are isogonal with respect to 4ABC.
5. TA A and TA D are isogonal with respect to 4BTA C.

6. Quadrilaterals BKIT and CLIT are concyclic.

7. Lines ATA , BT B, CTC and OI are concurrent.

14
Lemma 2.71 (Spiral Centers). Let AB and CD be segments, and suppose
X = AC ∩ BD. If (ABX) and (CDX) intersect again in O, then O is the
center of the unique spiral similarity taking AB to CD and AC to BD.
Remark 2.72. For the next BLANK results, consider the complete quadrilateral
ABCD with P = AD ∩ BC and Q = AB ∩ CD, where P and Q lie outside
ABCD.
Theorem 2.73 (Miquel’s Theorem for Complete Quadrilaterals). The four
circles (P AB), (P DC), (QAD), (QBC) concur at the Miquel point M . Fur-
thermore, M is the center of the spiral similarity sending AB to DC and BC
to AD.

Theorem 2.74 (Gauss-Bodenmiller Theorem). The circles with diameters AC,

BD and P Q are coaxial. Their radical axis is a line passing through the ortho-
centers of 4P AB, 4P CD, 4QAD and 4QBC. The radical axis is sometimes
called the Steiner Line or Aubert Line. The line through the midpoints of
AC, BD and P Q is called the Gauss line.

Lemma 2.75 (Centers Concyclic with Miquel Point). The centers of the four
circles (P AB), (P CD), (QAD), (QBC) lie on a circle passing through the Miquel
point.
Lemma 2.76 (Altitudes from the Miquel Point). The feet of the perpendiculars
from M to lines AB, BC, CD, DA are collinear. Furthermore, the line through
these four points is perpendicular to the Gauss line.
Lemma 2.77 (Miquel Point of Cyclic Quadrilaterals). Let ABCD be a cyclic
quadrilateral inscribed in circle ω with diagonals meeting at R.
• M = (OAC) ∩ (OBD) ∩ (P AB) ∩ (P CD) ∩ (QAD) ∩ (QBC)

• M is the center of the spiral similarity taking AB to CD

• M is the inverse of R with respect to an inversion around ω. From Bro-
card’s Theorem, M is the foot of O onto P Q.
• OM bisects ∠AM C and ∠BM D.

15
3 Cartesian and Euclidean Bash Tricks
Lemma 3.1 (Shoelace Formula). Consider three points A = (x1 , y1 ) etc. The
signed area of the triangle is given by
x1 y1 1
[ABC] = x2 y2 1
x3 y3 1
In particular, the three points are collinear if and only if the above determinant
vanishes.
Lemma 3.2 (Point-Line Distance Formula). The distance of a point P =
(x0 , y0 ) from a line l described by Ax + By + C = 0 is
|Ax0 + By0 + C|
√
A2 + B 2
Lemma 3.3 (Area Formulae). The (unsigned) area of 4ABC is
1
[ABC] = ab sin C
2
2
a sin B sin C
=
2 sin A
= 2R2 sin A sin B sin C
abc
=
4R
= rs
p
= s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
= rA (s − a)
Lemma 3.4 (Tan Sum). If x, y, z ∈ (0, π2 ) and x + y + z = π, then
tan x + tan y + tan z = tan x tan y tan z
Lemma 3.5 (Modified LoC).
b2 + c2 − a2
cos A =
2bc
Theorem 3.6 (Ptolemy’s). Let ABCD be a cyclic quadrilateral. Then,
ac + bd = pq
Theorem 3.7 (Strong Ptolemy). In cyclic quadrilateral ABCD with AB = a
etc, we have
(ac + bd)(ad + bc)
AC 2 =
ab + cd
and
(ac + bd)(ab + cd)
BD2 =
ad + bc

16
Theorem 3.8 (Stewart). Let D ∈ BC and m = DB,n = DC,d = AD. Then,

a(d2 + mn) = b2 m + c2 n

Theorem 3.9 (Bretschneider’s Formula). The area of any convex quadrilateral

ABCD with sides a, b, c, d and semiperimeter s is
r
1
(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d) − abcd cos( (∠ABC + ∠ADC))
2
Theorem 3.10 (Brahmagupta; Cyclic Case Of Bret). The area of a cyclic
quadrilateral with sides a, b, c, d and semiperimeter s is
p
(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − b)

(The limiting case D = C gives Heron’s formula).

Theorem 3.11 (Coolidge’s Formula). The area of a convex quadrilateral with
sides a, b, c, d, diagonals p, q and semiperimeter s is
r
1
(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d) − ((ac + bd + pq)(ac + bd − pq))
4
Lemma 3.12.
  r   r
A s(s − a) A (s − b)(s − c)
sin = and cos =
2 bc 2 bc

Theorem 3.13 (Angle Bisector Theorem).

b CX sin B
= =
c BX sin C
if and only if AX is an angle bisector.
Lemma 3.14 (Tangents To The Excircle). If AB1 and AC1 are tangents to the
A-excircle, then AB1 = AC1 = s.
Lemma 3.15 (Euler’s Theorem).

OI 2 = R(R − 2r)

In particular, R ≥ 2r.
Theorem 3.16 (Trig Ceva). Let X, Y, Z be points on BC, CA, AB. They con-
cur if and only if
sin ∠BAX sin ∠CBY sin ∠ACZ
=1
sin ∠XAC sin ∠Y BA sin ∠ZCB

17
Theorem 3.17 (Menelaus’). Let X, Y, Z 6= A, B, C be points on BC, CA, AB.
Then, X, Y, Z are collinear if and only if
BX CY AZ
· · = −1
XC Y A ZB
where the lengths are directed.
Lemma 3.18. Let M be the midpoint of BC of 4ABC. Then, we must have

AH = 2 · OM

.
Lemma 3.19 (Lemma of Ratio). In 4ABC, with X ∈ BC, we have
BX c sin ∠BAX
= ·
CX b sin ∠CAX
Corollary 3.20. In quadrilateral ABCD, we have:
sin ∠BAD BD sin B
= ·
sin ∠CAD CD sin C
Lemma 3.21 (Lemma of Perpendicularity). In 4ABC, X ∈ BC. For a point
P ∈ AX, we have AX ⊥ BC if and only if

c2 − b2 = P B 2 − P C 2

Lemma 3.22. For four angles α, α0 , β, β 0 , if we know that

sin α sin β
0
= andα + α0 = β + β 0
sin α sin β 0
, then we may conclude that α = β and α0 = β 0 .
Lemma 3.23. For four angles α, α0 , β, β 0 , if we know that
sin α sin β
0
= andα − α0 = β − β 0
sin α sin β 0
,
then we may conclude that

α + α0 ≡ β + β 0 ≡ 0 (mod π)

Theorem 3.24 (Trig Ptolemy). ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral if and only if

AB · sin ∠BAC + AD · sin ∠CAD = AC · sin ∠BAD

Theorem 3.25 (Trig Collinearity). Let A, B, C, D be four coplanar points.

Then, B, C, D are collinear if and only if
sin ∠BAC sin ∠CAD sin ∠BAD
+ =
AD AB AC

18
Lemma 3.26 (Isogonal Lines Lemma). In 4ABC, P ∈ BC and Q is a point
on arc BC of the circumcircle. If AP and AQ are isogonal, we will have
AP · AQ = bc
.
Corollary 3.27.
AI · AIA = bc
Lemma 3.28 (Length of Median).
1p 2
AMA = 2b + 2c2 − a2
2
Lemma 3.29 (Length of Altitude).
hA = c sin B
bc sin A
=
a
bc
=
2R
Lemma 3.30.
AH = a cot A
= 2R cos A

Lemma 3.31.
BJA = c cos B
c2 + a2 − b2
=
2a
Lemma 3.32.
HJA = b cot B cot C
HJA = 2R cos B cos C
and
JB JC = a cos A
Lemma 3.33 (Length of Interior Angle Bisector).
 2 !
2 a
ALA = bc 1 −
b+c
4bc · s(s − a)
=
(b + c)2
 
2bc A
= · cos
c+a 2

19
Lemma 3.34 (Length of Exterior Angle Bisector).
 
0 2bc ˙ A
ALA = sin
|b − c| 2
Lemma 3.35.
ac ab
BLA = and CLA =
b+c b+c
Lemma 3.36. The bisector of ∠BAC intersects (ABC) at L. Then,
b+c
AL = AR ·
a
b+c A
= · sec
2 2
where the former equation is found by Ptolemy on ABLC and the latter is
found by the Law of Cosines of 4BLC. A corollary is
A
AI = (s − a) sec
2
Also,
 
A
AI = r csc
2
 
bc A
= · cos
s 2
and
a
BL = CL = IL = A


2 cos 2

Lemma 3.37 (Lengths in Mixtillinear Incircle). Let the A-mixtillinear incircle

of 4ABC touch AB and AC at E and F . Using the fact that AI ⊥ EF , we
have
bc
AE = AF =
s
Also,
c(s − b) b(s − c)
BE = and CF =
s s
Lemma 3.38. Let L0 be the midpoint of the arc BAC in 4ABC.
|b − c|
AL0 =
2 sin A2

Lemma 3.39. Let L, L0 be the midpoints of the arcs BC not containing A and
containing A, respectively. Let S, S 0 be the projections of L and L0 onto AC.
Then,
b+c |b − c|
AS = CS 0 = and AS 0 = CS =
2 2

20
Lemma 3.40.
 
bc A
AIA = · cos
s−a 2
 
A
= rA csc
2
 
A
= s sec
2
 
A
AIB = rB sec
2
Lemma 3.41 (Length Of Exradius). The A-exradius has length

s [ABC]
rA = r · =
s−a s−a

21
4 Complex Numbers
p
Lemma 4.1. |z| = (Re z)2 + (Im z)2 = zz
z+z z−z
Lemma 4.2. Re z = 2 and Im z = 2i

Lemma 4.3. z is the reflection of z over the real axis.

Lemma 4.4. The following hold for w, z ∈ C:

1. w + z = w + z
2. w − z = w − z
3. w · z = w · z
4. w/z = w/z

Lemma 4.5. The midpoint M of AB is m = (a + b)/2.

Lemma 4.6. A, B, C are collinear if and only if c = λa + (1 − λ)b for some
λ ∈ R.
Lemma 4.7. The centroid G of a triangle 4ABC is g = (a + b + c)/3.
Lemma 4.8. ABCD is a parallelogram if and only if a + c = b + d
Lemma 4.9. |wz| = |w| |z| and arg wz = arg w + arg z for all w, z ∈ C.
Lemma 4.10. The translation z 7→ α(z −w)+w is a spiral symmetry; it rotates
by an angle of arg α (about w) and dilates by a factor of |α|.
Lemma 4.11. Let W be the reflection of Z over a given AB. Then,

(a − b)z + ab − ab
w=
a−b
Lemma 4.12. The transformation z 7→ 1 maps every other w ∈ C to w/z.
Lemma 4.13. The foot of the altitude from Z to AB is given by

z(a − b) + z(a − b) + ab − ab
2(a − b)

Lemma 4.14. The following hold for any z ∈ C:

1. z = z if and only if z ∈ R.
2. z + z = 0 if and only if z is pure imaginary.
Lemma 4.15. The following hold:
d−c
1. AB ⊥ CD if and only if b−a is pure imaginary.

22
 z−a
2. Z, A, B are collinear if and only if z−b is real.
Lemma 4.16 (Complex Shoelace). If a, b, c ∈ C, then the signed area of ABC
is given by

a a 1
i
b b 1
4
c c 1
. In particular, the three points are collinear if and only if the above determinant
is 0.
Lemma 4.17. If a, b, c, x lie on the unit circle, then ax + bc = 0 if and only if
AX ⊥ BC
Lemma 4.18. If a 6= b are on the unit circle, and z is an arbitrary complex
number, then the foot of the perpendicular from Z to AB is given by
1
(a + b + z − abz)
2
.
In the limiting case a = b, we obtain the foot of the altitude from z to the
tangent at a as
1
(z + 2a − a2 z)
2
Lemma 4.19. Suppose 4ABC is a triangle with the circumcircle being the unit
circle. Then,
1. The circumcenter is o = 0.
2. The centroid is g = (a + b + c)/3.
3. The orthocenter is h = a + b + c.
4. The nine-point center is n9 = (a + b + c)/2.
Lemma 4.20. If 4ABC lies on the unit circle, then the reflection of H over
BC is x = −bc/a.
Lemma 4.21. 4ABC ∼ 4XY Z if and only if
a x 1
0= b y 1
c z 1
Lemma 4.22 (Complex Intersection). If lines AB and CD are not parallel,
then their intersection X is given by
(ab − ab)(c − d) − (a − b)(cd − cd)
x=
(a − b)(c − d) − (a − b)(c − d)
In particular, if |a| = |b| = |c| = |d| = 1, the intersection reduces to
ab(c + d) − cd(a + b)
ab − cd

23
Lemma 4.23. 4ABC is equilateral if and only if a2 + b2 + c2 = ab + bc + ca.
Lemma 4.24. A point P lies on the chord AB of the unit circle if and only if
p + abp = a + b.
Lemma 4.25. A, B, C, D are concyclic if and only if
b−a b−d
÷ ∈R
c−a c−d
Lemma 4.26. Suppose X and Y are the intersection points of two circles.
If AC and BD are chords passing through X on the first and second circles
resepectively, then
ad − bc
y=
a+d−b−c
Lemma 4.27. Let A and B be points on the unit circle. Then
2ab 2
x= =
a+b a+b
is the intersection point of the tangents at A and B.
Lemma 4.28. The circumcenter of 4XY Z is given by
x xx 1 x x 1
y yy 1 ÷ y y 1
z zz 1 z z 1

In particular, if z = 0, then the above expression reduces to

xy(x − y)
xy − xy
Lemma 4.29. Given 4ABC on the unit circle, it is possible to find u, v, w ∈ C
such that
1. a = u2 , b = v 2 and c = w2 .
2. the midpoint of arc AB not containing A is −vw; the analogous midpoints
opposite B and C are −wu and −uv.
In this case, the incenter I is given by −(uv + vw + wu).
Lemma 4.30. Suppose A is on the unit circle. Then the tranformation that
sends a to 1 sends every other point z on the unit circle to z/a.
Lemma 4.31. Let ABCD be a cyclic quadrilateral, and let HA be the ortho-
center of 4BCD. Simillarly define HB , HC , HD . Then AHA , BHB , CHC and
DHD concur at the anticenter of ABCD, namely 21 (a + b + c + d).
Remark 4.32. If you see more than one parallel chords in a problem, consider
making them perpendicular to the real axis.

24
5 Barycentric Co-ordinates
Lemma 5.1 (Barycentric Area Formula). Let P1 , P2 , P3 be points with barycen-
tric coordinates Pi = (xi , yi , zi ) for i = 1, 2, 3. Then the signed area of 4P1 P2 P3
is given by
x1 y1 z1
[P1 P2 P3 ]
= x2 y2 z2
[ABC]
x3 y3 z3
Lemma 5.2 (Equation Of A Line). The equation of a line takes the form
ux + vy + wz = 0, where u, v and w are real numbers which are unique up to
scaling.
Lemma 5.3 (Barycentric Cevian). If P is on line BC and has coordinates
(0, y1 , z1 ), then the equation of the line AP is z = yz11 y.
Lemma 5.4 (Collinearity). Consider points P1 , P2 and P3 with Pi = (xi : yi :
zi ). The three points are collinear if and only if
x1 y1 z1
0 = x2 y2 z2
x3 y3 z3

Lemma 5.5 (Equation Of Line (Determinant)). The line through P = (x1 :

y1 : z1 ) and Q = (x2 : y2 : z2 ) is given by
x y z
0 = x1 y1 z1
x2 y2 z2

Lemma 5.6 (Point At Infinity). The point at infinity along a line is a point
(x : y : z) such that x + y + z = 0.
Lemma 5.7 (Concurrency). Consider three lines
li : ui x + vi y + wi z = 0
for i = 1, 2, 3. They are concurrent or all parallel if and only if
u1 v1 w1
0 = u2 v2 w2
u3 v3 w3

Lemma 5.8 (Displacement Vector). A displacement vector of two normalized

points P = (p1 , p2 , p3 ) and Q = (q1 , q2 , q3 ) is denoted by P~Q and is equal to
(q1 − p1 , q2 − p2 , q3 − p3 ).
Lemma 5.9 (Distance Formula). Let P and Q be two arbitrary points and
consider a displacement vector P~Q = (x, y, z). Then the distance from P to Q
is given by
2
|P Q| = −a2 yz − b2 zx − c2 xy

25
Lemma 5.10 (Barycentric Circle). The general equation of a circle is

−a2 yz − b2 zx − c2 xy + (ux + vy + cz)(x + y + z) = 0

for reals u, v and w.

Lemma 5.11 (EFFT). Let M~N = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P~Q = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) be dis-
placement vectors. Then M N ⊥ P Q if and only if

0 = a2 (y1 z2 + y2 z1 ) + b2 (z1 x2 + z2 x1 ) + c2 (x1 y2 + x2 y1 )

Lemma 5.12 (Barycentric Circumcircle). The equation describing (ABC), the

circumcircle of the reference triangle is

a2 yz + b2 zx + c2 xy = 0

Lemma 5.13. Let P~Q = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) be a displacement vector. Then P Q ⊥ BC

if and only if
0 = a2 (z1 − y1 ) + x1 (c2 − b2 )

Lemma 5.14 (Barycentric Perpendicular Bisector). The perpendicular bisector

of BC has equation
0 = a2 (z − y) + x(c2 − b2 )
Lemma 5.15 (Conway’s Identities). Let S denote twice the area of 4ABC.
Then,

S 2 = SAB + SBC + SCA

= SBC + a2 SA
1
= (a2 SA + b2 SB + c2 SC )
2
= (bc)2 − SA
2

In particular, a2 SA + b2 SB − c2 SC = 2SAB .
Lemma 5.16 (Conway’s Formula). Let P be an arbitrary point. If β = ]P BC
and γ = ]BCP . Then,

P = (−a2 : SC + Sγ : SB + Sβ )

Lemma 5.17 (Power Of A Point). Suppose ω is the circle defined by

−a2 yz − b2 zx − c2 xy + (x + y + z)(ux + vy + wz) = 0

Let P = (x, y, z) (homogenized) be an arbitrary point. Then,

Powω (P ) = −a2 yz − b2 zx − c2 xy + (x + y + z)(ux + vy + wz)

26
Lemma 5.18 (Barycentric Radical Axis). Suppose two non-concentric circles
are given by the equations
−a2 yz − b2 zx − c2 xy + (x + y + z)(u1 x + v1 y + w1 z) = 0
−a2 yz − b2 zx − c2 xy + (x + y + z)(u2 x + v2 y + w2 z) = 0
Then their radical axis is given by
(u1 − u2 )x + (v1 − v2 )y + (w1 − w2 )z = 0
Lemma 5.19 (Strong EFFT). Suppose M, N, P, Q are points with
M~N = x1 AO~ + y1 BO
~ + z1 CO
~
P~Q = x2 AO
~ + y2 BO
~ + z2 CO
~

such that either x1 + y1 + z1 = 0 or x2 + y2 + z2 = 0. Then, lines M N and P Q

are perpendicular if and only if
0 = a2 (y1 z2 + y2 z1 ) + b2 (z1 x2 + z2 x1 ) + c2 (x1 y2 + x2 y1 )
Lemma 5.20 (Tangent To Circumcircle). The tangent to (ABC) at A is given
by
b2 z + c2 y = 0
Lemma 5.21 (Intersection Of Lines). The intersection of lines
p1 x + q1 y + r1 z = 0
p2 x + q2 y + r2 z = 0
is given by  
q1 q2 r1 r2 p1 p2
, ,
r1 r2 p1 p2 q1 q2
Lemma 5.22 (Segment Division). Suppose P = (u1 , v1 , w1 ) and Q = (u2 , v2 , w2 )
are (homogenized) points. Then if R divides P Q (internally) in a ratio p/q,
 
qu1 + pu2 qv1 + qv2 qw1 + qw2
R= , ,
q+p q+p q+p
If R divides P Q externally,
 
qu1 − pu2 qv1 − qv2 qw1 − qw2
R= , ,
q+p q+p q+p
Lemma 5.23 (Reflection of Point about Point). Let P = (u1 , v1 , w1 ) and Q =
(u2 , v2 , w2 ) be the homogenized coordinates of P and Q. Then the reflection P 0
of P in Q is given by
P 0 = (2u2 − u1 , 2v2 − v1 , 2w2 − w1 )
Lemma 5.24 (Barycentric Incircle). The incircle of the reference triangle is
given by the following equation:
−a2 yz − b2 zx − c2 xy + (x + y + z)[(s − a)2 x + (s − b)2 y + (s − c)2 z] = 0

27
6 Inversion
Lemma 6.1. Let A 6= O be a point inside circle ω and let A∗ be it’s inverse.
Then the tangents from A∗ to ω are collinear with A.
Lemma 6.2 (Inversion and Angles). If A∗ and B ∗ are the inverses of A and
B under an inversion centered at O, then ]OAB = −]OB ∗ A∗ .
Lemma 6.3. The image of z ∈ C upon inversion about the unit circle is (z)−1

Theorem 6.4 (Images of Clines). A cline inverts to a cline. Specifically, in an

inversion through a circle centered at O,
• A line through O inverts to itself.
• A circle passing through O inverts to line (not passing through O), and
vice versa. The diameter of this circle containing O is perpendicular to
the line.
• A circle not passing through O inverts to another circle not passing through
O. The centers of these circles are collinear with O.

Moreover, two tangent clines remain tangent after inversion (in case of lines,
tangent means parallel, i.e. intersection at P∞ .)
Lemma 6.5 (Inverting an Orthocenter). Let ABC be a triangle with orthocen-
ter H and altitudes AD, BE, CF . Perform an inversion around A with radius
√
AH · AD. Then, H ∗ = D, F ∗ = B and E ∗ = C.

Lemma 6.6 (Inverting a Circumcenter). Let ABC have circumcenter O. Invert

around A with radius 1. Then, the reflection of A over B ∗ C ∗ is O.
Lemma 6.7 (Inverting the Incircle). Let ABC be a triangle with circumcircle
Γ and contact triangle DEF . Consider an inversion with respect to the incircle
of triangle ABC. Then, Γ∗ is the nine-point circle of 4DEF .

Lemma 6.8 (Inverting Orthogonal Circles). If ω and γ are orthogonal circles,

then γ inverts to itself under inversion with respect to ω.
Remark 6.9. If a problem inverts to itself, it is usually really easy.
Lemma 6.10 (Force-Overlaid Inversion). Let ABC be a triangle.√ Consider
the transformation consisting of an inversion around A with radius AB · AC,
followed by a reflection about the bisector of angle A. This transformation swaps
B and C.
This transformation sends (ABC) to BC and sends the A-mixtillinear in-
circle to the A-excircle.

Remark 6.11. The previous lemma can be used to prove Lemma 2.68, part 4.

28
Lemma 6.12 (Inversion Distance Formula). Let A and B be points other than
O and consider an inversion about O with radius r. Then,

r2
A∗ B ∗ = · AB
OA · OB
or equivalently,
r2
AB = · A∗ B ∗
OA∗ · OB ∗
Remark 6.13. ALWAYS be on the lookout for nine-point circles.

29
7 Projective Geometry
Definition 7.1 (Points At Infinity). Partition all the lines of the Euclidean
plane into pencils of parallel lines, where two lines are in the same pencil if
they are parallel. Then, we add a point at infinity for each pencil. The line
at infinity is a line passing through all the points at infinity.
Definition 7.2 (Cross Ratio). Given four collinear points A, B, X and Y
(which maybe points at infinity), we define the cross ratio as
XA YA
(A, B; X, Y ) = ÷
XB YB
where the lengths are directed.
If A, B, X, Y are points on lines a, b, x, y (respectively) concurrent at P ,
then
sin ∠(x, a) sin ∠(y, a)
P (A, B; X, Y ) = (a, b; x, y) = ± ÷
sin ∠(x, b) sin ∠(y, b)
where the sign is positive if one of the four angles formed by a and b contains
neither x nor y and is negative otherwise.
Theorem 7.3 (Cross Ratio in Cyclic Quadrilaterals). Let A, B, X, Y be con-
cyclic. If P is any point on it’s circumcircle, then
XA YA
P (A, B; X, Y ) = ÷
XB YB
where the lengths are directed.
Theorem 7.4 (Perspectivity). Suppose two lines l and m are given with points
A, B, X, Y on l. Take any point P and consider the intersections of lines P A,
P B, P C, P D with m, say A0 , B 0 , X 0 , Y 0 . Then,

(A, B; X, Y ) = P (A, B; X, Y ) = P (A0 , B 0 ; X 0 , Y 0 ) = (A0 , B 0 ; X 0 , Y 0 )

Thus, we can project (A, B; X, Y ) from line l to line m. This is called taking
perspectivity at P . We denote this by
P
(A, B; X, Y ) = (A0 , B 0 ; X 0 , Y 0 )

Projecting from a circle to a line (or vice versa) also preserves the cross
ratio.
Definition 7.5 (Harmonic Bundles/Quadrilaterals). If (A, B; X, Y ) = −1, then
we say that (A, B; X, Y ) is a harmonic bundle. A cyclic quadrilateral AXBY
is called a harmonic quadrilateral if (A, B; X, Y ) = −1. Y is also occasion-
ally called the harmonic conjugate of X.
Lemma 7.6 (Midpoints and Parallel Lines). Given points A and B, let M be a
point on AB and P∞ the point at infinity of line AB. Then (A, B; M, Pi nf ty)
is a harmonic bundle if and only if M is the midpoint of AB.

30
Lemma 7.7 (Harmonic Quadrilaterals). Let ω be a circle and let P be a point
outside it. Let P X and P Y be tangents to ω. Take a line through P intersecting
ω again at A and B. Then,
1. AXBY is a harmonic quadrilateral

2. If Q = AB ∩ XY , then (A, B; Q, P ) is a harmonic bundle

Lemma 7.8 (Inversion Induces Harmonic Bundles). Let P be a point on line
AB, and let P ∗ denote it’s image upon inversion around the circle with diameter
AB. Then, A, B; P, P ∗ is a harmonic bundle.
Lemma 7.9 (Cevians Produces Harmonic Bundles). Let ABC be a triangle
with concurrent cevians AD, BE, CF (possibly on the extensions of the sides).
Line EF meets BC at X (possibly at a point at infinity). Then (X, D; B, C) is
a harmonic bundle.
Lemma 7.10 (Complete Quadrilaterals Induce Harmonic Bundles). Let ABCD
be a quadrilateral whose diagonals meet at K. Lines AD and BC meet at L,
and line KL meets AB and CD at M and N . Then (K, L; M, N ) is a harmonic
bundle.
Lemma 7.11 (Right Angles and Bisectors). Let X, A, Y, B be collinear points
in that order and let C be any point not on this line. Then any two of the
following conditions implies the third condition.

1. (A, B; X, Y ) is a harmonic bundle.

2. ∠XCY = π/2.
3. CY bisects ∠ACB.
Theorem 7.12 (Apollonian Circles). Let AB be a segment and k 6= 1 be a
positive real number. The locus of points P satisfying CA : CB = k is a circle
whose diameter lies on AB. The circle is called an Apollonian Circle of AB.
Lemma 7.13 (Harmonic Bundle on Angle Bisector). Let ABC be a triangle
with incenter I and A-excenter IA . Then (I, IA ; A, AI ∩ BC) is a harmonic
bundle.

Definition 7.14 (Poles and Polars). Fix a circle ω with center O. Let P be
a point in the plane and let P ∗ be it’s inverse with respect to inversion around
ω. Then, the polar of point P is the line passing through P ∗ perpendicular to
OP . (Note that when P is outside ω, it’s polar is the line passing through the
two tangency points from P to ω.
Similarly, the pole of a line l is the point whole polar is the line line l.
Theorem 7.15 (La Hire’s Theorem). A point X lies on the polar of a point Y
if and only if Y lies on the polar of X.

31
Lemma 7.16. Let AB be the chord of a circle ω and select points P and Q on
line AB. Then (A, B; P, Q) is a harmonic bundle if and only if P lies on the
polar of Q.
Theorem 7.17 (Brocard’s Theorem). Let ABCD be an arbitrary cyclic quadri-
lateral inscribed in a circle ω with center O, and set P = AB ∩ CD, Q =
BC ∩ DA and R = AC ∩ BD. Then, 4P QR is self-polar with respect to ω,
meaning that P is the pole of QR, Q is the pole of RP and R is the pole of P Q.
In particular, O is the orthocenter of 4P QR.
Lemma 7.18 (Self-Polar Orthogonality). Let ω be a circle and suppose P and
Q are points such that P lies on the pole of Q. Then the circle with diameter
P Q is orthogonal to ω.
Theorem 7.19 (Pascal’s Theorem). Let ABCDEF be a cyclic hexagon, pos-
sibly self-intersecting. Then the points AB ∩ DE, BC ∩ EF and CD ∩ F A are
collinear.
Note that it is possible in this theorem that two (or more) of the six points
are the same; one can prove Brocard’s Theorem using this.
Theorem 7.20 (Projective Transformations). Each of the following is achiev-
able with a unique projective transformation.

1. Taking four points A, B, C, D (no three collinear) to any other four points
W, X, Y, Z (no three collinear).
2. Taking a circle to itself and a point P inside the circleto any other point
Q inside the circle.

3. Taking a circle to itself and any given line outside the circle into the line
at infinity.

32