Motivation of the students as predictors of performance in Calculus 1

Mart Jasper G. Antonio

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 Table of Contents

Title Page ……..…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 1

Table of Contents …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2
Introduction
Rationale ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 3
Theoretical Framework …………………………………………………………………………. 14
Conceptual Framework …………………………………………………………………………. 15
Statement of the Problem ………………………………………………………………………. 16
Research Methodology
Research Design …………………………………………………………………………………….. 18
Research Environment …………………………………………………………………………… 18
Source of Data ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 18
Instrumentation …………………………………………………………………………………….. 19
Data Gathering Procedure ………………………………………………………………………. 23
Treatment of the Data …………………………………………………………………………….. 23
Ethical Considerations ……………………………………………………………………………. 25
References ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 27
Summary of Related Literatures and Studies ....................................................................... 32

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 INTRODUCTION

Rationale

Calculus is a branch of mathematics that involves the study of rates of change (Russell,

2020). It deals with infinitely small and the infinitely large quantities of a function

(Muzangwa & Chifamba, 2012). With real-life applications of calculus, it can be found how

the changing conditions of a system affect us (Ferrao, 2022). In the USA, calculus serves as

an introductory course for college freshmen, but especially for those intending to enter into

science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) majors (Keller et.al., 2017).

Students’ conceptual knowledge of calculus concepts affects not only their performance and

involvement in mathematics but also in these fields (Sebsibe, 2019). With its general

applications, such as modelling and optimization, there is no doubt of its usefulness in the

development of our society, especially with various disciplines. In the United States and

worldwide, one or more years of calculus are required of students who wish to pursue

programs in science, mathematics, engineering, business, architecture, medicine, secondary

math education, and many other fields. Many of these students will use calculus as an integral

part of their professional activities (Ocken, 2001). Hence, Calculus plays a crucial role in

giving birth to future engineers, scientists, technologists, and mathematicians. However,

many students perceive the difficulty of the subject or course and as a result they tend to

struggle in finishing it.

Calculus performance

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 Researchers, from different contexts of the world, have shown that students have

problems in gaining a deep and accurate understanding of the limit concept in particular and

calculus concept in general (Sebsibe, 2019). For many students, it is a subject which most of

the students, especially in college, struggle with. Actually, it is an area of Mathematics

perceived as the main source of failure in the undergraduate level because of its nature which

involves abstract and complex ideas and the way it is being taught to the students (Sahin,

Cavlazoglu & Zeytuncu, 2015). Because of the complexity and difficulty of the subject, many

universities have seen a decrease in calculus success rates over the last decade. (George,

2019). At California state university, 21 of the CSU’s 23 campuses, at least 20% of students

on average in Calculus 1 received D or F grades or withdrew over the past three years,

according to an EdSource analysis of data from the schools. Administrators consider “DFW”

rates of 20% or higher a matter of great concern. At 10 of those campuses, including Los

Angeles, the DFW rates have been 30% or higher in Calculus 1 (Gordon, 2022). Also,

according to Ayerdi (2017), the Mathematics Association of America (MAA) has reported the

national average of unsuccessful Calculus 1 students to be 25%. At the conclusion of the

spring 2015 semester at Western Michigan University (WMU), In the Philippines, a

developing country in South East Asia, students’ performance in Calculus has never been

encouraging. According to Capuno et al. (2019) that Filipino students’ performance in Math

needs to be improved as reflected in the 2016-2017 Global Competitiveness Report; in this,

the Philippines ranked 79th out of the 138 participating countries in terms of the quality of

Science and Math education. Moreover, the result from Trends in International Mathematics

and Science Study in 2008 revealed that the Philippines performed least among ten countries

in mathematics in which students performed weak in the Calculus subject (Ogena, Lana &

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Sasota, 2010 as cited by Mendezabal & Tindowen, 2018). However, despite its difficulty,

students must finish successfully the course whether they like it or not. For most STEM

courses, calculus is part of the curriculum, and it is in fact one of the major subjects that the

students must be successful with.

Calculus in college is important especially to students acquiring STEM courses; it is

considered as a fundamental subject for them. In a study by Chen (2015), it was determined

that over 70% of STEM “persisters” had successfully completed calculus 1 (or a higher math

class) during their first year of college work (cited by George, 2019). As an introductory

subject in tertiary, the failure to pass the Calculus negatively impacts future courses of the

students; consequently, delaying the student’s acquisition of degrees. With its importance,

apparent problems and failure consequences in Calculus, many researchers have conducted

studies regarding the optimization of performance of the students in calculus subjects.

Some researchers conducted studies that determine the factors that contribute to the

success of the students, and some uses these factors to predict for the performance or

achievement in mathematics. Many studies from different places and contexts suggested

numerous factors that can affect the mathematics achievements. Kushwaha (2014), through

reviewing of literature, provided factors which are responsible for success or failure in

mathematics. The author reported Personal Variables, such as: attitude towards

mathematics, intelligence, math anxiety, self-concept, study habits, mathematical aptitude,

numerical ability, achievement motivation, cognitive style, self-esteem, interest in

mathematics, test anxiety, reading ability, problem-solving ability, mathematical creativity,

educational and occupational aspiration, personal adjustment, locus of control, emotional

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stability, and confidence in math. (as cited by Brezavšček et. al., 2020). Also, Simanihuruk &

Nasution (2021) provided affective factors or variables that can influence students’

performance. Affective variables are defined as psychological factors involving the emotions

and attitudes of learners. Affective variables can be in the form of: Intelligence, Interests,

Learning Habits, Motivation, Mathematical Anxiety, Concentration, Self-Confidence and

Academic Stress. Among these factors, the one with a definite effect on performance is

Motivation.

Motivation

Motivation to learn has been described as a student’s ‘energy and drive to learn, work

effectively and achieve to their potential, in addition to the behaviors associated with this

energy and drive. Motivation has been identified as an important contributor to student

success as well as influential in determining student retention in higher education (Edgar et.

al., 2019). Arthur et.al. (2022), in their study, claimed a direct positive correlation between

mathematics learning motivation and performance in mathematics. Similarly, in a

longitudinal study of Murayama et. al. (2013), it was studied how motivation and other

factors predict long-term growth of students’ mathematics achievement. The results

revealed that motivation, even in early stage of investigation, was to be correlated with

mathematics achievements of students. The study also emphasized the importance of the

importance of motivation in facilitating development of students; mathematical

competencies. In calculus, Mokhtar et. al. (2013) also identified motivation as factor in

students’ achievement. With the incorporation of Problem-Based Learning (PBL), it was

found that the students with higher achievement also gathered high motivation scores.

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These studies provide strong support to the relationship of motivation and achievements of

the students. Not only does motivation have an influence to students’ achievements, but it is

also correlated to other affective variables, by which students’ learning is also affected. One

of the most prominent constructs for motivation is the Expectancy-value theory.

Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation

Expectancy-Value Theory is a model of achievement motivation proposed, developed

and used in education by Jacquelynne Eccles and colleagues (Eccles et al., 1983; Eccles &

Wigfield, 2002; Wigfield & Eccles, 2001); and it was first studied in the mathematics

achievement domain. Expectancy-value theory suggests that achievement-related choices,

performance, and engagement are motivated by a combination of people's expectations for

success and subjective task value in particular domains (Leaper, 2011; Putwain et. al., 2019).

Also, Mathew et. al. (2022) describe the theory as the relationship between a student’s

expectancy for success at a task or the achievement of a goal in relation to the value of task

completion or goal attainment. For instance, one is more motivated to do a task if he expects

himself to do well and he acknowledges the value of the activity. Expectancy-value theory,

from the word itself, has two components: expectancy and value. Expectancies and values

are believed to have an influence on performance, efforts, and persistence (Eccles and

Wigfield, 2000). Vroom (1964) defined these two components as core factors for motivation;

and combined with multiplication, such that motivation=expectancy x value (cited by Studer,

Knecht, 2016). It is believed that motivation is high when the two components. However,

when one of the components disappears or becomes zero, the motivation also vanishes.

Expectancy component

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 Eccles et. al. (1983) defined expectancies for success as children’s beliefs about how

well they will do on upcoming tasks, either in the immediate or longer term future. Similarly,

according to May (2009), the expectancy component of motivation is the students’ beliefs

about their abilities to successfully complete specific tasks. Expectancy, from the study of

Putwain et.al. (2019), had a positive correlation with achievements of the students. This

implies that students get high achievements when they thought of high expectancy for

success. Furthermore, in mathematics, one who considers himself to have sufficient ability

to finish the tasks tend to demonstrate persistence, even when the activity become difficult

May (2009). These ability beliefs tend to have a relationship with Expectancy.

The Expectancy component is related with the mathematics self-efficacy, as it is

defined by Bandura (1997) as one’s perception of his or her abilities in mathematics. In other

words, it is the individual’s confidence about completing a task in mathematics (May, 2009).

Actually, motivation is closely linked to self-efficacy. Many researchers have concluded and

confirmed that a student with high self-efficacy are more motivated. This construct, from

many researches, has been linked to mathematics achievement and performance of the

students, for it is believed have an influence to such. Ugwuanyi et. al. (2020), in their study

about the predicting mathematics achievement using self-efficacy as one of the predictors,

found out that self-efficacy had a significant predictive power for achievement. Similar

findings were found from the studies of Ramdani et. al. (2021) and Jaafar and MohdAyub

(2010), from which it was revealed a direct correlation between self-efficacy and

mathematics performance. Moreover, even the sources of mathematics self-efficacy were

found to have positive influence on mathematics abilities and achievements (Yurt and

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Sunbul, 2014; Yurt, 2014). In calculus, Huang (2011), stressed a strong connection between

self-efficacy and achievement.

Aside from self-efficacy, previous experiences have an influence on expectation of the

students in a given task. According to the infographics of Mathew et. al. (2022), of which the

main goal is to help the teachers on how to support the expectations and values of the

students in order build up their motivation, past successes and failures can impact the

students’ view of the possibility of success. For instance, as provided by the authors, “I didn’t

study for my last history exam and failed. This time I studied, so I expect to do better on

today’s exam”. Past experiences tend to mold the perception of the students with success, as

in the example. A student expects a more likelihood for success of the task when his or her

past involvements have something to do with the tasks; and therefore, making him or her

more motivated. Furthermore, from the study of, Rezavscek et. al. (2020), they confirmed

that background knowledge from secondary school positively affects students’ engagement

in the university mathematics course. In calculus, as an introductory subject in college,

students are likely to be motivated when their previous learning experiences is aligned with

the subject. Like the students who took STEM strand in Senior High School, since an

introduction to calculus had been given to them during then. Pre-calculus and Basic Calculus

are two of the specializations of only students in STEM strands and is a pre-requisite of

higher calculus. Hence, STEM students are the only ones who get to be prepared for Calculus

in the college. The difficulty can emerge because some students who finished Senior High

School with a strand other than STEM enroll in courses in college with Calculus subjects (e.g.

BS Mathematics and Engineering). This can be a problem to them given that, from many

researches, Pre-Calculus and Basic Calculus are also an established factor that can impact

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calculus achievements. Like the study of Agustin and Agustin (2009) and Barr et. al. (2022).

Both of which emphasized that pre-calculus skills influence Calculus performance. Also,

Hurdle and Mogilski (2022) revealed in their study that the fail rate for students who took

pre-calculus is significantly lower from those that took college algebra and/or trigonometry.

The non-STEM finishers are less likely to pass or achieve high grades in Calculus. In

Philippine setting, two specializations are offered in Senior High School for STEM students.

Students take Basic Calculus after Pre-Calculus. Casinillo and Aure (2018), studied the

different factors affecting the academic performance of the students in Basic Calculus in

Visayas State Univesity. They concluded from their study that in order for the students to

perform well in Basic Calculus they must first understand the basic skills in Pre-calculus.

Moreover, students expect to be successful in mathematics subjects if they get high

remarks in mathematics in their past academic endeavors, like for example graduating

Senior high school with honors. These achievements give students a motivation in every

tasks he/she takes, which also gives them high expectation when it comes to success. In

college, Aptitude test is one of the ways of universities to determine the placement of the

students. Mathematical Aptitude refers to the basic mathematical knowledge and skills. In

college, before entering, enrollees must first undergo an Aptitude Test, or some in

universities in different countries they call it College Admission Test, American College Test

and etc. These tests are designed to assess what the person is capable of doing or to predict

what a person is able to learn or do given the right education and instruction (Cherry, 2022).

In the Philippines, Aptitude Tests or such are administered in order to determine the level

of intelligence of the students, as well as the course they are qualified to take. Some studies

have suggested that Aptitude test scores, and particularly mathematics Aptitude, has

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predictive ability on the students’ mathematics performance in college. In a study of Brown

et. al. (2015), with purpose of determining if high school mathematics preparation was a

significant prerequisite for success in the pre-engineering curriculum at the post-secondary

level, it was found that ACT math scores were the most significant predictor of quantitative

GPA. Similarly, George (2019) and MacCormack (2021), who studied predictors of the

achievements of students in Calculus subjects, suggested that SAT scores, academic level, and

Placement exam scores are found to have predictive factors. However, past

experiences/achievement of the students have most the result of which are from past

experiences. Therefore, prior learning involvements of the students, especially in High

school, have an effect on their Admission results in college.

Value component

Another component of the theory is the Value component. Expectancy and value

components are different constructs but established to be correlated (Leaper, 2011). The

value components of motivation consist of students’ beliefs about how worthwhile specific

tasks are or how valuable the results of the tasks will be (May, 2009). In other words, it is

the subjective meaning of the activity which becomes the reason for doing the activity

(Mathew et. al., 2022; Putwain et. al., 2019). Eccles and her colleagues broke down the task

value into four subcomponents, namely attainment value, intrinsic value, utility value, and

cost value (Eccles, 1983; Eccles and Wigfield, 2002; Wigfield and Eccles, 2000; as cited by

Studer and Knecht, 2016). The widely used subcomponent is the attainment value.

Attainment value is referred to as the importance of doing well in a task. For example, the

students tend to do well if they perceive the importance of the task, perhaps it is part of their

identity or for future gains. In a study of Putwain et. al. (2019), in which they investigated

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the relationship of expectancy and attainment value as predictors of behavioral engagement,

it was revealed that higher attainment value helps compensate performance from low

expectancy by increasing behavioral engagement. Intrinsic value is defined as the personal

enjoyment one experiences in doing a task. In mathematics, it is about feeling fun and

interested in working with mathematics problems, equations, numbers, and such. Li et. al.

(2007), studied the role of students’ beliefs of task difficulty in relation to self-perceptions of

ability, intrinsic value, attainment value, and performance, in which a certain task was

directed to the students. The findings show that the higher the perceived difficulty of the

task, the lower the interest of the students; which also leads to lower level of performance.

Furthermore, Guo et, al, (2015) found in their study that, along with self-concept, intrinsic

value had reciprocal effects with academic achievement and predict educational attainment.

Utility value is the perceived usefulness of the task for future goals. Hulleman et. al. (2010)

investigated whether utility value influences interest and performance in task in math and

psychology, in which two learning experiments (in laboratory and college classroom) were

conducted. Utility value was measured by asking the participants as to the relevance of the

materials they were learning. Eventually, the analysis revealed that utility value explained

the effect of the intervention on interest and predicted performance. In a study of Hecht et.

al. (2021), it was claimed that utility value can help in the development of interest among

students. Also, in web-based learning, together with attainment value, intrinsic value, and

other subjective task values, utility value were significant predictors of students’ choice

whether to continue using Web-based learning or not (Chui and Wang, 2008). Moreover, the

effect of utility-value interventions was investigated in many researches, as in the studies of

Harackiewicz et. al. (2012) and Rozek et. al. (2017), in which certain ways of emphasizing to

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the parents the usefulness of STEM courses in high school were conducted as an

intervention. Both studies found that with the utility value intervention, more students took

STEM courses in high school. Lastly, Cost value is the effort, time, and opportunity the

students give up for the task. Success more than failure was attributed to effort (Nicholls,

1975). Although cost is part of the Expectancy-value theory, it is widely disregarded and

ignored (Wigfield and Cambia, 2010; cited by Barron and Hulleman, 2015). Despite so, it

offers great importance and contribution, as it impacts motivation even when the other

components are high. A proper example is when a student, who is constantly doing well in

mathematics and in other school activities, made his grades and motivation in mathematics

decreased due to extra-curricular activities. In this case, even though one’s expectancy and

other task values are high, without sufficient time and effort rendered for the task, the

motivation will suffer (Barron and Hulleman, 2015). In general, perceived cost can adversely

impact the overall value of a task (Eccles et. al., 1983). Moreover, Eccles et. al. (1983)

proposed three dimensions of cost: the amount of effort to needed to be successful in the

tasks, the loss of being able to engage in other valued activities, and negative psychological

states resulting from struggle or failure in the task. The first dimension, which is effort, was

then categorized into two dimensions by Flake (2012), “effort-related cost” and “effort-

unrelated cost”. Decreased motivation engagement can not only be caused by the amount of

effort needed for the task, but also the amount of effort needed for other activities (Barron

and Hulleman, 2015).

Motivation is an established contributor to students’ performance and achievement

in a task. Due to the importance of calculus, as well as the current problems, and

consequences of failing the subject, this study was conceptualized. This research wishes to

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help optimize the performance of the students by integrating motivation. Specifically, this

study aims to confirm whether the influence of Expectancy-value theory prevails on the

students’ performance in Calculus 1.

Theoretical Framework

Expectancy-value theory of motivation proposed, developed, and used in education

by Jacquelynne Eccles and colleagues (Eccles et al., 1983; Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Wigfield

& Eccles, 2001). Expectancy theory describes the relationship of student’s expectancy of

success the perceived value of the task (Mathew, et. al., 2022). This theory has two

components, which are Expectancy and Value components. Expectancy component was

defined by May (2009) as the students’ beliefs about their abilities to successfully complete

specific tasks. It is quite related to mathematics self-efficacy, as it is defined by Bandura

(1997) as one’s perception of his or her abilities in mathematics. In other words, it is the

individual’s confidence about completing a task in mathematics (May, 2009). Moreover, past

success and failures can impact the students’ view of the possibility of success (Mathew, et.

al., 2022). Previous learning experiences, successes, achievements, and involvements can

influence the expectations of the students of success. On the other hand, value component is

described as the students’ perceived value of a certain task. The value components of

motivation consist of students’ beliefs about how worthwhile specific tasks are or how

valuable the results of the tasks will be (May, 2009). Eccles and her colleagues broke down

the task value into four subcomponents, namely attainment value, intrinsic value, utility

value, and cost value. Attainment value is referred to as the importance of doing well in a

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task. Intrinsic value is defined as the personal enjoyment one experiences in doing a task.

Utility value is the perceived usefulness of the task for future goals. Cost value is the effort,

time and opportunity the student gives up for the task. (Eccles, 1983; Eccles and Wigfield,

2002; Wigfield and Eccles, 2000; as cited by Studer and Knecht, 2016).

Motivation to learn has been described as a student’s ‘energy and drive to learn, work

effectively and achieve to their potential, in addition to the behaviors associated with this

energy and drive. Motivation, as an affective variable, is a well-established influencer and

contributor to the students’ achievement and performance. This has been confirmed and

supported by the various studies in different contexts. Arthur et.al. (2021), claimed a direct

positive correlation between mathematics learning motivation and performance in

mathematics. Similar findings were found in the studies of Murayama et. al. (2013) and

Mokhtar et. al. (2013). Therefore, in this study, the motivation will be used as predictors for

performance of the students in Calculus 1 subject. The motivation theory to be used is the

Expectancy-value theory.

Conceptual Framework

This study will be guided by the conceptual paradigm shown below. Motivation is

established to have an influence of students’ performance. Hence, in this study, motivation,

specifically Expectancy-value, is the independent variable, and the grade in Calculus 1

subject is identified as the dependent variable. Moreover, this study aims to determine

whether students’ past achievement and mathematics self-efficacy can influence the

expectancy of the students for success in Calculus 1.

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 Expectancy for success
in Calculus 1

Calculus 1
performance
Perceived value of
(Grade)
Calculus 1
a. Attainment
b. Intrinsic
c. utility
d. cost

Figure 1. Conceptual Paradigm

Statement of the Problem

This study aims to determine the predictors/factors that can influence performance

of students in Calculus 1. Specifically, this study seeks to answer the following questions:

1. What is the level of expectancy of the respondents for success in Calculus 1?

2. What is the level of value of the respondents in Calculus 1 in terms of the
following:
3.1. Attainment value
3.2. Intrinsic value
3.3. utility value
3.4. cost
3. What is the level of performance of the respondents in Calculus 1?

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4. Can the respondents’ expectancy for success significantly predict Calculus 1

performance?

5. Can the respondents’ value for calculus significantly predict Calculus 1

performance?

6. Can the students’ expectancy for success and their value for Calculus 1 significantly

predict their performance in Calculus 1?

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 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research design

This study will employ descriptive-predictive research design to determine the

motivation variables fit as predictors and develop a model that forecasts the performance of

the students in Calculus 1. Quantitative approach will be used to analyze the collected data

from the respondents, and answer each of the research questions in this study.

Research environment

This study will be conducted at Nueva Vizcaya State University Bayombong campus

located at Quezon street, Don Mariano Perez, Bayombong Nueva Vizcaya. NVSU has eight

colleges; and among these colleges, College of Engineering has always been reported as the

most number of students who are taking Calculus 1 subject. Moreover, among the three

courses the college is offering, the Bachelor of Science in Civil holds the majority of which.

Source of data

The respondents of this study are the students of Nueva Vizcaya State University

Bayombong campus who are taking units of Calculus 1 during the first semester of school

year 2023-2024. Particularly, these students are in first year and are acquiring degrees in

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering. From this course, the number of freshmen students

is far more than the that of other courses offered by the college, even when combined.

Moreover, Calculus 1 is taken by first year civil engineering students during their first

semester. The whole population of the said respondents is expected to be 200 students,

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which is divided into four sections. With the help of Raosoft, an internet website that helps

to compute for the adequate sample size, the computed sample respondents are 132 (95%

confidence interval). Since there are four sections, stratified random sampling with equal

allocation will be employed in order to determine the number of respondents in each section.

Thus, every section will have 33 students as respondents.

Instrumentation

This study will utilize a questionnaire to gather the desired data. The first part wishes

to collect the past achievements and academic involvements of the respondents relevant to

Calculus 1 subject. These are NCAT mathematics score, NCAT overall score, Senior high

school strand (whether STEM, ABM, or etc.), and Senior high school achievement (with high

honors, with honors, or without honors). The second part is the assessment of self-efficacy

beliefs in mathematics of the respondents. The questionnaire to be used is a 4-point Likert

Scale adopted from Mathematics Self-Efficacy and Anxiety Questionnaire (MSEAQ)

developed by May (2009). According to the study, MSEAQ is originally has two components:

Mathematics anxiety and Mathematics Self-efficacy. The questionnaire has 13 statements

which measures perceived self-efficacy in mathematics test, for example “I feel confident

when taking a mathematics test”; mathematics assignments, “I believe I can complete all of

the assignments in a mathematics course”; grades in mathematics “I believe I can get an “A”

when I am in a mathematics course”, and mathematics, in general, “believe I am the kind of

person who is good at mathematics”. The responses will be how frequent do respondents

feel each statement (usually, often, sometimes, and never). The self-efficacy part was based

by the author from Mathematics Self-Efficacy Scale (MSES) created by Betz and Hackett,

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(1983). To test for the internal consistency, both MSES and MSEAQ-SE were administered to

the respondents and compared. The Cronbach’s coefficient alpha of MSEAQ-SE (0.93) was

greater than that of MSES (0.92). Not only was it considered as highly reliable in terms of

internal consistency, MSEAQ also had slightly higher reliability than MSES.

The succeeding parts of the questionnaire measure the expectancy for success and

subjective value of Calculus 1 of the respondents. These parts are adapted or based from the

study of Eccles and Wigfield (2000); and are modified by the researcher to make it

appropriate for the study, since the questionnaire of the authors is intended for measuring

expectancy and value in mathematics. Expectancy for success in Calculus 1, in this study, is

measured by a 4-point Likert Scale questionnaire that asks about the perception of the

students for success in Calculus 1. The first is a statements that asks about the expected

students’ performance in Calculus 1, and the range of choices is from bad to very well. The

second is a question which inquires the level of agreement in a belief of passing Calculus 1.

This has a response from disagree to strongly disagree. The personal beliefs of the level of

grade or remarks of the students is inquired on the third question, where the choices are

from low grade to very high grade.

As Eccles and her colleagues suggest, the subjective value of tasks can be measured

into for components: attainment (importance), Intrinsic (Interest), Utility (Usefulness), and

Cost. In this case, the task is Calculus 1; thus, the questionnaire is about the value of

Calculus 1 to the respondents. The attainment value part of the questionnaire asks about

the importance of Calculus 1, as well as being good in the subject. It is a 4-point Likert Scale

with the choices from not at all important to very important. The first question inquires the

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level of importance of Calculus 1. Moreover, the importance in the future or present is

indicated in the question to capture the overall significance of the subject. The next is a

type of query that requires the respondents to continue the sentence by selecting from the

choices. This asks about the level of importance of doing good in Calculus 1. And the third

compares the importance of Calculus 1 to that of the different subjects. The second part of

subjective value questionnaire measures the intrinsic value or interest on Calculus 1.

There are three questions in this part which ask about the level of interest of the

respondents: (1) when working with Calculus 1 tasks (activities, assignments, and etc.), (2)

having classroom discussions about the Calculus, and (3) Calculus 1, in general. There are

4-point Likert scale with a range of responses from not at all interesting to very interesting.

Since the data gathering will be executed at the beginning of the semester. Students still

have almost no experience in learning Calculus 1. Hence, the intrinsic value questionnaire

measures the initial perception of the respondents about Calculus 1 in terms of interest or

enjoyment. The third part of the questionnaire collects data about the usefulness or utility

value of Calculus 1. It is a 4-point Likert scale questionnaire consists of four questions, and

choices from not useful at all to very useful. The first and second question asks about the

perceived level of usefulness of Calculus 1 in the present and in the future, respectively.

The third asks about the usefulness of Calculus 1 in general. Lastly, the fourth inquires and

compares the usefulness of Calculus 1 to the other subjects of the students. And the last

part of the questionnaire task value questionnaire is the Cost. This construct is the only

questionnaire that is not based from Eccles and Wigfield (2009). According to Flake and

Eccles along with her colleagues, there were four dimensions of cost: effort-related cost,

effort-unrelated cost, the loss of being able to engage in other valued activities, and

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negative psychological states resulting from struggle or failure in the task. A series of

statements, with a response from Strongly agree to Completely disagree, will be asked to

the respondents to measure the level cost of Calculus 1. The level of agreement of

respondents will be inquired to the following statements: (1) Learning calculus 1 requires

too much time and effort (effort-related cost), (2) Subjects and activities other than

Calculus 1 also require too much time and effort (effort-unrelated cost), (3) I would give up

other subjects or activities if I want to effectively study Calculus 1 (the loss of being able to

engage in other valued activities), and (4) It would be frustrating not to pass in Calculus 1

(negative psychological states resulting from struggle or failure in the task).

The validity and reliability of the researcher-made instruments will be tested first in

this study. Reliability is defined as how consistent an instrument measures what it intends

to measure. The internal consistency of the different parts of the instrument, such as self-

efficacy in mathematics, expectancy for success, attainment value, intrinsic value, utility

value, and cost, will be examined using Cronbach’s Alpha, with the help of SPSS. The

construct validity of the instrument will also be tested. There are two types of construct

validity: Convergent and Divergent validity. Convergent validity, according to Dunaetz

(2020), demonstrates that the measure is similar to other measures that are theoretically

similar (correlation between the items); whereas, Divergent validity demonstrates that the

measure is not measuring something else (no correlation between two constructs). The

measures for expectancy for success and the different measures for values will undergo

through these tests, through Factor Analysis on SPSS and Microsoft Excel.

Data Gathering procedure

22
 Calculus 1 is taken by first year Civil Engineering students every first semester. Hence,

the gathering of data will be done during the first semester of school year 2023-2024. The

survey questionnaire will be administered to the respondents at the start of the semester.

The data to be gathered during then are the past achievements, self-efficacy in mathematics,

and expectancy for success and perceived value of Calculus 1. Then the grades of the students

in Calculus 1, as a measure for performance, will be collected at the end of the semester.

Treatment of the data

Quantitative analyzation of the data will be performed through the help of computer

applications such as Microsoft Excel and SPSS, in order to achieve the objectives of the study.

Frequency and Percent will be used to answer the first problem, which is the previous

experiences of the respondents. In the level of self-efficacy and expectations for success of

the respondents in Calculus 1 (problems 2 and 3), table 1 will be utilized by qualitatively

converting the mean score of the respondents. After which, Frequency and Percent will again

be used for tallying. Same process will be performed to assess the level of value of the

respondents in terms of attainment, intrinsic, utility, and cost. To assess the level of

performance of the respondents, their grade will be interpreted as shown in table 2. Then,

the tally will be totaled using Frequency and Percent. For the succeeding problems to be

resolved, Simple and Multiple Linear Regression will be employed. Firstly, to the determine

whether self-efficacy and past experiences can significantly predict the expectancy for

success in Calculus (problem 6), Multiple Linear Regression should be applied. Secondly, to

ascertain whether expectancy for success in Calculus 1 significantly predicts performance of

the respondents (problem 7), Simple Linear Regression is the appropriate tool. Lastly, to

23
answer the question whether the value and combination of which and expectancy for success

significantly predict the respondents’ performance in Calculus 1, Multiple Linear Regression

will again be performed.

Table 1. Guide for Interpretation

Mean Self- Expectancy Attainment Intrinsic Utility Cost
efficacy for success value Value Value
3.26-4.00 Very Very high Very high Very high Very high Very
high self- expectancy importance interest in high cost
efficacy usefulness
2.51- 3.25 High self- High High High High in Very
efficacy expectancy importance interest usefulness high cost
1.76-2.50 Low self- Low Low Low Low in Very
efficacy expectancy importance interest usefulness high cost

1.00-1.75 Very low Very low Very Low Very low Very low Very
self- expectancy importance interest in high cost
efficacy usefulness
Table 2. Level of performance
Calculus 1 Grade Description

1.00 to 1.25 Outstanding

1.50 to 2.00 Very Satisfactory

2.25 to 2.75 Satisfactory

3.00 Fair or Passing

Ethical Considerations

This study will be submitted for ethics review to Saint Mary’s University Research

Ethics Board (SMUREB).

Conflict of Interest

24
 There is no conflict of interest in the conduct of the study

Privacy, Confidentiality, and Data Protection

The data to be gathered in this study will be taken from the respondents using a

questionnaire. Their responses will be kept in confidentially. The participants’ information,

identities and profiles will not be used by anyone but the researcher, and only in this study.

Further, the researcher has no intention to specify specific individual in reporting for the

findings of the study.

Management Vulnerability

Since the respondents are college students (18 years old and above), there is no need

for their parents’ permission; their consent alone is enough. Before the collection of data, the

purpose and other information regarding the study will be presented to the respondents.

Then, consent letters will be administered to be sign by the students if they are willing to join

in the study. The students have the authority to choose whether or not to participate.

Moreover, they will not be compelled to join if they are reluctant of participating.

Risk/Benefit Ratio

No reward shall be given to the students, if they will participate; nor disadvantage, if

not willing to. This study will not affect their academic performance and grades.

Informed Consent

An informed consent, that asks permission to collect the data, will be given to the

school in which the researcher intends to study. Instructors will also be asked for consent in

25
order to collect the final term grades of the students in Calculus 1. Lastly, the target students

will be asked for their permission to participate in the study.

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 SUMMARY OF RELATED LITERATURES AND STUDIES

Authors and Research Domains/Focus Recommendations

Methodology Used Salient Findngs
Dates Locale of the Study /Limitations
Darja Barr University The purpose of The students included in The findings showed First limitation is
(2022) of this study was to this study were 17,196 that at the University that, the students
Manitoba explore the students who took of Manitoba, not only in this study came
relationship Introductory Calculus is there a ‘gap’ only from high
between (MATH 1500) at the between Pre-Calculus schools in
students’ grades University of Manitoba and Calculus grades. Manitoba. This
in high school from 2001 to 2015. A drop in grades is means that the
Pre-Calculus and The main independent expected for students results found here
their subsequent variable in this study is transitioning from may not be
grades in the the Pre-Calculus grade. high school to generalizable to
first-year The dependent variable university, especially the population of
university is the students’ Calculus in mathematics. Calculus students
calculus course, (MATH 1500) final Students who perform at the University of
and selected grades. Pearson poorly in Pre-Calculus Manitoba.
conditions under Correlation and also perform poorly in . Students who
which the descriptive statistics Calculus, because voluntarily
relationships vary were used overall there are withdrew from the
almost no students course were not
who performed poorly included in the
in Pre-Calculus and analyses. These
then do well in students make up
Calculus. This study about 30% of 76
also found that the students first
approximately 20% of enrolling in the
the highly successful Calculus course. A
students in Pre- separate study of
Calculus are earning these students is
grades in Calculus that needed to identify
are significantly below why they are
what they would withdrawing
probably expect, or Finally, compared
what their Pre- to other
Calculus grades would universities in
predict Canada, the
University of
Manitoba is a
highly accessible
university with
lower entrance
requirements.
Universities with
more rigorous
entrance

32
 requirements, or
less diverse
students, may not
have similar gaps
between Pre-
Calculus and
Calculus.
Zachariah small This study The researchers began The fail rate for Researcher did not
Benton Hurdle, public determines how by investigating the students who took track any repeated
Wiktor regional the prerequisite performance of students pre-calculus is attempts in college
Mogilski university path of students that took college algebra significantly lower algebra,
(2022) in the taking calculus I and trigonometry versus from those that took trigonometry, or
southeaste impacts their those that took pre- college algebra and/or pre-calculus.
rn portion grade calculus ahead of their trigonometry. Furthermore,
oftheUnite performance. credit-bearing calculus I Students that took less researcher did not
d States attempt. The study was prerequisite credit track any other
developed in accordance hours fared much mathematics or
with the following better than students math-based
research problems: that took a large science courses.
. R1: To what extent is number of credit Also, rather than
calculus I performance hours tracking those
different between students that took
students that take pre-calculus versus
college algebra and those that did not,
trigonometry as we recognized that
prerequisites compared the two specific
to those that take pre- tracks (that is,
calculus as a college
prerequisite? 2. R2: To algebra/trigonome
what extent does the try versus pre-
amount of calculus- calculus) were the
related prerequisite important ones to
credit hours taken by compare.
students predict and Further, the study
affect their eventual did not account for
overall performance in the student majors
calculus I? or specific
After the collection of instructors, and a
data, statistical tools specific instructor
were used such as: z- and teaching style
test, regression analysis. could also
adversely affect
performance in a
calculus course. it
is restricted to one
university in the
southeastern
United States
Kathleen University This study A logistic regression Predictive factors such While some factors
McCormack of Central examines the analysis was used to as learning have been
(2021) Florida, academic success identify of factors that communities (HONOR, identified that may
USA of math-intensive predict student success EXCEL, COMPASS), influence the
STEM students in Calculus 2 for seven Calculus 1 grade, AP success of these
enrolled in groups of students with Calculus AB score, SAT students, the
Calculus 2 and Math score, and, in results are limited

33
 determine the various Calculus 1 some cases, ethnicity to one university
predictors of backgrounds. and race, the number and one group of
success in of semesters between students. The
Calculus II. the completion of researcher
Calculus 1 and suspects that there
enrollment in Calculus are additional
2, and the unidentified
standardized credit factors which
hour load of students influence success
have emerged as for these students
predictive factors that in Calculus 2.
impact the likelihood These factors may
of student success in include academic
Calculus 2. and social
integration at the
home institution
and other student
obligations.
Another
recommendation
would be to
complete
additional research
into student
success in Calculus
2 across ethnicity
and race. The
results of this
study were
contradictory to
existing research
results with
respect to the
effect of ethnicity
and race on
student success in
postsecondary
mathematics.
Ramdani, Y., University This research The research instrument There was a direct The findings that
Mohamed, W. in analyzes the used was questionnaire correlation between creative perception
H. S. W., & Bandung, correlation of self-efficacy (11 self-efficacy and had the least
Syam, N. K. West Java, between self- items), creativity academic contribution to
(2021). Indonesia efficacy, creativity perception (15 items) performance. academic
perception, and and mathematical Creativity perception performance can
productive disposition (14 items). did not show a direct be used as first
disposition Pearson correlation influence on academic step in
towards were used to analyze the performance understanding
academic data. Productive disposition creative perception
performance had a direct influence as a weak
on academic contribution to
performance. cognitive abilities
There was a about academic
correlation between performance, even
self-efficacy, creativity though creativity
perception, and has an important

34
 productive disposition role in developing
of academic mathematics
performance performance.
Self-efficacy had the
largest contribution to
academic
performance while
creativity perception
has the smallest one
Ugwuanyi, C. Nigeria This study was The correlational survey The results showed It was
S., Okeke, C. I., designed to study research design was that emotional recommended that
& Asomugha, how emotional employed. Emotional intelligence, self- students should be
C. G. (2020). intelligence, self- intelligence, Self-esteem, esteem, and self- taught using
esteem and the Self-efficacy efficacy had methods that will
self-efficacy of Questionnaires, and significant predictive enhance their
students predict Students' Academic powers on students' emotional
their academic Achievement Score academic achievement intelligence, self-
achievement in Form (SAASF) were in mathematics. Thus, esteem, and self-
mathematics. used to collect data emotional intelligence, efficacy.
through the direct self-esteem, and the
delivery method. Data self-efficacy of
were analyzed using students are prime
simple linear regression determinants of their
analysis. achievement in
mathematics.
Yershat Suleyman This study A survey consisting of Among various factors Authors suggest
Sapazhanov, Al Demirel examines 42 items was conducted the current study that mathematics
ibek University, variables from 127 students and found was that MRA is instructors in higher
Orynbassar, Sh Kaskelen, explaining statistical multiple the most significant education should
irali Kadyrov, Kazakhsta student’s regression was carried predictor of the pay attention to
Suleyman n academic out to analyze the data achievement in improve their
Demirel performances in set specialized university student’s
University mathematics mathematics courses. confidence, which in
; Bakhyt from the The findings suggest turn would decrease
Sydykhov specialized that there are two the anxiety level
(2020) engineering factors that influence towards
institutions. students’
mathematics. The
mathematics, which is
high school teachers
related to affect scale
should not advise
(confidence and
their students to go
anxiety) and their
high school to technical sciences
mathematics in higher education
achievements are two unless the student’s
main predictors of confidence and high
achievement in school math grade
university are sufficiently high
mathematics courses
Alenka Slovania The paper aims to A three-part The first category First the sample
Rezavscek, investigate the questionnaire was included three main cohort was drawn
Janja Jerebic, main factors prepared. The first part variables: from a single
Gregor Rus, influencing the served to collect mathematics faculty of a single
and mathematics students’ socio- confidence, behavioral Slovenian
Znidarsicby achievement of demographic data engagement, and university.
(2020) social sciences (gender, age, year of perceived level of Consequently, the

35
university study, and study course) math anxiety. Also, It findings may have
students in and data on students’ was confirmed that limited
Slovenia background knowledge the perceived level of generalizability to
in mathematics from math anxiety has a other contexts,
secondary school. The negative effect on nationally and
second part was mathematics internationally.
designed to measure the achievement, meaning Replication of the
level of math anxiety as that a higher level of study with a
perceived by students. math anxiety leads to different sample
In the last part, a scale poorer performance would enable
for monitoring students’ in the mathematics examination of the
attitudes towards exam. Regarding the generalizability of
mathematics, second category, two the findings.
technology, and towards variables were taken Furthermore, the
involving technology in into account: measurement
learning mathematics background instrument
was used. A conceptual knowledge from RMARS, which was
model was derived secondary school and used to examine
where three categories self-engagement in a math anxiety
of variables were taken mathematics course at among the
into account: attitude university. It was students, is mainly
towards mathematics confirmed that focused on
and math anxiety, background mathematical
engagement in learning knowledge from activities based on
activities, and attitude secondary school numbers and
towards involving positively affects calculations.
technology in learning students’ engagement Therefore, other
mathematics. Data were in the university areas of
collected for seven mathematics course mathematics that
consecutive academic (H3). Furthermore, a are not directly
years and analysed positive and high-level related to numbers
using Structural relationship was in the study are not
Equation Modelling found between self- included. It would
(SEM) engagement in be worthwhile to
learning activities at investigate the
the university and the extent to which
final achievement in such activities
mathematics. The generate anxiety to
third category refers the students. We
to the students’ are also aware that
attitude toward we have excluded,
involving technology from our model,
in learning some important
mathematics variables (e.g.,
achievement
motivation and
teacher
effectiveness) and
potential
relationships (e.g.,
background
knowledge from
secondary school
to the perceived
level of math

36
 anxiety) which
may have
influenced our
results. Further
research should
address these
issues.
George, R. University Determine the This research explores The academic level Include other
(2019). of Houston predictors of the use of Multiple of students at the time variables that may
success in Regression, Hierarchal of taking calculus at affect the grade of
calculus and Linear Modeling (HLM) the University of students in the
come up with a analysis and Mediation Houston appears to be calculus.
model that Models in examining a very strong indicator
explains the attributes that of success in the
calculus contribute to student course.
performance of success in calculus. The The classes with the
the students dependent variable is larger class sizes did
student grade in better than those with
calculus, the level one smaller class sizes.
factors are student This could be due to
academic level, gender, the fact that the night
whether the student is a and online classes are
STEM major, and if the the ones which are
student attended smaller in size.
tutoring. The level two Using multiple
factors come from the regression analysis to
students’ class section predict a student’s
and include whether the calculus 1 grade,
section is online or face seven independent
to face (mode of variables were used:
instruction), the placement exam score,
semester (fall vs. mode of instruction,
spring), the time of day number of visits to the
the class section is tutoring center,
offered and the student gender,
instructor’s gender. semester class taken,
whether or not the
student is a STEM
major, and academic
level. The overall
variance explained by
these predictors is
30.6%. Each predictor,
except student gender
and academic level,
was positively related
to the student’s grade
Ellenita G. Bulacan This study 390 freshmen college The influence of The educators may
Manalaysay State examines the students were surveyed gender, mathematics design learning
(2019) University influence of to determine their anxiety and the tasks that will
gender, anxiety scores when interaction of these encourage student
mathematics grouped according to two variable in the engagement to
anxiety which has grade, future, in-class student’s reduce their
to have and assignment factors. mathematical mathematics
attitudinal Comparative statistics achievement was

37
 component, and (t-test), Regression determined. The study anxiety. Though
the interaction of analysis, and ANCOVA shows that the gender anxiety has positive
these two was used has no significant effects on academic
variables on the influence on student’s performance of first
mathematical achievement, year college
achievement of mathematics anxiety students, designing
the student is a predictor of tasks that would
student’s grade in reduce their anxiety
mathematics and the and increase their
interaction between understanding of
gender and the lesson is
mathematics anxiety
encouraged so that
has no significant
positive view
influence on college
towards
student’s academic
achievement. mathematics can be
achieved.
Leomarich Visayas This study was Using a mixed-method Results of the study Conduct of a
Casinillo, Ma. State conducted to research approach, this revealed that in order similar research
Rachel Kim University, evaluate the paper employed Grade for the students to study has to be
Aure, (2018) Visca, different factors 11 STEM students perform well in Basic done in order to
Baybay affecting the enrolled from the time Calculus they must further verify the
City, academic of the study. A first understand the results of this
Philippines performance in structured basic skills in Pre- study, evaluate
Basic Calculus questionnaire on calculus. Academic Pre-Calculus and
students’ perception performance in Calculus subjects in
towards Basic Calculus Basic relation to teaching
served as instrument to calculus was not strategies,
gather information. derived from assessment
Descriptive measures demographic methods, and
were used to summarize profile and economic topics
the different factors and resources but to them covered.
regression modelling past knowledge and
was undertaken to interest of the said
identify the significant subject.
factors influencing the
academic performance
of the students
Aldrin John Jao Sorsogon This study The research design Seventy- seven (77) For further
Estonanto State investigated the utilized was descriptive- percent are found to advancement of
(2017) University relationship correlational. Eighty- have math anxiety. this study, a
between math eight (88) respondents Forty- one (41) parallel research
anxiety and the out of one hundred percent had low both in the
academic eighty (180) students or academic elementary and
performance in two (2) out of four (4) performance. Results junior high school
Pre-calculus of sections from the revealed further that levels under the
Senior High Laboratory High School there is significant same variables but
School Students were purposely selected, relationship between of greater scope is
taking Science, and took a math anxiety math anxiety and highly
Technology, test. performance of recommended.
Engineering and students in Pre-
Mathematics calculus. It is
(STEM) Strand concluded that math
anxiety has negative
effect on the academic

38
 performance of
students in Pre-
calculus.
Jiesi Guo, Hong Kong The study 5179 students (49.3% The results suggested: First, it is not clear
Herbert W. investigated the girls, 50.7% boys), 4972 (a) self-concept is how these results
Marsh, Philip multiplicative (50.4% girls, 49.6% more important for generalize to
D. Parker, effect of self- boys), and 3470 (50.4% students with lower Western countries
Alexandre J.S. concept and girls, 49.6% boys) utility values in or to other Asian
Morin, value, which is formed the three predicting their countries. Second,
Alexander central to classic samples in the present educational outcomes; SES was narrowly
Seeshing EVT. The study. The measures of (b) while boys and defined and did not
Yeung (2015) mediating role of the student background girls had similar levels include parents'
motivation and variables (gender and of math self-concept income and
gendered SES), expectancy-value and values, girls occupation. Third,
patterns was also constructs and tended to have higher in the present
explored. achievement-related mathematics study, educational
and aspiration outcomes achievement and aspiration was a
were selected from the educational general rather than
student-background aspirations; (c) family domain-specific
questionnaire. socioeconomic status construct, and was
Expectancy. The math is more strongly represented by a
self-concept scale was linked to educational single item
used to assess students' aspirations for boys.
expectancy of success.
Task value. TIMSS
created a scale of
Students' Positive Affect
Toward Mathematics
(PATM) to assess the
affect experienced when
participating in math-
related activities.
Academic achievement.
Students' math
achievement used in the
present study was
derived from the TIMSS
math test. Descriptive
statistics
Jennifer L. A The purpose of 2,328 participants were ACT math scores were Future research
Brown, university this study was to selected for the study. the most significant should examine
Glennelle in the determine if high The College Freshman predictor of mathematics
Halpin & south school Survey (Halpin & Halpin, quantitative GPA curriculum in
Gerald Halpin eastern mathematics 1996), which consisted according to the order to develop
(2015) United preparation was a of 248 items, was the bivariate correlation, mathematical skills
States significant measurement tool used semi-partial, and at the secondary
prerequisite for in this study. The structure coefficient. level so the
success in the College Freshman In addition to ACT students will be
pre-engineering Survey (Halpin & Halpin, math scores, the better prepared for
curriculum at the 1996) was administered grades earned in the the quantitative
post-secondary at a series of summer high school calculus courses within the
level. orientation session that course was a pre-engineering
were held on the statistically significant curriculum and
university’s campus contributor to the other
from 2000 to 2004. The regression model. quantitatively-

39
 completed paper-pencil oriented
answer sheets were professions.
scanned into a text file. Algebra I, algebra
At end of each spring II, trigonometry,
semester, the and calculus were
researchers requested also statistically
pre-engineering significant
quantitative course predictors
grades after the first
attempt from
institutional research.
Descriptive and
Correlation were used
as tool in analyzing the
data. Multi Linear
Regression was used as
well.
Eyüp YURT, Ali Konya, The purpose of The sample group of the According to the When the existing
Murat SÜNBÜL Turkey this study is to study, itself conducted results obtained, primary education
(2014) investigate, via a using a survey model, mathematics self- mathematics
model, the consisted of 470 8th efficacy sources teaching
explanatory and grade students aging positively and curriculum of
predictive between 14 and 15 significantly affected Turkey is
relationships years old attending reasoning and examined, it is seen
among the different secondary problem solving skills, that although there
following schools in the city of spatial ability, and a large portion of
variables: Konya, Turkey. In the mathematics the current study’s
Mathematical study, the Scale of achievement. variables are
Problem Solving Sources of Mathematics Surprisingly, present in the
and Reasoning Self-Efficacy was used to reasoning skill within curriculum, both
Skills, Sources of determine students’ the model has no students’ exams
Mathematics Self- levels of self-efficacy; direct effect on and research
Efficacy, Spatial the Problem Solving mathematics conducted indicate
Ability, and Test was used to achievement. Finally, that students’
Mathematics measure their problem the problem solving levels of
Achievements of solving skills; the skill in the model has mathematics
Secondary School Reasoning Test was a direct, positive, and achievement is not
8th Grade used to measure their significant effect on at the desired level
Students. reasoning skills; both mathematics (Mullis et al., 2009;
the Mental Rotation and achievement Mullis et al., 2012;
the Paper Folding Tests Turğut, 2007). As
were used to measure such, various other
their spatial skills; and factors, including
the Mathematics student
Achievement Test was acquisition,
used to measure their activities, teaching
level of mathematics methods and
achievement. The data techniques,
collected in the study teacher, and school
were analyzed using one need to be
of the Structural considered
Equation Models, that critically, leading
being the Structural to the need for
Regression Model both qualitative
and quantitative

40
 studies to be
conducted to this
end.
Eyüp Yurt Konya, The relations Sources of mathematics There are high and It is stated that
(2014) Turkey between self- self-efficacy scale was medium-level these inconsistent
efficacy and used to determine the significant relations results may be
mathematics self-efficacy sources of between mathematics related to the data
achievement students and end-of- self-efficacy sources collection tools
were examined in term mathematics and mathematics which have low
this study grades were used to achievement. The internal
determine their order of importance of consistency
mathematics self-efficacy sources coefficient (Usher
achievement. Pearson on mathematics and Pajares, 2008).
Product Moment achievement is as In addition, it
Correlation Coefficient follows: personal should be taken
and Multiple Linear experiences, social into account that
Regression Analysis persuasions, different results
were used in the physiological states can be obtained in
analysis of the data and vicarious the studies
experiences. Personal examined the
experiences, social sources of self-
persuasions and efficacy depending
physiological states on the cultural
are significant differences and age
predictors of groups in the
mathematics application
achievement procedures.
Garba Sahabi Waziri This paper The instruments used This study was able to Further research
Adamu(2014) Umaru analyzed the for data collection are reveal the relationship should be
Federal relationship Mathematics Anxiety between Mathematics conducted on
Polytechni between Scale (MAS) and Anxiety and Calculus anxiety in different
c, Birnin, Mathematics Calculus Achievement Achievement. There is areas of
Kebbi. Anxiety and Test (CAT). an insignificant Mathematics and
Calculus Pearson correlation, positive correlation other academic
Achievement paired samples t-test between Mathematics levels.
among and Independent sample Anxiety and Calculus
engineering t-test were used to Achievement in males.
students. analyze data using SPSS The study also
version 20.0 revealed significant
negative correlation
between Mathematics
Anxiety and Calculus
Achievement in
females. Conclusively,
there is a negative
weak correlation
between Mathematics
anxiety and Calculus
performance in both
groups of students.
The mean anxiety in
females is higher than
that of males. This
indicates that there is
a significant difference

41
 in Mathematics
anxiety between
males and females.
There is no significant
difference in the
Calculus performance
between males and
females..
Mokhtar, Mohd Malaysia The study’s A group of 42 Findings showed that The findings suggest
Zin, Ahmad objectives are (1) Foundation Year there was only that active learning
Tarmizi, Identify students’ engineering was significant difference strategies could be
Rohani, Mohd. level of randomly selected to in students’ used to motivate
Ayub, Ahmad motivation in undergo the PBL (n=24) motivation, attention students in teaching
Fauzi, Nawawi, learning calculus and traditional (18) and relevance by and learning
Mokhtar based on approach in Basic using PBL, as calculus for
(2013) instruction Calculus course. Data compared to engineering
strategies (PBL was gathered through traditional approach. students. Also, the
and traditional); the instrument based on Respondents’ with increase in sample
and (2) establish the ARCS (Attention, higher achievement in size would make the
relationship Relevance, Confidence, test obtained higher
results more
between levels of and Satisfaction) model overall scores for
reliable.
motivation an and post-test (Calculus motivation. Also,
students’ test Achievement Test) to Significant positive
achievement measure students’ correlations were
motivation and established between
performance attention, satisfaction,
respectively after and overall motivation
undergoing learning with students
approach. achievement test.
Laura J. North This study The researcher utilized It was found that high It was also limited
Pyzdrowski, Ye Eastern examined student sequential explanatory school grade point to one university
Sun, Reagan university indicators for mixed method design average and Calculus only.
in the USA success in entry- for complementary and Readiness Assessment
Curtis, David
level college expansion, so as to had positive
Miller, Gary calculus. better understand the significant
Winn, & Robin challenges that face first correlations with the
A. M. Hensel semester calculus course performance.
(2012) students. The researcher The strongest positive
collected qualitative correlation, however,
calculus Readiness was between attitude
Assessment, first and course
Semester Calculus performance. Also the
course performance, and students mentioned
student Attitudes the importance of
Toward Mathematics knowing trigonometry
Inventory (ATMI) data. and reviewing basic
Afterwards, qualitative algebra as important
interviews with prerequisite. The
students who instructors also
experienced varying clearly valued good
level of success in first foundational
semester calculus knowledge of algebra,
course, as well as with geometry, and
calculus instructors, trigonometry as key to
were conducted. success. Moreover, the

42
 Descriptive and multi instructors also said
linear regression were that attending classes
used as statistical tools. was important, which
was agreed by one of
the students.
Chih-Hsien Taiwan The purpose of The sampling survey A high proportion of The result of the
Huang (2011) this study was to subjects were 792 first- engineering students study suggested
investigate the year engineering had negative and that gender should
attitudes toward students at six moderately positive not be ignored.
calculus of technology universities attitudes toward Female students
engineering in Taiwan. Instrument calculus. Also, it was were found to have
students in Used in the current found that females more positive
Taiwan. study was the research would most likely attitudes toward
instrument Students’ perform better than calculus.
Attitude Towards males in calculus
Calculus (SATC). The because of their more
SATC is an adapted positive attitudes, and
instrument from the they probably have a
modified Fennema- higher tendency than
Sherman Mathematics males to choose
Attitude Scales based on mathematics-related
the Tripartite Model. jobs. Finally, a strong
The instrument consists connection between
of Section A that deals self-efficacy and
with students’ gender, achievement was
college major, calculus found. To conclude,
studying time, Internet when students have
time, the frequency of more positive
asking calculus attitudes toward
questions per week and calculus, it is likely
calculus achievement of they will perform
the last semester. better in calculus
Section B is based on the assessments.
Tripartite Model, with
five scales developed
according to affective,
cognitive and behavior
domains, respectively. A
numerical score for each
student was calculated
by totaling their
response points for all
items. The total score for
each student indicated
the student’s attitude
toward calculus. A One-
Way Analysis of
Variance was used to
compare the means for
each affective variable,
confidence, usefulness
and anxiety. Cronbach’s
alpha, mean, standard
deviation, range and
mean/item were

43
 computed for each
attitude scale. Bivariate
correlation coefficients
between all scales were
computed.
Behiye Ubuz Middle This study A written test about Result indicated that The sample for the
(2010) East examined integral, sequence and there is relationship study is small and
Technical relationships series including between students’ only one institution
University, between demographic survey personal variables was involved .
Ankara, students’ items was used to gather (gender and prior
Turkey personal data. The test was achievements) and
variables (gender, administered prior to their success. Gender
prior and upon the differences favoring
achievements, completion of the males typically
age and academic calculus course. Multiple occurred on Riemann
major) and their regression analysis was sum and Riemann
success in the used integral.
first year
undergraduate
calculus course.
Wan Marzuki Universiti The purpose of Two hundred and three The findings indicate The study is
Wan Jaafar, Putra this study is to respondents from a that most of the limited to one
Ahmad Fauzi Malaysia determine the university in Malaysia respondents have a university/
MohdAyub mathematics self- were chosen through moderate level in institution only.
(2010) efficacy and random sampling. mathematics self-
meta-cognition Descriptive research efficacy and also in
among university design was used in this mathematics meta-
students. study. The Mathematics cognition. Further
self-efficacy and meta- analysis shows that
cognition Inventory was there is a positive
used to measure relationship between
mathematics self- mathematics
efficacy and performance and
mathematics meta- mathematics self-
cognition. The data was efficacy and also
analyzed using the mathematics meta-
descriptive statistic to cognition
measure mean and
standard deviation of
mathematics self-
efficacy and
mathematics meta-
cognition.
Ma. Zenia N. Southern The main focus of The authors examined Deficiencies in algebra Giving a pretest at
Agustin Illinois this study is to the performance of and pre-calculus skills the beginning of
Marcus A. University determine if a students in three continue to impact the semester is a
Agustin (2009) Edwardsvil deficiency in sections of a first- adversely university
good start since
le basic algebra and semester calculus with students when they
trigonometry has analytic geometry take their first the pretest has a
a significant effect course (MATH 150). In semester calculus two-fold purpose.
on success in a order to assess the course. Also, based on First, it will give
first-semester baseline knowledge of the data analysis, the the students an
calculus class. the students, a pretest authors were able to idea of what they
was given the first day determine that are expected to
of the semester. The factoring and working

44
 problems in the pre-test with rational know prior to the
focused on four major functions are the two course. Second, it
areas: function main skills with which will give the
evaluation, solving a students struggle
instructor some
linear equation, reading
a graph, and rational baseline
functions and factoring information
regarding the
skills of the
students in the
class so he/she
can determine the
best approach for
teaching the
course. Also, the
pretest has to be
designed in such a
way that it will
test the basic skills
that are vital for
calculus, such as
factoring and
manipulating
rational functions
Fayowski, V., & University In this study, Supplemental Ability/motivation, as Pedagogical
MacMillan, P. of Supplemental instructions were measured by prior practices that
D. (2008). Northern Instruction (SI) integrated in the grade point average, boost students’
British incorporates learning instruction. was a useful predictor ability and
Columbia, collaborative ANCOVA was used as of course letter grade; motivation in
Canada learning in small, tool for analyzing the gender differences studying calculus
peer-led, group data. were statistically was suggested to
settings in order significant but trivial the instructors by
to integrate this study
instruction in
learning and
reasoning skills
with course
content. In this
study, SI was
paired with a first
year calculus for
non-majors
course
Diana K. May University This study aims Relationships among The questionnaire MSEAQ
(2009) of Georgia to develop a students’ questionnaire (MSEAQ) was found to (Mathematics Self-
reliable, valid and responses and be reliable, relatively Efficacy and
efficient individual valid, and efficient to Anxiety
questionnaire to characteristics such as administer. Questionnaire) is a
assess college gender, high school Correlations between reliable and valid
students’ mathematics items on the scale to measure
mathematics self- preparation, and grades questionnaire and self-efficacy and
efficacy and in college mathematics items on two other, anxiety of the

45
 mathematics courses were examined. established college students in
anxiety. Interviews were also questionnaires, mathematics.
conducted with a provided evidence of
random sample. construct validity. Five
clusters were
identified using
Exploratory Factor
Analysis.
Putwain, D. W., United This study 586 students were Expectancy, the values,
Nicholson, L. J., Kingdom examines how studied using a self- and their interaction
Pekrun, R., expectancy, reported questionnaire. predict behavioral
Becker, S., & attainment value The data analysis were engagement and
Symes, W. and their performed using achievement.
(2019) interaction Predicting tools Specifically, Expectancy
predicted the was directly, and
behavioral indirectly, related to
engagement, and subsequent
how behavioral achievement. Further,
engagement Higher attainment
predicted value protected
achievement. performance from low
expectancy of success
by increasing
behavioral
engagement.
Li, W., Lee, A., This study 79 8-th graders Participants who When teaching
& Solmon, M. examined the role completed survey prior to perceived the task as novel difficult task,
(2007) of perceptions of task instruction and after more difficulty were teaches should
ability, intrinsic last practices session. likely to have lower relate it to other
value, attainment levels of self- similar activities,
value, and perceptions of ability, provide students
performance. express lower levels of practice
interest, and lower opportunities and
levels of performance create a mastery-
scores in the skills test. oriented learning
Perceptions of task environment
difficulty and self-
perceptions of ability
are the most influential
mediators of
expectations of success
and subjective task
value.
Guo, J., Marsh, United This study 2213 boys were the Self-concept and
H. W., Morin, A. states examines the samples in this study. intrinsic value have
J., Parker, P. D., directionality of reciprocal effects with
& Kaur, G. the associations academic achievement
(2015) among the and predict educational
cognitive assets attainment.
(IQ, academic
achievement),
motivational
beliefs (academic

46
 self-concept, task
values), and
occupational
aspirations over
time from late
adolescence into
early adulthood.
Hulleman, C. S., University This study tested In 2 randomized The intervention The math activity
Godes, O., of whether a utility experiments, 1 conducted increased perceptions did not require
Hendricks, B. L., Wisconsin, value intervention in laboratory and the of utility value and deeper level of
& Harackiewicz, Madison influenced interest other in a college interest, especially for processing or
J. M. (2010). and performance classroom, utility value students who are were complex thinking.
on a task, and was manipulated through low in expected Furthermore, the
whether this a writing task in which (laboratory) or actual analysis of interest
intervention had participants were asked (classroom) was constrained to
different effects to explain how the performance. an emotional-
depending on an material they were Moreover, the utility focused situational
individual’s learning (math or value explained the interest scale.
performance psychology) was relevant effects of the Future research
expectations or to their lives (or not). intervention on interest needs to clarify the
prior performance. Mediation analysis was and predicted effects of relevance
used to achieve the goal performance. intervention on
of the study. other measures of
interest that may
include measures of
knowledge and
values.
Hecht, C. A., University This study tested In study 1, the Engaging in any type of
Grande, M. R., of utility value researchers manipulated utility-value writing
& Harackiewicz, Wisconsin, manipulations whether the participants improved performance
J. M. (2021) Madison under conditions received utility value on a test of the
in which it was information during a material-overall, and
expected that the learning session. In study specifically, for less
manipulations to 2, same utility value confident participants –
promote the information were replicating previous
development of provided to some research. Generally,
interest. participants in study 1, this study suggests
and then manipulated that, under the right
whether they wrote one conditions,
of three kinds of essays emphasizing utility
about the utility value of value can catalyze the
the task. interest-development
process
Chiu, C. M., & Taiwan The researchers Survey questionnaires Performance
Wang, E. T. extended the were administered to 286 expectancy, effort
(2008). Unified Theory of respondents, SEM was expectancy, computer
Acceptance and employed to come up self-efficacy,
Use of Technology with the model. attainment value,
(UTAUT) by utility value, and
introducing intrinsic value were
subjective task significant predictors of
value individual’s intentions

47
 to continue using Web-
based learning. The
results suggested the
the beneficial effect of
positive subjective task
value on stimulating
learners’ intentions to
continue Web-based
learning, which is as
important as
performance
expectancy and effort
expectancy
Harackiewicz, J. United Field experiment Three-part intervention The intervention led Motivational theory
M., Rozek, C. S., States was conducted to consisted of two students whose can be applied to
Hulleman, C. S., test whether a brochures mailed to parents were in the the pipeline
& Hyde, J. S. theory-based parents and a Website, all experimental group to problem.
(2012) intervention that highlighting the take, on average,
was designed to usefulness of STEM nearly one semester
help parents courses. more of science and
convey the mathematics in the last
importance of 2 years of high school,
mathematics and compared with the
science courses to control group. Parents
their high school- are an untapped
aged children resource for increasing
would lead them STEM motivation in
to take more adolescents.
mathematics and
science courses in
high school .
Rozek, C. S., United The researchers The continuation of the It was found in this Motivational
Svoboda, R. C., States evaluated the previous study study the intervention intervention with
Harackiewicz, J. long-term effects improved mathematics parents can have
M., Hulleman, of theory-based and science important effects on
C. S., & Hyde, J. intervention standardized test STEM preparation in
S. (2017). scores on a college high school, as well
preparatory as downstream
examinations (ACT) for effects on STEM
adolescents. Greater career pursuit in the
high school STEM future.
preparation was
associated with
increased STEM career
pursuit 5 years after
the intervention. The
results suggested that
the intervention can
affect STEM career
pursuit indirectly by
increasing high-school
STEM preparation

48
49