PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING OF SOME SECONDARY METABOLITE CONTENT

OF TWO FOOD WASTE GENERATED IN FOOD MARKET

(A CASE STUDY OF OJA-OBA ISEYIN, OYO STATE.)

BY

DAUDA AMINAT OLUWADAMILOLA

21/SLT/035

SUBMITTED TO
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY
FACULTY OF SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY
SAF POLYTECHNIC, ISEYIN, OYO STATE, NIGERIA.

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY.

SEPTEMBER, 2023.
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that project was carried out by DAUDA AMINAT OLUWADAMILOLA
with matriculation number 21/SLT/035 in the partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award
of NATIONAL DIPLOMA in department of SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY,
SAF POLYTECHNIC ISEYIN, OYO STATE, NIGERIA.

…………………………………... …………………...........
Mrs. Ganiyu Date
Project Supervisor

......................................................... .........................................
Mr. Adeoti Date
Head of Department

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 DEDICATION

This project is dedicated to one whom all dignity, honor, and glory are due unique and perfect
attributes, for his guidance and protection over my life to witness the end of this research work.
May God continue to shower his blessings on me.

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I give glory and honor to Almighty God for sparing my life for a successful pursuance of
this course.
My utmost thanks goes to my parent Mr & Mrs DAUDA for their support during the course
of my study, may God blessed them abundantly
My profound gratitude also goes to my project supervisor Mrs Ganiyu who has taken her time
to supervise and being extremely supportive, providing valuable guidance and support along the
way from ( day 1 ) I really appreciate thank u ma and my appreciation also goes to Our
honourably (HOD) Mr. Adeoti, Miss. Bashiru S.A, Mr. Obadara, Mr. Adeseun, Mr. Mutairu and
those I couldn't mention their names. May God bless you all.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Certification.....................................................................................................................................ii
Dedication......................................................................................................................................iii
Acknowledgment............................................................................................................................iv
Abstract...........................................................................................................................................ix
CHAPTER ONE............................................................................................................................1
Introduction......................................................................................................................................1
1.1 background of the study.............................................................................................................1
1.2 market........................................................................................................................................3
1.3 food market................................................................................................................................4
1.4 waste..........................................................................................................................................4
1.5 food waste..................................................................................................................................5
1.6 corn husk....................................................................................................................................5
1.6.1 nutritional benefit of corn husk...............................................................................................6
1.6.2 medicinal uses of corn husk....................................................................................................7
1.6.3 botanical description of corn husk..........................................................................................7
1.7 onion peel...................................................................................................................................9
1.7.1 nutritional benefit of onion peel.............................................................................................9
1.7.2 medicinal uses of onion peel.................................................................................................10
1.7.3 botanical description of onion peel.......................................................................................11
1.8 aim and objectives...................................................................................................................13
CHAPTER TWO.........................................................................................................................14
Literature review............................................................................................................................14
2.1 phytochemical composition in plant........................................................................................14
2.2. Phytochemical screening........................................................................................................14
2.3. Flavonoids...............................................................................................................................15
2.3.1. Flavonols..............................................................................................................................16
2.3.2. Flavones...............................................................................................................................16
2.3.3. Anthocyanins.......................................................................................................................17
2.4. Alkaloids.................................................................................................................................17

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2.5. Phenols....................................................................................................................................18
2.6. Saponins..................................................................................................................................19
2.7. Glycosides...............................................................................................................................19
2.8. Polyphenols.............................................................................................................................20
CHAPTER THREE.....................................................................................................................21
materials and method.....................................................................................................................21
3.1 materials...................................................................................................................................21
3.1.1 chemicals and reagents.........................................................................................................21
3.2 methods....................................................................................................................................21
3.2.2 preparation of crude extract..................................................................................................21
3.2.3 preparation of meyer’s reagent.............................................................................................21
3.2.4 test for flavonoid...................................................................................................................22
3.2.5 test for alkaloid.....................................................................................................................22
3.2.6 test for phenol.......................................................................................................................22
3.2.7 test for saponin......................................................................................................................22
CHAPTER FOUR.......................................................................................................................23
4.1 result........................................................................................................................................23
4.2 discussion.................................................................................................................................24
CHAPTER FIVE.........................................................................................................................25
5.1 conclusion................................................................................................................................25
5.2 recommendation......................................................................................................................25
reference.........................................................................................................................................26

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 LIST OF PLATE
Plate 1.1 Diagram of Corn husk ……………………………………………………...….………8
Plate 1.2 Diagram of Onion …………………………………...……………………....………...12

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 LIST OF TABLE
Table 4.1: Onion peel(Allium Cepa) …………………………………………….……………....23
Table 4.2: corn husk (Zea Mays) …………………………………………………………………….….23

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 ABSTRACT
The bioactive contents of agro-industrial residues, and especially the phenolic compounds
in fruit and vegetable waste, are gaining attention in the food industry. The outer layers of fruit
and vegetables include husks, peel and shells, which are mostly discarded, although these can
contain higher contents of phenolic compounds than the inner parts, as they are designed to
protect the plant parts from various external damaging factors. Phytochemical screening on corn
husk (Zea Mays) and onion peel (Allium Cepa) was done by using standard procedure. The husk
and peel was harvested, dried and grinded to increase surface area for reaction. It was soaked in
ethanol for 15 to 17 days before sample was subjected to analytical produre and the result
showed the presence of flavonoid, alkaloid, phenol, Saponin at moderate and high quantity.

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
Continuous growth of the global population is causing increasing demands for food, rapid
urbanisation and effective waste management. New approaches and alternative strategies to
waste disposal are required for the linear production chains that dominate the food industry,
which also need to be focussed on the potential re-use of such waste. The accumulation of
agro-industrial residues has already been shown to be an enormous environmental issue (Maji
et al., 2020).
Due to the high lignocellulosic content of agro-industrial waste, some of the proposed
strategies for its re-use relate to wastewater treatment (BhatnagarSillanpää, 2010) and
bioenergy production (Basso et al., 2016). In 2016, the European Union generated 95.3
million tonnes of bio-waste from agriculture and food production, which amounted to 4% of
all waste produced. The predominant bio-waste treatments were recycling (90%, including
composting and anaerobic digestion) and energy recovery (5%) (Eurostat, 2017). These
waste-management treatments are more efficient and environmentally sound than landfilling
and incineration. However, such diverse agro-industrial bio-waste material should be fully
exploited before its biodegradation and/or conversion to energy, as these final operations can
destroy many valuable components.
The bioactive contents of agro-industrial residues, and especially the phenolic compounds
in fruit and vegetable waste, are gaining attention in the food industry. The outer layers of
fruit and vegetables include husks, peel and shells, which are mostly discarded, although
these can contain higher contents of phenolic compounds than the inner parts, as they are
designed to protect the plant parts from various external damaging factors (de Simon et al.,
1992, Manach et al., 2004). A good example here is the onion, where the skin (i.e., the outer
scaly leaves or peel, the outer tunics) contains a higher content of flavonoids than the edible
part (Suh et al., 1999). This is the result of exposure to sunlight and the consequent higher
synthesis of flavonoids, which provide protection against UV radiation (Lee et al., 2008).
After tomatoes, onions (Allium cepa L.) are the most common harvested fresh vegetable as
such, onion residues are one of the many fruit and vegetable cuttings and similar biomass
residues that arise mainly at the level of processing or sale (Sharma et al., 2016), where an
external contractor obtains and/or further processes the raw materials, and frequently this raw
material might be sourced from several agricultural producers. Under the EU waste

1
legislation (Directive 2008/98/EC and corresponding EU and member states acts), once the
residues are generated at this secondary level, they cannot be returned to the primary
producer for e.g. soil incorporation or other types of utilisation where they could be used in a
truly circular manner. Furthermore, the residues are unsuitable for use as fodder (Sharma et
al., 2016) and are therefore collected, stored and processed as waste. When the material has
moved on into the waste management system, its further use as food and similar functional
ingredients to reach low-waste food production targets is not possible. The waste
management is also an economic problem for the producer, as the disposal costs of onion
waste are high (En, 2017).
Due to considerable amounts of onion waste and its many environmental and economic
implications, several studies are dealing with the valorisation of onion residues and onion
waste, including applications for food ingredients, serving as dietary sources of nutritive
elements and essential fatty acids (Bello et al; 2013) simple and complex carbohydrates, such
as fructoligosaccharides, gelling pectins and low-lignin raw dietary fibre (Babbar et al.,
2016), as well as aromatic and bioactive compounds (Choi et al., 2015).
The major by-products that result from industrial processing of onions are: the onion skin,
the outer two fleshy leaves, and the top and bottom trimmings of the bulb. These vegetable
parts can be used as a natural, cheap and easily accessible source of antioxidants (e.g., mostly
flavonoids) for food fortification. Furthermore, separate and relatively well-defined fractions
of vegetable parts can be obtained from the processing facility due to the nature of the onion
processing (removal of the fleshy leaves at the field or prior loading into the peeler, trimming
of the top and bottom of the bulb prior skin removal, obtaining onion skin by water/air
removal) (Sharma et al., 2016).
Onion skin is abundant in the flavonoids kaempferol and quercetin, in both their aglycone
and glycone forms (Albishi et al., 2013). Quercetin and the other typical flavonoids in
discarded onion waste are of interest due to their bioactive properties and potentially
beneficial effects, as they can show anti-obesity, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and
anticancer activities. Quercetin accounts for more than 85% of the total flavonoids in mature
onions (Price and Rhodes, 1997), and thus it represents a suitable model bioactive compound
for the study of the exploitation of onion waste.
Quercetin itself has a citron yellow crystal form that is insoluble in water, although it is
relatively soluble in lipids and alcohol (Li et al., 2016). Its anticancer properties in vitro and
in vivo have been shown (Hashemzaei et al., 2017), as well as its antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory activities (Lesjak et al., 2018). Onion skin extracts have shown antimicrobial
2
effects against Bacillus cereus, a Gram-positive and spore-forming bacterium that represents
a risk to food safety (Kim et al., 2011), and also against the Gram-negative bacteria
Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas fluorescens (Škerget et al., 2009).
Due to this rich bioactive content of onion skin and the antimicrobial properties and health
benefits of quercetin, onion skin has been recognized as a novel ingredient that can be
incorporated into different foods. (Sęczyk et al. (2015) reported fortification of bean paste
with an extract of onion skin, which resulted in higher antioxidant activity of the paste, while
(Gawlik-Dziki et al. (2013) added onion skin powder to reduce the amount of wheat flour to
obtain bread with satisfactory consumer acceptability.
However, one of the most popular oral dosing forms among consumers are tablets, due to
their easy handling and ingestion (Cronin et al., 2015, Garrido (Makinistian et al., 2020). The
formulation of health supplement tablets using cactus flour and microalgae (Chlorella spp.)
biomass (Osorio-Fierros et al., 2017), guava and pitaya fruit powder (Zea et al., 2013), and
maqui berry powder (Garrido Makinistian et al., 2020) has been reported. Furthermore,
during compaction the powders decrease considerably in volume and form structurally stable
tablets at a specified tensile strength (Aziz et al., 2018, (Garrido Makinistian et al., 2020),
(Osorio-Fierros et al., 2017), which might offer better storage options than storage of bulk
powders.

1.2 Market

A market is a place where parties can gather to facilitate the exchange of goods and
services. The parties involved are usually buyers and sellers. The market may be physical,
like a retail outlet, where people meet face-to-face, or virtual, like an online market, where
there is no physical presence or contact between buyers and sellers. This is a place where
discarded or unwanted product are been generated at very low cost rather than dumping and
landfilling as inputs in developing or reforming nutrient supplements.
A market is defined as the sum total of all the buyers and sellers in the area or region
under consideration. The area may be the earth, or countries, regions, states, or cities. The
value, cost and price of items traded are as per forces of supply and demand in a market. The
market may be a physical entity, or may be virtual. It may be local or global, perfect and
imperfect. A market can be called the 'available market' - that of all the people in the area.
Within the available market, there is the 'market minimum' or the market size, which will buy
goods without any marketing effort. This is the lowest sale that a company could get without

3
any action on its part (Bennet et al; 2023). In today's world, this level is sinking ever lower.
There is also the 'market potential', which is the maximum market size that will buy goods
when subjected to the greatest marketing action that a company can do. Beyond this market
potential, the costs outweigh the gains. The market potential is therefore the upper limit for a
marketplace and sales (Bennet et al; 2023).

1.3 Food market

A food market is a marketplace or retail establishment where consumers can purchase

various food products. These products can range from fresh produce, meats, dairy products to
packaged and prepared meals. Food markets can exist in various forms, such as supermarkets,
grocery stores, farmer's markets, or online food delivery services. They play a vital role in
agriculture and food distribution systems, often dictating pricing and availability based on
supply and demand (stands et al; 2023).
Food waste comprise the total edible parts of plants and animals (food) that are produced
and harvested for consumption by humans, but in the end are not consumed by humans
(Lipinski et al. 2013; Parfitt et al. 2010). Therefore, food which was produced for the
intention of human consumption but is then redirected to other uses such as bioenergy or
animal feed is still counted as food loss and waste. This is also a place where perishable
Product can be found like vegetables, fruit, corn husk, onion peel, bean husk that are
discarded as unwanted food waste.
1.4 waste

In recent times, the rate and quantity of waste generation have been on the increase.As
the volume of wastes increases, so also does the variety of the waste increases (Vergara et al;
2012). Unlike the pre historic period where wastes were merely a source of nuisance that
needed to be disposed of. Proper management was not a major issue as the population was
small and a vast amount of land was available to the population at that time.In those days, the
environment easily absorbed the volume of waste produced without any form of degradation
(Tchobanoglous et al, 1993). Waste is a product or substance which is no longer suited for its
intended use. Whereas in natural ecosystems waste (i.e. oxygen, carbon dioxide and dead
organic matter) is used as food or a reactant, waste materials resulting from human activities
are often highly resilient and take a long time to decompose.

4
1.5 Food waste

Food waste is a source as it generate enormous energy, chemical and materials potential
due to the functionalized molecules stored in it. Food waste are unwanted or unstable
materials discarded after primary use, or is worthless, defective of no use and characterized as
a waste that do not add valve to product where as by product is a secondary product obtained
as a result of manufacturing main product often with a market valve (OEC et al; 2022). Food
waste refers to food that is fit for consumption but consciously discarded at the retail or
consumption phases (Harvard et al; 2023). The food waste generated during different
research from various sources includes: yam peels.,plantain peels, egusi shell, groundnt peel,
onion peel, corn husk, cowpea husk, cassava peel, cocoyam peel which consist of
carbonhydrates, protein, lipids, and traces of Inorganic compounds. The two main food waste
generated at oja-Oba market are: corn husk (zea may) and onion peel (allium cepa).

1.6 Corn husk

Corn husk is the part of the plant that protects the corn kernel.
On the other hand, the increasing amount of corn husk waste has become one of the problems
that have not been properly resolved until now. Corn husks are the part that cover and protect
the ears of corn and it is the strongest part of the corn plant as its nature is to protect the
seeds. It is found that the corn husk fiber has unique properties such as good pliability,
moderate strength, durability, longevity and high moisture retention which is applicable as a
weaving material (Linda Ulrich, 2004).
This production of natural based fibers from the waste of corn husks is eco-friendly and
ergonomic, therefore, it gives benefits to the society towards sustainability of the
environment and the economy particularly. Corn is a well-grown plant in Nigeria which
provides the supply of food base and also feedlot for animals. Usually only the eyes of corn
are commercialized, whereby, the husks are burnt or left abundantly as a waste. Of course this
creates pollution to the environment (Linda Ulrich, 2004). Corn husk has a high cellulose
fiber content, so it can be used as a raw material for making paper. The chemical composition
of corn husk includes 15% lignin; 5.09% ash; 4.57% alcohol-cyclohexane and 44.08%
cellulose. The results of chemical analysis of corn cobs contain hemicellulose 30.91%; alpha
cellulose 26.81%; lignin 15.52%; 39.80% carbon; nitrogen 2.12% and water content 8.38%.
The pulping process can use non-wood raw materials, one of which is corn husk agricultural
waste. Development pulp from chicken feathers and corn (jcom, 2022)

5
 Corn husk can serve as both food and natural source of antibiotics for animals during the
dry season since it can stay for long period without decaying Using bio waste materials like
corn husk, numerous experiment have been performed to strengthen polymers with respect to
different qualities for variety of application composition materials have been made with
cornhusk. The phytochemicals present in corn husk includes polyphenols, phenolic,
flavoniods, glycosides, polysaccharides of reducing compounds and some water Soluble
vitamins, The most abundant mineral elements in zea may's husk were calcium, sulphur and
potassium which are essential mineral Content necessary for animals life.

1.6.1 Nutritional benefit of corn husk

It turns out that the skin, which tends to be rough in texture, is also useful as a mask. Corn
husk contains vitamin C which can be used to whiten the face. The skin will experience good
regeneration so that it can make you look younger. The trick is to choose a young skin, grate
the contents of the corn but don't get to the cob, grind the grated contents together with the
corn husks, then use it as a mask and let it dry. To get maximum results use this mask about
once a week. In addition to brightening the face, corn husk masks can also be used to prevent
pimples from appearing. For those of you who have problems with acne, especially on the
face, it's a good idea to try to make a mask from this corn husk. Likewise, if used as a facial
brightener, to get maximum results, use this mask once a week (Jumark, 2023).
Corn husk fiber contains vitamin K which can increase blood clotting ability. Clotting of
the blood is very functional so as not to experience heavy bleeding and is accompanied by
excessive blood loss in the event of an injury. Diabetes can occur because the production of
insulin in the body is not balanced. The fiber in corn husk can control the occurrence of
diabetes because it can lower blood sugar levels in the body. The fiber in corn husk is very
beneficial for health, one of which is that it can lower cholesterol. Corn fiber can expel
cholesterol that has accumulated in the arteries and will throw it out thereby lowering
cholesterol. It can also be healthy for digestion because it plays a role in increasing the
production of healthy digestive juices, so that it can nourish digestion and can increase
appetite. (Jumark, 2023) However, Corn husk fiber can control excessive cholesterol and fat
in the human body, so that it can help prevent heart disease and those related to the heart
(Jumark, 2023).

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1.6.2 Medicinal uses of corn husk

Corn husk is often used to wrap tamales, a traditional Central and South American dish
made of cornmeal dough filled with meat or vegetables.
It can also be used to make traditional Mexican toys, such as dolls and animal figures. Corn
husk can be used as a natural, biodegradable alternative to plastic wrap, as it can be used to
cover and protect food while it is being cooked or store ,Shuck can be dyed and dried to
create colorful accents for crafts and floral arrangements. (Zahid Ahmed, 2023).
In some cultures, corn husks are believed to have anti-inflammatory and diuretic
properties, and are sometimes used to treat ailments such as wounds, infections, and kidney
problems. Corn husks can be ground up and used as a filling for pillows and cushions. Corn
husks can be used as fuel for cooking and heating. They burn slowly and release a pleasant
aroma. Corn husk can be used as a natural, biodegradable alternative to plastic wrap, as they
can be used to cover and protect food while it is being cooked or stored. Corn husk is a
versatile and useful byproduct of the corn industry. It can also be used for decorative
purposes. They can be dyed and dried to create colorful accents for crafts and floral
arrangements (zahid Ahmed , 2023).

1.6.3 Botanical description of corn husk

Corn Husks are the outside green leaves on a cob of corn, that we usually peel off and
discard. You can use them, fresh or dried, as packages to wrap food in for cooking — usually
steaming. They give the food a wonderful corn flavour. Normally the husks are dried and
stored for cooking (Amazon, 2023).
Kingdom Plantae (plants)
Subkingdom Tracheobionta (vascular plants)
Superdivision Spermatophyta (seed plants)
Division Magnoliophyta (flowering plants)
Class Liliopsida (monocotyledons)
Subclass Commelinidae
Order Cyperales
Family Poaceae / Gramineae (grass family)
Tribe Andropogoneae
Genus Zea L.
Species Zea mays L. (Australian, 2008).

7
Plate 1.1 Diagram of Corn husk

8
1.7 Onion peel

Onion peels are powerful antioxidants and are rich in fibre, vitamin A, vitamin C, and
vitamin E. They are good for the skin and hair and help improve your eyesight. Here are
some of the ways to use onion peels.Most people hate peeling onions as it makes their eyes
watery. However, you might not hate it once you find the benefits of these peels. Onion peels
have good nutrition content and are helpful in many ways. Onion is the most common
vegetable that you can find in your house. So the next time you peel it off, remember to make
the most out of it (Elsevier B.V.2023).
Huge quantities of byproducts/wastes generated in onion processing are usually
discarded, but they are excellent sources of bioactive compounds and phytochemicals.
However, with growing interest in the sustainable use of resources and the circular economy
to reduce adverse impacts on the environment, food processing wastes such as onion
peel/skin can be extracted and employed as inputs in developing or reformulating nutrient
supplements, and pharmacological drugs (Elsevier B.V.2023).

1.7.1 Nutritional benefit of onion peel

Onion peels have antifungal properties and help ease the itchiness on your skin, rashes
and athlete’s foot. You can apply the onion peel water on your skin ,Onion peels are
beneficial for skin and hair so you don’t throw away the peel. Drinking onion peel tea can be
helpful for your skin and health. It controls obesity, high blood pressure, and infections and
boosts your immune system. You need to boil the onion peels for about 10 to 20 minutes in
water. Strain the peels and drink this healthy cup of tea. Onion peels have antifungal
properties and help ease the itchiness on your skin, rashes and athlete’s foot. You can apply
the onion peel water on your skin to get relief. You can hide your grey hair using these onion
peels, which are rich in sulphur. It turns your grey hair into golden brown by nourishing hair
follicles.
In addition, this will promote your hair growth too. Heat onion peels on a medium flame
until it gets black or charred. Grind these peels to get a smooth powder, and add some aloe
vera gel or oil. Apply it directly as a hair dye and cover your grey hair. Onion peels are great
and easiest for making compost without any per-treatment. They contain phosphorus,
potassium, iron, calcium, and magnesium. Onion peels are great flavouring agents. You can
enhance the taste and colour of your dishes by You can add onion peels while boiling stock,
soup and gravy. This helps in giving a vibrant colour and also thickens the gravy. Don’t forget

9
to remove the peels once you are done boiling (Sunshmita Sharna, 2022). Next time you
throw onion peels, make sure to put them to good use. You can use it as tea, hair dye and
toner, a flavouring agent, and a compost. However, before using it, ensure these peels are free
from chemical treatments and pesticides (Sunshmita Sharna, 2022). The outer skins of onion
and garlic provide an excellent source of vitamins A, C, E, and numerous antioxidants. The
skins of onions are also a rich source of flavonoids, particularly quercetin, a potent
antioxidant and anti-inflammatory.

1.7.2 Medicinal Uses of onion peel

Peels contains more antioxidants which manage the free radical infection. The increment
of free radicals in the body lowers the body’s immunity. When Adding onion peels in the
water for 10 minutes. Boil it and gargle. It helps to lower the inflammation in throat with its
anti-inflammatory properties. The dry and ungrowing hair could be treated with the use of
onion peels. Mix onion peels in water and boil. Then wash hair with regular shampoo. Then
rinse hair with this solution so that hair becomes soft, smooth and also eliminates dandruff.
Onion skin has healing properties so it is helpful in treating rashes, skin inflammation
and itching. Rub onion peels on infected area to get an instant relief. Boil onion peels in
water for about 15 to 20 minutes. Strain the water and drink it as tea before going to sleep for
about one week. It possesses healing properties that lowers the pain in legs. A tea made with
onion peels helps to suppress obesity, lower allergies, infections and high blood pressure.To
provide relief from muscle cramps, drink an infusion made from onion skins before going to
bed.
Onion’s skin has anti-fungal properties that provide relief from itchy skin problems such
as athlete’s foot. Onion tea with turmeric helps to lighten dark skin, onion tea also provides
relief from toothache.It assists healing of wounds and insect bites, Intake of onion tea wipes
out worms in intestine and prevents vomiting, stomach cramps, nausea and expels parasites
(Natalie Lavolpe, 2022).

10
1.7.3 Botanical description of onion peel

Onion, (Allium cepa), herbaceous biennial plant ,the onion is likely native to
southwestern Asia but is now grown throughout the world, chiefly in the temperate zones.
Onions are low in nutrients but are valued for their flavour and are used widely in cooking.
They add flavour to such dishes as stews, roasts, soups, and salads and are also served as a
cooked vegetable.
An onion is a multicellular (consisting of many cells) plant organism.As in all plant cells, the
cell of an onion peel consists of a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus and a large
vacuole. The nucleus is present at the periphery of the cytoplasm. The vacuole is prominent
and present at the centre of the cell (Melissa Petruzzello, 2023).

Kingdom. Plantae
Order. Asparagales
Family. Alliaceae
Genus. Allium
Species. A.Cepa

11
Plate 1.2 Diagram of Onion Peel

12
1.8 Aim and objectives

1.8.1 Aim:
To determine the phytochemical composition and some metabolite constituent in
crude extract of corn husk (Zea Mays) and onion peel (Allium Cepa).

1.8.2 objectives:
The objectives of this project research are;
 To collect freshly harvested mature corn husk (Zea mays) and onion peel (Allium
Cepa) at Oja-Oba market.
 To prepared crude extract of corn husk (Zea Mays) and onion peel (Allium Cepa)
 To carryout phytochemical screening on corn husk (Zea Mays) and onion peel (Allium
Cepa)
 Compare the results of this analysis of other research and required nutrients allowance
standard.
 Recommendations and suggestion for further research based on the result obtained
from this analysis.

13
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 phytochemical composition in plant

Phytochemicals literally mean “plant chemicals.” Scientists have identified thousands

of different phytochemicals, found in vegetables, fruits, beans, whole grains, nuts and
seeds. Eating lots of plant foods rich in phytochemicals may help to prevent at least one in
every five causes of cancer, as well as other serious ailments such as heart disease
Fruit and vegetable waste is a rich source of phytochemicals i.e. naturally occurring
bioactive secondary plant metabolites possessing antioxidant properties; the high antioxidant
activity in this waste is well established (Laufenberg et al., 2003). Antioxidant activity
confers health benefits such as protection from cardiovascular problems, cancers and a
variety of degenerative diseases (Xu and Howard, 2012). The global phytochemicals market
report (Transparency Market Research, 2021) indicates that ,there is a growing demand for
antioxidant compounds that can be segmented on the basis of form (powder and liquid
derivatives), functionality (carotenoids, phytosterols, flavonoids etc.) or application
(functional food and beverages, dietary supplements, wellness and personal care products,
pharmaceuticals, cosmeceuticals and animal nutrition). Previous studies on phytochemicals
recovery have focused primarily on waste from individual fruits and vegetables (Nayak et al.,
2015, Sogi et al., 2013), farm produces (Almeida et al., 2011, Ribeiro et al., 2008) and waste
from processing industrial(Makris et al., 2007, Peschel et al., 2006). Phytochemists study
phytochemicals by first extracting and isolating compounds from the origin plant, followed
by defining their structure or testing in laboratory model systems, such as in vitro studies
using cell lines or in vivo studies using laboratory animals.(Makris et al., 2007, Peschel et al.,
2006).Challenges in that field include isolating specific compounds and determining their
structures, which are often complex, and identifying what specific phytochemical is primarily
responsible for any given biological activity.(Harborne et al.,1999).

2.2. Phytochemical screening

Phytochemical screening is another name for this process. These extracts are made from plant
samples rich in secondary metabolites such as the leaves and stems, roots, and bark of the
plants studied. The secondary metabolites, such as alkaloids, terpenes, and flavonoids, are

14
then examined in the plant extracts. Serve the plants by contributing some secondary
functions like; helps in plant growth, safeguarding the plants by activating defense
mechanism, imparting color, odor, and flavor to the plants (Molyneux et al. 2007). Natural
products and their derivatives exhibit minimal side effects and improved efficacy than other
synthetic counterparts (Batiha et al. 2020). These plant-derived components like flavonoids,
quinine, terpenoid, etc conduct certain biological functions that enhance therapeutic activities
such as anti-carcinogenic, anti-mutagenic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties
(Batiha et al. 2020).
Phytochemical screening is the scientific process of analyzing, examining, extracting,
experimenting, and thus identifying different classes of phytoconstituents present in various
parts of the base for the discovery of drugs, the active components could be further taken for
investigation and research. The process was qualitative which is termed phytochemical
screening. The outcome of the research could be fruitful in developing potent drugs against
various diseases. (Batiha et al; 2020). Corn husk contains various beneficial phytochemicals
such as polyphenols, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, glycosides, polysaccharides of
reducing compounds and water soluble vitamins. The husk of Zea mays is particularly rich in
essential mineral content including calcium, sulfur and potassium that are crucial for animal
life. On the other hand, onion Peel contains numerous phytochemicals such as carbohydrates,
glycosides, proteins, alkaloids, saponins and acid compounds..

2.3. Flavonoids

Flavonoids are important group of polyphenols widely distributed among the plant flora.
Stucturally, they are made of more than one benzene ring in its structure (a range of C15
aromatic compounds) and numerous reports support their use as antioxidants or free radical
(Kar, 2007). The compounds are derived from parent compounds known as flavans. Over
four thousand flavonoids are known to exist and some of them are pigments in higher plants.
Quercetin, kaempferol and quercitrin are common flavonoids present in nearly 70% of plants.
Other group of flavonoids include flavones, dihydroflavons, flavans, flavonols,
anthocyanidins, proanthocyanidins, calchones and catechin and leucoanthocyanidins.
Flavonoids are the most abundant polyphenols in human diet, representing about 2/3 of all
those ones ingested. Like other phytochemicals, they are the products of secondary
metabolism of plants and, currently, it is not possible to determine precisely their number,
even if over 4000 have been identified.

15
In fruits and vegetables, they are usually found in the form of glycosides and sometimes as
acyl glycosides, while acylated, methylated and sulfate molecules are less frequent and in
lower concentrations.They are water-soluble and accumulate in cell vacuoles.(Kar, 2007)

2.3.1. Flavonols

These types of flavonoids are known for their antioxidant properties. They may help manage
symptoms of cardiovascular disease. Flavanols are found in these foods: onions, grapes and
red wine, tea, berries, tomatoes, Flavan-3-ol
Foods with these types of flavonoids are very rich in nutrients. Flavonols (3-
hydroxyflavones) are one the most analyzed subgroup of flavonoids due to the importance
referring to their antioxidant proper-ties and other biological activities. This class of
polyphenolic phytochemicals occurs in commonly consumed vegetables, fruits and plant
based beverages. Major sources of these compounds are part of grape berries, apple, tomato,
onion, broccoli and red lettuce. In addition to fruits and vegetables, beverages such as green
tea, black tea and red wine constitute also a significant source of flavonols (Pascual Teresa's,
2010). Flavonols ensure plentiful health benefits. For instance, the intake of flavonols in
increased quantities is related to reduced risk of cardiovascular diseases (maatta Rilhinen KR,
2005).
Foods with these types of flavonoids are very rich in nutrients. They include white tea
green tea
apples
blueberries
strawberries
cocoa and chocolate products.

2.3.2. Flavones

Flavones are the pigments in blue and white flowering plants. They also work as a
natural pesticide, protecting leaves from harmful insects. Flavones may also help with
inflammation in the body. You can find them in: red peppers, peppermint and Flavonones are
known for their inflammatory properties. They may also help you manage your weight and
cholesterol, they are found in these foods: lemons, limes, oranges, grapefruit while
isoflavones may keep hormones balance in your body.Flavones are very similar structurally

16
to flavonol compounds, having an extra hydroxyl substitution at the carbon 3-position. The
major flavones are included apigenin and luteolin occurs in vegetables and fruits such as
broccoli, celery, carrots, parsley, onion leaves, cabbages, peppers, chrysanthemum flowers,
and apple skins (Liny,2008). While apigenin can be found in onions, parsley, wheat sprouts,
tea, oranges, chamomile, and in some seasonings (Patel D, 2007).

2.3.3. Anthocyanins

Anthocyanins are generally accepted as the largest and most important group of water-
soluble pigments in nature (Harborne, 1998). They are responsible for the blue, purple, red
and orange colors of many fruits and vegetables. The word anthocyanin derived from two
Greek words: anthos, which means flowers, and kyanos, which means dark blue (Horbowicz
et al., 2008). Major sources of anthocyanins are blueberries, cherries, raspberries,
strawberries, black currants, purple grapes and red wine (Mazza, 2007). They belong to the
family of compounds known as flavonoids, but they are distinguished from other flavonoids
due to their capacity to form flavylium cations (Mazza, 2007). Anthocyanins are naturally
produced pigments that give flowers their red, purple, and blue color. They’re predominantly
found in the outer skin of berries and berry products like:Red and Purple grapes e.g Red wine

2.4. Alkaloids

These are the largest group of phytochemical constituents made largely of ammonia
compounds comprising basically of nitrogen bases synthesized from amino acid building
blocks with various radicals replacing one or more of the hydrogen atoms in the peptide ring,
most containing oxygen. The compounds have basic properties and are alkaline in reaction,
turning red litmus paper blue. In fact, one or more nitrogen atoms that are present in an
alkaloid, typically as 1°, 2° or 3° amines, contribute to the basicity of the alkaloid. The degree
of basicity varies considerably, depending on the structure of the molecule, and presence and
location of the functional groups (Sarker and Nahar, 2007). They react with acids to form
crystalline salts without the production of water (Firn, 2010). Majority of alkaloids exist in
solid such as atropine, some as liquids containing carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Most
alkaloids are readily soluble in alcohol and though they are sparingly soluble in water, their
salts of are usually soluble. The solutions of alkaloids are intensely bitter. These nitrogenous
compounds function in the defence of plants against herbivores and pathogens, and are

17
widely exploited as pharmaceuticals, stimulants, narcotics, and poisons due to their potent
biological activities.
Alkaloids are organic compounds made naturally by plants that contain nitrogen. These
plant alkaloids typically have physiological effects on humans when they are consumed.
These physiological effects range from light stimulants such as caffeine to poisons such as
coniine (the poison in hemlock). Alkaloids have been utilized from plants (as medication, or
poison) for millennia. Today, where the pure structures of alkaloids can be identified, the
official alkaloids definition is a cyclic compound that contains nitrogen, which is found in
living organisms. Typically alkaloids are basic and can accept hydrogen because the nitrogen
is in the neutral state. Alkaloids are synthesized in plants starting with amino acids, which
provides the needed nitrogen for the alkaloid structure (Nahar, 2007). An alkaloid is a
naturally occurring, organic substance, that contains nitrogen and typically a ring structure. It
is basic and can accept protons in reactions. Most commercially available alkaloids are
directly derived from plants, but a few such as caffeine can be synthetically made as well.
The structure of an alkaloid will consist of at least one nitrogen atom, with no charge,
somewhere on the compound. The structure will also have one or more ring structures
present. Examples of alkaloids include:
Caffeine
Quinine
Morphine
Cocaine
Oxycodone
Heroin
Alkaloids are used in many applications, including many medical applications. This includes
a pain treatment (morphine and oxycodone), an anti-muscarinic such as with mushroom
poisoning (atropine), and an anti-malaria drug (quinine) (Laura Foist, 2022).

2.5. Phenols

Phenolics, phenols or polyphenolics (or polyphenol extracts) are

chemical components that occur ubiquitously as natural colour pigments responsible for the
colour of fruits of plants. Phenolics in plants are mostly synthesized from phenylalanine via
the action of phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL). They are very important to plants and have

18
multiple functions. The most important role may be in plant defence against pathogens and
herbivore predators, and thus are applied in the control of human pathogenic infections (Kar,
2007). They are classified into (i) phenolic acids and (ii) flavonoid polyphenolics
(flavonones, flavones, xanthones and catechins) and (iii) non-flavonoid polyphenolies.
Caffeic acid is regarded as the most common of phenolic compounds distributed in the plant
flora followed by chlorogenic acid known to cause allergic dermatitis among humans (Kar,
2007). Phenolics essentially represent a host of natural antioxidants, used as nutraceuticals,
and found in apples, green-tea, and red-wine for their enormous ability to combat cancer and
are also thought to prevent heart ailments to an appreciable degree and sometimes are anti-
inflammatory agents. Other examples include flavones, rutin, naringin, hesperidin and
chlorogenic.

2.6. Saponins

The term saponin is derived from Saponarivaccaria(Quillajasaponaria), a plant, which

abounds in saponins and was once used as soap. Saponins therefore possess ‘soaplike’
behaviour in water, i.e. they produce foam. On hydrolysis, an aglycone is produced, which is
called sapogenin. There are two types of sapogenin: steroidal and triterpenoidal (Firn, 2010).
Usually, the sugar is attached at C-3 in saponins, because in most sapogenins there is a
hydroxyl group at C-3. Quillajasaponariais known to contain toxic glycosides quillajic acid
and the sapogenin senegin. Quillajic acid is strenutatory and senegin is toxic. Senegin is also
present in Polygala senega. Saponins are regarded as high molecular weight compounds in
which, a sugar molecule is combined with triterpene or steroid aglycone. There are two major
groups of saponins and these include: steroid saponins and triterpene saponin. Saponins are
soluble in water and insoluble in ether, and like glycosides on hydrolysis, they give
aglycones. Saponins are extremely poisonous, as they cause heamolysis of blood and are
known to cause cattle poisoning (Kar, 2007). They possess a bitter and acrid taste, besides
causing irritation to mucous membranes. They are mostly amorphous in nature, soluble in
alcohol and water, but insoluble in non-polar organic solvents like benzene and n-hexane.

2.7. Glycosides

Glycosides are certain molecules in which a sugar part is bound to some other part.
Glycosides play numerous important roles in living organisms. Many plants store important
chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides; if these chemicals are needed, the glycosides are

19
brought in contact with water and an enzyme, and the sugar part is broken off, making the
chemical available for use. Many such plant glycosides are used as medications. In animals
(including humans), poisons are often bound to sugar molecules in order to remove them
from the body (wikibot , 2012).

2.8. Polyphenols

Polyphenols are a category of compounds naturally found in plant foods, such as

fruits, vegetables, herbs, spices, tea, dark chocolate, and wine. They can act as antioxidants,
meaning they can neutralize harmful free radicals that would otherwise damage your cells
and increase your risk of conditions like cancer, diabetes, and heart disease. Polyphenols are
also thought to reduce inflammation, which is thought to be the root cause of many chronic
illnesses (Alina Peter, 2019).

20
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHOD

3.1 Materials

Onion Bulb skin or peels (Allium Cepa), Maize or corn husk (Zea Mays), Funnel, Beakers
of various calibration, Filter paper, Transparent plastic jar, Burner, Weighing balance, Test
tube, Paper tape, Spatula, Dropper, Mortal and Pestle.

3.1.1 Chemicals and reagents

Ethanol, Distilled water, Ferrous chloride (Fecl), Sodium hydroxide (NaoH) and
Concentrated hydrochloric acid (Hcl), Meyer's reagent.

3.2 methods

3.2.1 Method of sample collection

Freshly harvested matured maize husk (zea may) and Onion peel(Allium Cepa) manually
removed and spotted into its layers to make it easily dried under room temperature (28 ± 3 0C)
for about 15 to 17 days . The dried maize husk (Zea May) and onion peel (Allium Cepa) was
grounded using a precleared mortar and pestle.

3.2.2 Preparation of crude extract

The grinded samples of maize husk(Zea Mays) and Onion peel(Allium Cepa) was soaked in
ethanol in large container with lid and was allowed to stand for 72hours at room temperature
and then was Filtered using filter paper. The Filtrate was taken to rotary evaporator to get
crude extract of the samples (maize husk and onion peel).

3.2.3 Preparation of Meyer’s reagent

0.34g of mercury chloride (Hgcl) was dissolved in 25mls of distilled water and 1.25g of
potassium iodine was added and dissolved.

21
3.2.4 Test for flavonoid

0.5g of extract Was dissolved in 20mls of distilled water and Filter 10% of Sodium hydroxide
(NaoH) was added to 2mls of the filtrate to give yellow coloured solution and few drops of
dilute Hydrochloric acid (HCL) was added to the solution to give colourless solution which
indicate the presence of flavonoid.

3.2.5 Test for alkaloid

0.5g of extract was dissolved in 20mls of distilled water and filtered, then few drops of
meyer's reagent was added to 1ml of the filtrate to give buff (light brownish yellow) colour
which show the presence of alkaloid.

3.2.6 Test for phenol

0.5g of extract was dissolved in 20mls of distilled water and filtered using filter paper, 0.2ml
of 10% of ferric chloride solution was added to 2ml of filtrate which gave green blue /violet
colour that indicate presence of phenolic hydroxyl group.

3.2.7 Test for saponin

0.5g of extract was dissolved in 20mls of distilled water and Filtered using Filter paper, 3ml
of distilled water was added and shaken vigorously for about 5minutes.Frothing which
Persisted on worming was taken as evidence of the present of saponin.

22
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT AND DISSCUSION

4.1 Result

The phytochemical indicated in the ethanolic extract of maize husk(Zea Mays) and Onion
peel(Allium Cepa) is shown in the table below.
Table 4.1: Onion peel(Allium Cepa)
Phytochemical constituent Result
Flavoniods ++
Alkaloids ++
Phenols ++
Saponin ++

Key
+++= Highly present
++= Moderately present
+= Tracely present
- = Absent

Table 4.2: corn husk (Zea Mays)

Phytochemical constituent Result
Flavoniod ++
Alkaloid ++
Phenol ++
Saponin +++

Key
+++= Highly present
++= Moderately present
+= Tracely present
- = Absent

23
4.2 Discussion
From the above analysis, it was discovered that flavonoid, alkaloids, phenol and saponin is
moderately present in corn husk (Zea Mays) and for Onion peel (Allium Cepa) flavonoid,
alkaloid, phenol, is moderately present only saponin is highly present, the analysis revealed
the presence of various phytochemicals. The confirmatory qualitative phytochemical
screening of plant extract was performed to identify the compound (flavonoid, alkaloids,
phenol, saponins,) that are present in the samples by following the standard protocols.
Phytochemical test was carried out to determine the present of secondary metabolite in each
samples maize husk(zea mays) and onion peel(Allium Cepa).(AI, 2023)

24
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

This project has been able to highlight the importance of corn husk (Zea mays) and onion
peel (Allium Cepa) .The phytochemicals screening in corn husk and onion peel can provide
valuable information about the presence of bioactive compounds that can be beneficial for
human health. They are compounds derived from plants that have antioxidant, anti-
inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. Corn husk and onion peel are byproducts of food
processing and are often discarded as waste. (AI, 2023)

5.2 Recommendation

Corn husk(Zea mays) contain ferullic acid, a phenolic compound that exhibit strong
antioxidants and anti inflammatory properties to prevent cancer, cardiovascular disease and
onion peels while onion peel(Allium Cepa) are rich source of dietary fiber, including both
soluble and insoluble fibers (AI, 2023). Which offers numerus benefit for skin, health and
eyes sight. However, government should announce on TV station, Radio Station and
recommend a venue or place where people will store the food waste rather than disposing or
discarding it, since the food waste is also prevent at least one out of cancer cases and some
other ailments such as heart diseases.

25
 REFERENCE

(Alina Peter, 2019)Polyphenols category of compounds in plant(AI, 2023)Discussion of

results in analysis of flavonoid, phenol, alkaloids and saponins and conclusion,
recommendations of importance in corn husk(Zea Mays) and onion peel(Allium
Cepa).

(Elsevier B. V. 2023) Onion peel definition and its benefit.

(Firn, 2010),(Kar, 2007)Saponions functions,(Wikibot, 2012)Definition of Glycosides..

(Jumark, 2023)Nutritional benefit of corn husk.(zahid Ahmed, 2023) Ecological Importance

of corn husk.

(Linda Ulrich, et al; 2004) Corn husk Meaning and benefit to animals life.(Amazon, 2023)
Botanical description of corn husk, (Australian, 2008). Taxonomy classification of
corn husk.

(Maji et al; 2020) (sillanpaa, 2010), (Simon et al 1992), (Lee et al; 2008), (Sharna et al;
2016) Introduction to phytochemical screening of food waste (Bennet et al; 2023)
Definition of market.

(Melissa Petruzzello, 2023)Botanical description of onion peel), (Sunshimita Sharna,

2022)Nutritional benefit of onion peel, (Natailie Lavolpe, 2022)Ecological
lmportance of onion peel.

(Molyneux et al; 2023)Phytochemical screening in plant,(Kar, 2007)Flavonoid definition of

flavonols and their antioxidants,(Long, 2008).

(OEC at al; 2022), (Harvard et al; 2023) Food waste meaning and usefulness.

(Patel D, 2007)Flavones and functions,(Harborne, 1998),(Mazza, 2007)Anthocyanins

important,(Sarker and Nahar, 2007)Alkaloids. Important,(Kar, 2007) Phenol
functions.

(Stands et al; 2023), (Lipinski et al; 2013) Food market definition of food product.

(Vergara et al; 2012), (Tchanobanoglous et al; 1993) Waste definition management.

26