CLASS: SS1 SUBJECT: CHEMISTRY

WEEK TOPIC

1. Introduction to chemistry

2 Scientific methods and familiarization with laboratory apparatus

and used.

3 Nature of matter

4 Elements

5 Particulate nature of matter- 1

6 Particulate nature of matter- 2

7 MID TERM BREAK

8 Compounds and mixture

9 Separation techniques

10 Valency, oxidation & IUPAC nomenclature.

11-13 Revision and Examination

Scheme of work for first term
Introduction: WHAT IS CHEMISTRY
Chemistry is the study of the composition,
properties and uses of matter. The study of
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies
space. Since everything in reality consist of
matter, Chemistry tends to help us understand
them better.
Branches of chemistry include: Physical,
Organic, Analytical, Inorganic, Environmental,
Industrial and Pharmaceutical e.t.c.
Chemistry evolved from the study of alchemy,
which involves turning leads into gold or turning a
less valuable substance to a more valuable
substance.
We study chemistry? :
⚫ to acquire knowledge about matter;
⚫ to acquire scientific knowledge and training
in scientific method;
⚫ to have training in handling and manipulating
scientific equipment.

Careers in Chemistry: There are many job opportunities available for

students to use and apply their knowledge of
chemistry which include:
1. Analytical, Formulation, Medicinal or Process 4. Drug Discoverer.
Chemist
5. Environmental, Forensic or Material scientist
2. Chemical or Geochemical engineer
6. Food technologist
3. Biotechnologist
 7. Nanotechnologist.
8. Patent attorney
9. Pharmacologist
10. Science writer
APPLICATION/ USES OF CHEMISTRY
The knowledge of chemistry can be apply in the
following areas; namely
1. Hospital: The knowledge of chemistry makes
it possible for people to involve in chemical
research and technology which lead to production
of medicine that we use today.
2. Military: The duty of the military is defense,
to defend the territorial integrity of a nation or
3. Teaching- chemistry teachers and lecturers in
secondary schools, polytechnics, colleges of
education and universities.
4. Chemical and petrochemical industries:
Application chemists, research chemists, chemical
engineers and laboratory assistants.
5. Space science: chemistry is not out in space
exploration. In our efforts to gain more
knowledge of the other planets and outer space
7. Food production and preservation – e.g.
production of fertilizers, insecticides and food
preservatives
8. Medicine – e.g. production of drugs and
various medical services
9. Transportation – e.g. production of suitable
fuel for cars, ships and jets.
10. Housing – e.g. production of cement,
concrete, steel, bricks and tiles used for
construction of houses
11. Clothing – e.g. production of man-made
fibres which are used for the production of
various clothing
Material.
12. Forestry: Scientists engaged in research to
preserve and improve forests and forestry
products.
ADVERSE EFFECTS OF CHEMICALS
11. Scientific laboratory technician
12. Teacher or lecturer
13. Researcher
state. Military cannot effectively do this without
ammunition. Chemistry contributes to the
discovery and description of the theoretical bases
for the behavior of chemical substances such as
explosives used by the military. The gun powder
used in the earliest guns was made by mixing
sulphur, charcoal and potassium trioxonitrates(v),
compounded by early chemists. The manufacture
of smokeless powder was based upon gun cotton,
which is made from cotton fibers soaked in a
strong mixture of HNO3 and H2SO4.
around us, special rockets called ‘space rocket’
are sent into space. The first rocket was sent into
space on October 4, 1957 by Russia. In July,
1969, Apollo II astronauts Neil Armstrong and
Edwin Aldrin landed on the moon. These are
made possible by science and technology.
6. Agriculture: Agricultural scientists, chemists,
biochemists and physiologists engaged in
research to improve the quality and yield of crops
and livestock, and to advise farmers.
The adverse effects of existence of
chemistry
The existence of chemistry brought about the
release of chemicals. The adverse effects of
chemicals include; drug abuse, poisoning,
corrosion and pollution.
1. Drug Abuse: simply involves wrong usage of
drugs. Some of these drugs include heroin,
cocaine and morphine which are used as
addictive. Unscrupulous people produce and sell
them at huge profits. Drug addiction is a major
problem in our society, especially among young
people. Many countries have imposed strict laws
to control pollution and drug abuse. However, the
most effective control measure is education.
2. Poisoning: This is the presence of poisonous
chemicals in the food we eat. This happens when
the chemicals used as additives and preservatives
are added more than required or expired in the
food stuff where it was added, then instead of
the food stuff bringing health to our body, it turns
to poison.
3. Corrosion of iron can also be called rusting
and requires the presence of water and oxygen.
Rusting can also be regarded as the slow
deterioration of iron to iron (iii) oxide. This iron
(iii) oxide is permeable to both air and water and
cannot protect the iron from further corrosion of
iron.
This rusting can be prevented by four methods.
(i) Application of protective coating.
(ii) Application of sacrificial metal.
(iii) Alloying.
(iv) Cathodic protection.
4.Pollution: Chemical industries through
the action of production pollute our
environment as the smoke enters into the
air, and dirts of different kinds enter into
the water thereby polluting the entire
environment. Specifically chemical wastes
from factories and oil refineries and
radioactive wastes from nuclear plants
pollute our environment. Oil spillage,
exhaust from motor vehicles, pesticides,
fertilizers and acid rain have made our
environment unclean and endangered
plant and animal life. Human health is
also being threatened by environmental
pollution. Presently, chemists are trying
to come up with a fuel that will reduce
the air pollution problem. They are also
modifying chemical processes to recycle
chemical wastes or change them to
harmless products which can be safely
discharged into the surrounding.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
A scientific law or principle is established only
after the theory has been extensively tested and
proven true without any exception. If the
experiments give negative results, then the
scientist goes back to his hypothesis and either
modifies it or puts forward a new hypothesis. This
way of studying a problem is known as the
scientific method. It is the very foundation of
all scientific discoveries.
1. Observation – this is the use of senses to
observe what is happening in an environment
2. Hypothesis – it is a statement which may not
be universally true. When scientists have made a
series
of observations, they see a certain pattern which
leads to a problem which they try to solve. A
hypothesis is put forward to solve the problem.
3. Experiment – they carry out experiments to
test the hypothesis
4. Further experiment – if the experiment
supports the hypothesis, they carry out further
experiments
and allow other scientists in the field to test the
hypothesis.
5. Theory – if the hypothesis is found to be
correct within the limit of available evidence, it
becomes a
theory. If the hypothesis is not supported by the
experiments, it is either modified or discarded.
6. Law – a scientific theory becomes a law after
it has been tested and proven true without any
exception.
SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES OF KNOWLEDGE
Make an Observation

Form a Hypothesis

Research

Experiment

Analyze the Data and

Draw a Conclusion
CHEMISTRY APPARATUS AND USES

Chemistry laboratory apparatus: Mostly all COMMON LABORATORY ACCIDENTS

the apparatus are usually made up of glass such
as Pyrex (borosilicate) soda glass, beaker, test
tube etc., metals, wood, plastics, and porcelain.
Some are improvised i.e. they are locally made
such as bamboo for making measuring cylinder,
coconut shell for making beaker etc.
Laboratory accidents are something unpleasant,
undesirable or damaging that happens
unexpectedly or by chance in the laboratory.
Generally it could involve the inhalation of
dangerous substances or physical injury as the
case may be. Most of the laboratory accidents
occur as follows:
1. GLASS CUT:
Report the situation to your facilitator and let him
help the injured person.
There is always a possibility of infection, even
with the most minor injury. For this reason you
should report any cut or scrape, even if there is
no visible blood.
If there is blood at any laboratory station, move
to your seat in the classroom area until told it is
safe to return to the laboratory.
2. FIRES:
Laboratory Bunsen burners are the source of
most problems:
Bunsen burners have very few malfunctions. If a
malfunction occurs, turn off the gas and notify
your facilitator.
If a paper fire occurs, push the paper into the lab
sink and turn on the water - end of problem.
Clothing or Hair is the most dangerous type of
fire in the lab.
Don't panic!
If you are the one involved in a fire - stay where
you are - help is coming. "Stop, drop, and roll" is
still the best course of action. If the fire is not at
your lab station - stay away!
THE FIRE EXTINGUISHER IS LOCATED ON
THE WEST WALL.
Only the science facilitator is authorized to use
the fire extinguisher.
Fire extinguishers are classified according to a
particular fire type and are given the same letter
and symbol classification as that of the fire.
3. ACID BURNS
4. INHALING TOXIC GASES
5. EXPLOSION
6. ELECTRIC SHOCK
7. SWALLOWING TOXIC CHEMICALS
SAFETY PRECUTIONS
The following are the basic rules and regulations
to guide your safety and hence prevent accidents
in the laboratory.
(i)Always handle glass wares being fragile, with
care to avoid glass cuts.
(ii)Never use sodium, potassium, phosphorus or
concentrated (conc.) acids and alkalis unless you
are specially instructed. These chemicals are
corrosive. Always add concentrated acid to water
slowly, when diluting the acid, never add water to
acid. This is to avoid acid burns, explosion and
fire.
(iii)Do not taste or drink any chemical, and never
smell any chemical directly .This is to avoid
swallowing or inhaling toxic chemicals.
(iv)Do not mix chemicals aimlessly, or carry out
any experiment except when instructed, to avoid
explosion or fire outbreak
(v)Do not put a glowing splint or a burning paper
in the waste bin, to avoid fire outbreak.
(vi)Do not touch or hold any electric instrument
with wet hands.
(vii)All accident should be reported immediately
to your facilitator.
(viii)Laboratory coats must be worn to protect
clothing from soiling, damage from accidents of
various sorts.
No eating or drinking in the lab!
6.identify the apparatus you would use to carry
out the following in the laboratory
i.Separating two immiscible liquids
ii.Condensing steam to liquid
iii.Drying a sample of residues
iv.Measuring a small quantity of liquid
Topic: PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER
DEFINITION OF MATTER
Matter is anything that has a rest mass and
volume, in other words matter is anything that
has mass and occupies space. The three
elementary particle of matter are atom, molecule
and ion, while the three state of matter are solid,
liquid and gas.
 Characteristics of matter

SOLID LIQUID GASES

Have definite Have no definite shape but Have no definite shape and
shape and volume definite volume volume

Very dense Less dense Least dense

Incompressible Incompressible Compressible

Fixed mass Fixed mass Fixed mass

Particle vibrate Particles vibrate and move Particles move about constantly
and rotate about a about within a restricted at great speed and at random
fixed point space

Examples include: Examples include: water, Examples include: Oxygen, wind,

concrete objects. juice, etc sprays, etc.

CHANGE OF STATE The boiling point of a liquid change with

MELTING
Melting is the physical process where a substance
changes from a solid to a liquid. When a solid is
heated, the particles acquire greater kinetic
energy and move violently. A point is reached
when the forces of vibration overcome the
cohesive forces holding the solid particles
together and the crystalline structure collapses.
The particles are no longer held in fixed positions
but are free to move about and the liquid state is
reached. The temperature at which this occurs is
called the melting point of the solid.
BOILING
When a liquid is heated, the rate of
evaporation increases and the value of the
saturated vapour pressure equal the
prevailing atmospheric pressure. When this
happens, the liquid is said to boil and the
temperature at which this happen is known
as the boiling point of the liquid.
change in atmospheric pressure. If the
pressure is raised, the boiling point will
increase and if the pressure is lowered the
boiling point will decrease. Also, the presence
of impurities increases the boiling point of a
liquid.
EVAPORATION
Evaporation is the process of vapourization of
liquids at all temperatures. When the surface
of a liquid is exposed, the molecules near the
surface of the liquid will acquire extra kinetic
energy, large enough to enable them break
away from the cohesive force binding them
to the neighbouring particles. Once free, they
escape from the liquid surface to become
molecules in the vapour state.
Evaporation results in decrease in the volume
of liquid and lowering the temperature of the
liquid, therefore it causes cooling. Also, it
occurs at all temperature but increases with
increase in temperature. In addition, it is
slower in electrovalent liquids than in
covalent liquids.

DIFFERENCES BETWWEEN EVAPORATION AND BOILING

 EVAPORATION BOILING
Takes place at the surface of the liquid Involves the entire volume of the liquid
Takes place at all temperature Takes place at a fixed temperature

until it reaches the freezing point of the

liquid. At this temperature, the liquid changes
into solid. This process is called Freezing.

CONDENSATION AND FREEZING EVALUATION

Condensation is a process whereby a vapour 1. Describe the melting process of a solid.
loses some of its kinetic energy to a colder 2. State two differences between
body and changes into the liquid state. evaporation and boiling.
When a liquid cools, it loses heat energy to
its surroundings, causing its temperature to
drop. If the cooling continues, the
temperature of the liquid keeps dropping
Chemical Properties:
PROPERTIES OF MATTER. Are those properties which are involved when
matter undergo a change to form new substance.
Physical Properties: E.g rusting, rotting, combustion, etc.
This are properties associated with physical
changes. E.g boiling point, melting point, density,
hardness, malleability, crystalline, colour, odour
and taste.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES
PHYSICAL CHANGES:
DEFINITION: A Physical change is one which is easily reversed and in which no new substances are
formed.
Examples:
i. Melting of solids to liquids.
ii. Freezing of liquids to solids.
iii. Vaporization of liquids to gases.
iv. Liquefaction of gases to liquids.
v. Sublimation of solids to vapour.
vi. Magnetization and demagnetization of iron
vii. Separation of mixture by evaporation, distillation, fractional distillation, sublimation, crystallization

CHEMICAL CHANGE:
DEFINITION: A chemical change is one which is not easily reversed and in which a new substance is
formed.
Examples: iii. Chemical decomposition – like digestion of
food.
i. Burning of substances.
iv. Rusting of iron.
ii. Dissolution of metals and limestone in acids.
v. Charring of sugar.
vi. Dissolution of metals in acids.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGE

PHYSICAL CHANGE CHEMICAL CHANGE
1. Easily reversible Not easily reversible
2. No new substance is formed New substance is formed
3. No change is mass. There is a noticeable change in mass.
4. Not accompanied by heat Change Usually accompanied by heat change.

TOPIC: ELEMENTS AND THEIR SYMBOLS

An element is a substance that cannot be broken into simpler substances by any chemical methods.
Examples of elements include: Iron, tin, aluminum etc.
There are about 118 known elements of which 92 are naturally exiting elements and the rest are artificially
made.
Symbols are modern ways of representing atoms of elements by using abbreviations. The modern symbols
were developed by Berzelius in 1814.

1) He used the first letter in the name of the element.

Examples
ELEMENT SYMBOL Oxygen O
Hydrogen H Fluorine F
Boron B Phosphorus P
Carbon C Sulphur S
Nitrogen N Iodine I

2) The second principle uses the first two

letters.
Examples:
ELEMENT SYMBOL Neon Ne
Helium He Aluminium Al
Lithium Li Silicon Si
Berylium Be Argon Ar

Nickel Ni Calcium Ca
Barium Ba Bromine Br

The third principle is when the first letter and Example:

another letter in the name are used.
ELEMENT SYMBOL Chromium Cr
Magnesium Mg Manganese Mn
Chlorine Cl Zinc Zn
The fourth principle is the elements that derived Example:
symbols from their Latin names.
ELEMENT LATIN NAME SYMBOL Iron Ferrum Fe
Sodium Natrium Na Copper Cuprum Cu
Silver
SUB-PARTICLE LOCATION RELATIVE RELATIVE SYMBOL Argentum Ag
CHARGE MASS
Tin Stannum
Proton Nucleus + 1 P Sn

Electron Outside _ 0.005 e- Gold Aurum

nucleus Au

Neutron Nucleus Zero 1 N Mercury Hydrargyrum

Hg
Potassium Kalium K
Lead Plumbum Pb

First twenty elements with their symbols.

Atomic Element Symbol

Number
1 Hydrogen
2 Helium
3 Lithium
4 Beryllium
5 Boron
ATOMS, MOLECULES AND ATOMICITY
H
He DEFINITION: An atom is the smallest particle of
an element which can take part in a chemical
Li reaction.
Be STRUCTURE AND CONSITITUENTS OF AN
B ATOM

6 Carbon C An atom is made up of the three sub-particles

known as protons, neutrons and electrons as
7 Nitrogen N shown in the diagram below. Their characteristics
are also summarized in the table below:
8 Oxygen O
Electrons
9 Fluorine F
NUCLEUS
10 Neon Ne (proton and
11 Sodium Na neutrons)

12 Magnesium Mg
13 Aluminum Al
14 Silicon Si
15 Phosphorus P
16 Sulphur S

17 Chlorine Cl
18 Argon Ar
19 Potassium K
20 Calcium Ca
 (2) Describe the atoms of the following elements
using their symbol, atomic number and mass
ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER number: (a) Phosphorus (b) Silicon (c) Calcium
(NUCLEON NUMBER)
ATOMIC NUMBER:
MOLECULES
DEFINITION: Atomic number is the number of
protons in an atom of an element. DEFINITION: A molecule is the smallest particle
of a substance that normally exist alone and still
The atomic number of an element is a whole retain the chemical properties of that substance
number and is designated z. In a neutral atom be it an element or a compound.
the number of protons must be equal to the
number of electrons (since protons are positively Some molecules can exist independently as single
charged and electron are negatively charged). atoms e.g. He, Ne, Ar, Xe etc. Some molecules
may be made up of atoms of the same element
All the atoms of a particular element have the e.g. a molecule of hydrogen is H2, that of chlorine
same number of protons in their nuclei (i.e. they is Cl2, Oxygen is O2, phosphorus is P5, Sulphur is
have the same atomic number). No two elements S8.Some molecules may be made up of different
have the same number of protons in their atoms. elements e.g. a molecule of water is H2O,
DEFINITION: Methane is CH4, ammonia is NH3, carbon (iv)
oxide is CO2 etc.
MASS NUMBER (NUCLEON NUMBER): The
mass number is the sum of the protons and
neutrons in an atom of an element.
Mass number is represented by the letter A.
Mass number A = Number of protons + number
of neutrons.
i.e. A = p + n. Where p=protons, n= neutrons.
Or number of neutrons n =A – Z.
An atom of an element can be described by
writing its symbol together with its atomic ATOMICITY: Atomicity is the number of atoms
number and mass number. in each molecule of an element.
Class of elements
Monoatomic. One atom makes a molecule. Most
metals are monoatomicll noble gases are
monoatomic
Examples: The atom of carbon, oxygen and Diatomic: Two atoms make a molecule. e.g.
sodium can be written as 126C, 168O and2311Na gases. H2, Cl2, Br2, O2, N2
respectively.
Triatomic: Three atoms make a molecule e.g..
EVALUATION: Ozone O3
(1) Define the following: (a) Atomic number
(b) Mass number.
Atomicity of some molecules Phosphorus P4 4
Element Molecular Atomicity Sulphur S8 8
formular
Chlorine Cl2 2
Hydrogen H2 2
Neon Ne 1
Oxygen O2 2
Argon Ar 1
Ozone O3 3
Tetraoxosulphate(vi) acid H2SO4 7
 Amonium (NH4)2SO4 15
tetraoxosulphate(vi)

In 1808 John Dalton proposed the following

DALTONS ATOMIC THEORY
1. All elements are made up of small indivisible
particles called atoms.
2. Atoms can neither be created or destroyed
3. Atoms of the same element are alike in every
aspect, and differ from atoms of all other
elements.
4. When atoms combine with other atoms, they
do so in simple ratios.
5. All chemical changes result from the
combination or the separation of atoms.
MODIFICATIONS OF DALTON’S ATOMIC
THEORY
The following are the modifications to Dalton’s
atomic theory.
1. All matter is made up of small particles,
protons, neutrons and electrons.
Atomic theory.
4. In large organic molecules, such as proteins,
fats and starch, the combining ratio are in large
whole number.
as rings, orbits, energy levels or shells. Each shell
contains electrons with similar energy. Those with
the lowest energies being nearest to the nucleus.
Thus, the arrangement of electrons in the atom
according to energy is called ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION. Letters and figures are
associated with these orbits or shells as shown
above. The maximum possible number of
electrons that can be accommodated in a shell is
given by the formula:
Nmax= 2n2. Where Nmax = Maximum no of
electron. n= no, of shell.
Thus K- shell can contain 2 × 12 = 2 electrons.

2. An atom can be destroyed and created; when L- Shell can contain 2 × 22 = 8 electrons.
radioactive atoms disintegrate with the emission M- Shell can contain 2 × 32= 18 electrons etc
of particles, new atoms are produced.
3. The atoms of the same elements are not all
alike, but may have different masses as proved
by the phenomenon of isotopy.
The electron structures of the atoms of the
first twenty elements are given in the table
below.

Element Symbol Atomic number Number of electrons and their distribution in the shells.
K L M N

Hydrogen H 1 1
Helium He 2 2
Lithium Li 3 2 1
Beryllium Be 4 2 2
Boron B 5 2 3
Carbon C 6 2 4
Nitrogen N 7 2 5
 Oxygen O 8 2 6
Fluorine F 9 2 7
Neon Ne 10 2 8
Sodium Na 11 2 8 1
Magnesium Mg 12 2 8 2

Aluminium Al 13 2 8 3
Silicon Si 14 2 8 4
Phosphorus P 15 2 8 5
Sulphur S 16 2 8 6
Chlorine Cl 17 2 8 7
Argon Ar 18 2 8 8
Potassium K 19 2 8 8 1
Calcium Ca 20 2 8 8 2

The electronic configurations of some elements are shown below:

Hydrogen, H (atomic number 1) Helium, He (atomic number 2)
Electron k1
Electrons
Nucleus

Nucleus

Lithium, Li (atomic number 3). Neon, Ne (atomic number 10)

K2L8
2,8
K 2 L1

Sodium, Na (atomic number 11) Argon, Ar (atomic number 18 )

KLM K L M
281 2 8 8

2, 8, 1
2,8,8
Potassium, K (atomic number 19) Calcium, Ca (atomic number 20)
KLMN K L M N
2881 2 8 8 2

2, 8, 8, 1 2,8,8,2

EVALUATION: Draw the electronic configuration of the following elements.

(a)Carbon (b) Fluorine (c) Aluminium (d) Nitrogen

ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF ELEMENTS

The periodic table consist of some elements which are arranged in some pattern with respect to certain
properties. This order of arrangement is atomic number and which tells the number of electrons contain in
any atom. So, the element in the periodic table are arranged in order of their atomic number.
The mode and pattern of arrangement of these electrons within each of the elements is known as
electronic configuration.
Since electrons occupies certain space called shell, and maximum number of electron in a shell is 2n 2
where n are whole numbers, the following types of shell can be obtained

When n = 1 = K shell
When n = 2 = L shell
When n = 3 = M shell
When n = 4 = N shell

The numbering of the shell starting from the innermost 1 and towards outside, that is, the shell closest to
the mulens is assigned number 1.
The electronic configuration of the first twenty elements in the periodic table is shown below.

Element Symbol Atomic No Electronic Configuration

Hydrogen H 1 1S1

Helium He 2 1S2
Lithium Li 3 1S2 2S1
Beryllium Be 4 1S2 2S2
Boron B 5 1S2 2S2 2P1
Carbon C 6 1S2 2S2 2P2
 Nitrogen N 7 1S2 2S2 2P3
Oxygen O 8 1S2 2S2 2P4
Fluorine F 9 1S2 2S2 2P5
Neon Ne 10 1S2 2S2 2P6
Sodium Na 11 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S1

Magnesium Mg 12 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2

Aluminium Al 13 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P1
Silicon Si 14 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P2
Phosphorus P 15 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P3
Sulphur S 16 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P4
Chlorine Cl 17 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P5
Argon Ar 18 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6
Potassium K 19 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 4S1
Calcium Ca 20 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 4S2

Scandium Sc 21 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 4S2 3d1

Titanium Ti 22 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 4S2 3d2
Vanadium V 23 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 4S2 3d3
Chromium Cr 24 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 4S1 3d5
Manganese Mn 25 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 4S2 3d5
Iron Fe 26 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 4S2 3d6
Cobalt Co 27 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 4S2 3d7
Nickel Ni 28 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 4S2 3d8
Copper Cu 29 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 4S1 3d10

Zinc Zn 30 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 4S2 3d10

However, for charged ion (cation and anion)
there electronic configuration will be slightly
different from those of their corresponding
neutral atoms. E.g
11 Na
23
= 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S1 (neutral)
The aufbau approach to the filling of electrons
into orbital involves the use of a model which
enable someone to write down the electronic
configuration of any atom for which the atomic
number is known.

10 Na
23 +
= 1S2 2S2 2P6 (cation)
1s
16 S
32
= 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P4 (neutral)
2s 2p
18 S =
32 2-
1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 (Anion)
3s 3p 3d
AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
4s 4p 4d
This principle state that the filling of electrons 4f
into atomic orbital’s, orbital with the lowest
energy is filled first, followed by orbital with 5s 5p 5d
higher energy value. 5f
 6s 6p 6d located. The value are K,L,M,N 1,2,3,4 …….n
6f where n= whole numbers
7s 7p 7d
7f
2. Azimuthal Quantum number (L): this
governs the shape of the orbitals. S-orbital, p-
orbital, d-orbital and f-orbital
ORBITALS AND THEIR SHAPES
Further sub-divisions of shells or orbits or energy
levels is known as orbitals which is located within 3. Magnetic Quantum number (m): this
the energy levels of the atoms, that is the shell in described the orientation in space of the orbital.
the atom having orbitals within them e.g
S-orbital – has one(1) degenerate orbital, hence
2e (two electron)
TYPES TYPES OF p-orbital - has three(3) degenerate orbital, hence
OF SHELL ORBITALS 6e (six electron)
PRESENT
d-orbital - has five(5) degenerate orbital, hence
K 1s 10e (ten electron)

L 2s 2p f-orbital - has seven(7) degenerate orbital, hence

14e (fourteen electron)
M 3s 3p 3d
N 4s 4p 4d 4f
4. Spin Quantum number: this describes the
spin of electrons in the orbital and have value of
+ 1/2 or – 1/2 or ± 1/2
QUANTUM NUMBER
This is the location of an electron in any orbital.
There are four types
1. Principal Quantum number (n): this
explains the energy level in which electron is
SHAPE OF ORBITALS
s- orbital: it is spherical in shape and has no orientation in space.

p-orbital: the orbital has a shape in which three possible orientations in space can be obtained. It consist
of three types of degenerate orbital with possible orientations of px, py and pz called sub-orbital.
 2px 2py 2pz
This rule however may not be strictly followed for
the group O elements because they always have
Differences between p-orbital and d-orbital complete OCTET SHELL
s/ p-orbital d-orbital
n
HYBRIDIZATION
1 They have They have
two lobes four lobes This is the mixing of atomic orbital and electrons
which are in the same energy level or shell but
2. They can They can not in the same type of orbital. The concept of
accommod accommod hybridization of electron can purely understood
ate six ate ten by using the pictorial representation of electrons
electrons electrons distribution into orbitals according to HUND’S
3. They have They have RULE.
three five 6 C
12
= 1S2 2S2 2P2
degenerate degenerate
sub-orbital d sub- Ground state configuration
orbital
4. There lobes There lobes
all lies on do not lie
the axis on the axis 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz0
Excited state configuration

6 C
12
HUND’S RULES
This state that in the filling of electrons into
orbital, the orbital of the same energy are filled
first with single electrons before pairing can
further takes place in them.
It can also be define as the maximum number of 1s2 2s1 2px1 2py1 2pz1
electron in any orbital must not be more than two
and each must point in opposite direction, that is,
opposite spin. SP3 hybridization
It is the pictorial representation of electron
7 N
14
= 1S2 2S2 2P3
arrangement into orbital. e.g

6 C
12
= 1S2 2S2 2P2
Ground state configuration

1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz

1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1
Excited state configuration
11 Na
23
= 1S2 2S2 2P6 3s1
14
7 N

1s2 2s2 2px2 2py2 2pz2 3s1

 1s2 2s1 2px2 2py1 2pz1 Radical Symbol Valency Oxidation
No
SP2 hybridization Ammonium ion NH4+ 1 +1
8 O
16
= 1S2 2S2 2P4 Hydroxyl ion OH- 1 -1
Ground state configuration Trioxocarbonate (iv) CO32- 2 -2

Tetraoxosulphate(vi) SO42- 2 -2
1s 2
2s 2
2px 2py 2pz
2 1 1
Trioxonitrate(v) NO3- 1 -1
Excited state configuration

8 O
16

1s2 2s1 2px2 2py2 2pz1
SP hybridization
PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
State that no two electrons in the same atoms
can have the same value for each of the four
quantum numbers. This principle further implies
that no two electrons in any one atom behave in
exactly equal manner.
FORMATION OF IONS, VALENCY AND
RADICALS
DEFINITION:
Some substances are not built of atoms or
molecules but are made up of charged particles
called ions. Ions are formed when an atom
losses or gains electron.
There are two types of ions. The positively
charged ions or cations e.g. K+, Ca2+, Zn2+, Al3+
etc. they are formed when atoms loss electrons
and negatively charged ions or anions which are
formed when atom gain electrons e.g. Cl-, N3-, O2-
, S2- etc.
RADICALS: These are groups of atoms of
different elements that come together and react
as a unit. These radicals are charged, that is,
they either carry a positive or a negative charge.
An acid radical is thus a small group or cluster of
atoms carrying a negative charge that keeps its
identity. These groups of atoms originate from
the acids which have formed the salts. For
examples
WEEK 6:
ISOTOPY AND RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS
Definition: Isotopy is a phenomenon whereby
atoms of an element exhibit different mass
number but have the same atomic number.
Mass spectrometric studies show that the atoms
of most elements exist in more than one form.
This is due to the difference in number of
neutrons present in these atoms. Such atoms are
known as isotopes. Isotope of an element is
represented by the original symbol of the element
with the mass number and atomic numbers. For
example 126C, 136C, 146C represent atoms of the
isotopes of carbon. For each atom, the number of
neutrons can be obtained by finding the
difference between the mass number A and the
atomic number Z i.e. A – Z. Each isotope of an
element has its own mass known as isotopic
mass.
Isotopes of an element have slightly different
physical properties because neutrons contribute
only to the mass of an atom and not its chemical
behavior. But isotopes of an element exhibit the
same chemical properties because the number of
valence electrons in an atom of an element
determines its chemical behavior (properties) and
since isotopes have the same number of valence
electrons they will be chemically alike.
NOTE:
(i) An analysis of the chlorine isotopes.
Isotope 35
17Cl : Isotope 37
17Cl
Mass number, A 35 : 37
Atomic number,Z 17 : 17
No. of protons 17 : 17
No. of electrons 17 : 17
No. of neutrons (A-Z) 35 – 17=18 : 37 – 17=20
Abundance in nature (%) 75 : 25 CALCULATION INVOLVING ISOTOPY.
ISOTOPES OF THE SAME ELEMENTS. WORKED EXAMPLE:

Element Carbon Oxygen

ISOTOPE 12
6C
13
6C
16
8O
17
8O
18
8O
(ii) The names of the isotopic forms of hydrogen
1
ABUNDANCE IN 98.9 1.1 99.76 0.04 0.20
1H --- Protium (or hydrogen) NATURE (%)
2
1H--- Deuterium (or heavy hydrogen or D) Determine the relative atomic mass of element X
3
1H--- Tritium or T from the data below

(iii) The relative atomic mass, RAM of an element ISOTOPE MASS %ABUNDANCE
which exhibits isotopy is the average mass of its 24
X 24 78.70
various isotopes as they occur naturally in any
25
quantity of the element and they are not usually x 25 10.13
in whole numbers. 26
x 26 11.7

(24 x 78.70) + (25 x 10.13) + (26 x 11.17) = X

100
1888.8 + 253.25 + 290.42 = X
100

2432.47 = X
10

X = 24.3247, X = 24 Approximately
1. An element X has two isotopes of 2010X and
22
10X in the ratio 1:3. What is the relative atomic
mass?
Add ratio 1 + 3= 4
(20 X 1) + (22 X 3) = X 22 + 66 = X 86 = X, X = 21.5
4 4 4
2. Isotopes of an element X have isotopic masses Let the relative abundance of element X be y and
65 and 63 respectively. If the relative atomic Z respectively.
mass of X is 63.60. Find the relative abundance
of each isotope of the element.
Z +Y =100
∴ Z = 100 – y....... (i)
(65 X y) + (63 X y) = 63.60
100
65y + 63z = 63.60 × 100
65y + 63z = 6360 ......(ii)
 65y +63(100 – y) = 6360
65y – 63y + 6300 = 6360
2y = 60
Y= 60
/2 , Y = 30
Z = 100 – y= 100 – 30 = 70
Y = 30, Z = 70
The relative abundance of X = 30% 0f 65
X and Note: practically all elements exhibit
70% of 63X different levels of isotopy. This is the
reason why relative mass of elements are
not whole numbers.
NB. P1 and p2 are percentages and add up The mass of an atom is measured by an
to 100. instrument called mass spectrometer.
Relative atomic mass has no unit.
RELATIVE ATOMIC MASSES BASED ON C-12 ISOTOPE
Definition: The Relative Atomic Mass of an element is the number of times the average mass of
an atom of the element is heavier than one-twelfth of the mass of one atom of carbon -12
RAM of an element = Average mass of one atom of X
1
/2 Mass of 1 atom of carbon - 12
Thus the atom of carbon -12 is adopted as the standard for defining the relative atomic mass of
the other elements and is given a basic mass value of 12units.
The relative atomic mass of each element has been determined accurately with the aid of the
mass spectrometer. This instrument measures the masses of the isotopes of the elements and
their abundance and the relative atomic mass is calculated from the data.
Relative atomic masses of the first twenty elements in the periodic table

Element Atomic number Relative atomic

mass

Hydrogen 1 1.008
Helium 2 4.0026
Lithium 3 6.939
Beryllium 4 9.0122
Boron 5 10.81
Carbon 6 12.011
Nitrogen 7 14.0067
Oxygen 8 15.9994
Fluorine 9 18.9884
Neon 10 20.183
Sodium 11 22.9898
Magnesium 12 24.312
Aluminum 13 26.9812
Silicon 14 28.086
Phosphorus 15 30.9738
Sulphur 16 32.06
Chlorine 17 35.453
Argon 18 39.948
Potassium 19 39.102
Calcium 20 40.08