ATOMS LINE SPECTRA OF THE

HYDROGEN ATOM
E2
n=8
n=7 Pfund series
E1 E(n) to E(n = 5)
e n=6
Infrared
DISTANCE OF CLOSEST n=5
Brackett series
APPROACH E(n) to E(n = 4)
(Infrared)
At closest approach, system n=4
THOMSON'S ATOMIC only have electric potential

Energy levels
Paschen series
MODEL energy, 1 (2e) (Ze)
K =U=
E(n) to E(n = 3)
(Infrared)

• Also known as pudding model 4πεo d n=3

• Positive charge are uniformly 1 2 ze2

distributed in the atom. ⇒ d=
• Negative charge are embedded 4πεo K EXCITATION ENERGY Balmer series
E(n) to E(n = 2)
(Visible)
like seeds in watermelon. 1 2 ze2 n=2
• Overall atom is neutral ⇒ d=
4πεo ( 1 mv 2 )
2
Eexcitation = E2 – E1
Lyman series
LIMITATIONS BOHR'S MODEL E1 = energy of lower orbit E(n) to E(n = 1)
(Ultraviolet)
(i) Valid for only one – electron atom. n=1
• This model does not explain
(ii) Electron is revolving around the
the presence of nucleus in E2 = energy of higher orbit
nucleus in a stable orbit.
the atom. (iii) Attractive Coulomb force
• This is not able to explain between electron and nucleus is (1) The wave number or
scattering of α - particles equal to the centripetal Force of
wavelength of the emitted
• This is not able to explain the electron
photon when electron jumps
spectrum of atoms. LIMITATIONS Ze2
=
mv 2 EXCITATION POTENTIAL From higher orbital state
• This model not explain the
4πεor r Eexcitation ‘n2’ to lower orbital state
r = radius of orbit Vexcitation= ‘n1’ is
stability of nucleus. e
• This does not explain the line
1 En2 − En1 1 1
spectra of atom.
POSTULATES E − E1 ν= = =R 2 − 2 
= 2 (volts) λ hc  n1 n2 
• Electron in an atom could revolve e
in certain stable orbits with R = Rydberg is constant
emission of radiant energy. = 1.097 × 107 m-1
OUTCOMES CONCLUSIONS nh IONIZATION ENERGY
• L= (2) Number of spectral lines
• Most of the α - particles went • Positive charge was concentrated 2π L = angular momentum,
• Minimum energy required to when electron jump From
straight without any deviation. in small region of an atom is h = Planck’s constant = 6.6 × 10-34 Js
remove the electron.
• Same of α - particles were called nucleus • hυ = Ei - Ef
nth orbit = n(n − 1)
deflected by some angles. 2
• Negative charge were revolving
• Eionization = 13.6 z volts
Ei & Ef are the energies of initial
• Very few α - particles were in circular orbit around the & final states, Ei > Ef 2
deflected by an angle 180o nucleus. n2

RADIUS OF nTH ORBIT ORBITAL FREQUENCY IN TOTAL ENERGY IN NTH ORBIT IONIZATION POTENTIAL
• Vionization = Eionization
NTH ORBIT −me4 z2
n2h2 εo 0.53 n2 o • En = Kn + Un =
rn = = A ν e4 z2 8ε02h2n2
RUTHERFORD'S NUCLEAR
zπme2 z fn = =
2πr 4εo2n3h3 −13.6z 2 e
• En = eV
n2 1 n2
MODEL OF AN ATOM rn ∝ , rn ∝ Z2 z2 13.6 z 2
z m fn ∝ 3 • En ∝ 2 , En ∝ m = volts
n n n 2
• α - particles were emitted
by the radioactive element
214
Bi83 & were bombarded on
VELOCITY OF ELECTRON POTENTIAL AND KINETIC
a thin gold foil. BINDING ENERGY
IN nTH ORBIT ENERGY IN NTH ORBIT
• Minimum energy required to bound the
• Scattered α - particles are ze2 z −1 Ze2 me 4 z 2
νn = = 2.19 × 106 ( ) m/s Un = = 2 2 2 electron from nucleus.
collected on ZnS screen. 2nhεo n 4πεo rn 4ε o h n
2
1 me 4 z 2
mν 2 = 2 2 2
• B.E. = - Eionization = −13.6 z eV
Kn = 2
2 8ε o h n n
 MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
RELATIVE MOTION
MOTION & FRAME OF REFERENCE
• The Comparison between the motion of single object with
respect to another inertial or non – inertial frame.

• This Analysis is of relative motion of an object.

MOTION
Change in position of
an object with Relative Uniform
respect to time is Motion
MOTION UNIFORM MOTION & UNIFORM ACCELERATED (1) a12 = 0
defined as Motion
PARAMETERS GRAPHS MOTION (2) In this case
S
V12 = 12
t
• when a moving object cover equal when a body moves along a straight V12 = Relative Velocity
DISTANCE distance in equal time intervals. line and velocity changes by equal S12 = Relative
IT is said to be in uniform motion. amount in equal interval of time, displacement
• Actual path length covered by a
• speed is constant. motion is uniformly accelerated
moving object in a given interval
FRAME OF REFERENCE of time.
• Acceleration is zero motion
40 • Always positive
The point from which observer takes it’s Relative Uniformly
observation is called frame of reference. 30
CASE.1 Accelerated Motion
2V1V2
Displacement

Average speed =
Example:- Analysing lift moving upwards From 20 DISPLACEMENT V1 + V2 MOTION CALCULUS (1) a12 ≠ 0
ground. Observer on ground is inertial When object travels distance ‘d’ with
frame. Image of Inertial frame 10
• Shortest distance between the
velocity V1 and next distance ‘d’ with EQUATIONS METHOD (2) In this case
initial position and find position of
moving object in a given interval velocity v2
dx V12 = u12 + a12 t
(i) v =
If acceleration is
0 of time.
• can be positive, negative or Zero
constant
dt 1
S12 = u12 t + a12 t 2
0 1 2 3 4
TIME CASE.2 (1) V = u + at 2
V1 + V2 1 2 dv
SPEED
Average speed =
2 (2) S = ut + at (ii) a=v V122 − u12
2
= 2a12S12
When object travels ‘t’ interval with
2 dt
• Ratio of path length to the (3) v2 – u2 = 2as
corresponding time by an object V1 and next ‘t’ with v2 dv
• Always positive (iii) a=
d1 + .......... + dn
dt
Average speed =
t1 + ........... + t n
INERTIAL FRAME NON-INERTIAL FRAME VELOCITY d1 + .......... + dn
=
• If net external force on system • If net external force on system • The rate of change of distance of d1 V1 + ........... + dn v n
is non – zero frame is non – is non – zero frame is non – body with respect to time is
V1t1 + .......... + Vn t n
inertial inertial defined as velocity =
• It is Accelerating Frame. • It is Accelerating Frame. • Can be positive, negative or zero t1 + ........... + tn
• Frame velocity increases or • Frame velocity increases or
decreases decreases x x
When ball is dropped from a Time of flight
AVERAGE SPEED (u2/2g)

Displacement
height then it accelerates 2u
T=
Average speed is defined as total g
distance travelled in total time towards earth with constant

Total distance x0 acceleration.

Average speed = Parabolic nature O (u/g) t
Total time o Time
Maximum
t Analysis of this motion of Height
an object is motion under u2
v v Hmax =
AVERAGE VELOCITY gravity 2g
Change in position or displacement • ay = g = 9.8 m/s2
Velocity

a xT u
divided by time intervals in which
(u/g) (2u/g) Time to drop
displacement occurs ux O
∆x t • v = u + ayt
Average Velocity = o –u 2h
Time 0 T T=
∆t t g
• s = ut + 1 ayt 2
a a
2
ACCELERATION • V2 – u2 = 2ays
Acceleration

a>0 Velocity after

Measure of change in velocity of an
O dropping
object per unit time t Taking downward direction
∆x a=0 -g as ‘positive’ V = 2gh
a=
∆t o Time t
 APPLICATIONS OF
STRESS & ITS MECHANICAL PROPRTIES OF SOLIDS ELASTIC BEHAVIOUR
TYPES OF SOLIDS

(1) Stress is restoring force per When weight is suspended in beam,

unit area it Strouse buckling
(2) σ = F
A STRAIN & ITS ω 3
S=
4 bd3 y
(3) It is neither scalar nor TYPES
vector, l
(4) It’s unit is N/m2
POISSON'S RATIO d
(1) Ratio of change in configuration to
original configuration of body.

(2) It is a unit less quantity Ratio of lateral to longitudinal strain is

Poisson’s ratio
∆ configuration
W

(3) Strain = HOOKE'S LAW

original configuration − Σ lateral
σ= ( −1 ≤ σ ≤ 0.5)
Σ longitudnal • Extension is measured in ropes
• When load is applied to bodies up to certain of Cranes while load is suspended
NORMAL STRESS proportionality limit, stress is directly
proportional to strain.
`on it
mg
LINEAR STRAIN σ=
Relation between Y, B, η and Σ A
(1) Tensile stress is produced when • σ∝Σ (1) Y = 3B (1 - 2σ ),
axial force acts per unit Area. (1) Linear strain is the ratio of σ = stress produced in rope
(2) Y = 2n (1 + σ )
(2) This stress
change in length to original
length.
• σ ∝ YΣ
3B − 2n
results in
∆ σ (3) σ=
Elongation; (2) ∑= • y = , where Y is the proportionality Constant 2n + 6B
 Σ named as Young’s modules
VOLUMETRIC STRAIN
Li

F
(i) Ratio of change in volume to
F
original volume, A
(1) Compressive stress is produced sTRESS-STRAIN
when force compresses object ∆V GRAPH B TYPES OF
(ii) ∑=
V
F
per unit area. F
Slope of stress strain ELASTIC CONSTANTS

Stress
Lf
curve will be Young’s
(2) This stress modulus
σ
results in YOUNG’S MODULES =
Compression Σ
φ2
Limit of
φ1 • property of material, that tells how
Proportionality easily it can be stretched.
B Strain

VOLUMETRIC STRESS LATERAL STRAIN A

Elastic Limit • σ , E are normal stress and strains I - SHAPED BEAMS
respectively
• When object is immersed inside (1) Lateral strain is ratio of • I – shape of beams makes them

aw
the liquid, the hydrostatic change in breadth/ diameter sTRESS-STRAIN excellent for unidirectional

’s L
F Bi F Stress

ke
pressure decreases the volume to original breadth/ diameter, bending.

o
CURVE

Ho
of an object, that results the SHEAR MODULUS
`volumetric stress. (2) ∑ = ∆(Breadth / Diameter) • Use of rectangular shaped
• Ratio of shear stress by shear strain.
Breadth / Diameter F Bf F
• Unit is Pascal (Pa)
beams is not possible in railway
tracks as of improper load
O Strain
(3) Change occurs in the direction distribution
L
perpendicular to the applied
force. THERMAL STRESS −∆P
BULK MODULUS =
SHEAR STRAIN (i) energy stored due to elastic deformation. ∆V / V
(ii) Strain Energy density is energy per unit
(1) Angular deformation caused by volume. • measure of ability of material to
SHEAR STRESS THERMAL STRESS 1
shearing force is shearing strain. (iii) strain Energy per unit Volume = ×σ×Σ withstands the change in volume.
(1) Shear stress is produced when 2 • negative sign indicates decrease in ISOTHERMAL BULK MODULUS
(I) Difference in temperature of a rod
force acts tangentially to a results the change in configuration (2) tan θ = S / h 1 (σ) 2 volume
B=P
×
surface area. of it. This produces thermal stress. (3) For small change θ=S/h (iv) strain Energy per unit Volume =
2 y
(2) Deforming force acts

COMPRESSIBILITY = 1B
tangentially to the surface F L
ADIABATIC BULK MODULUS
= Y ∝ ∆T L

S A
F

tan θ = Shearing Area

h Shear Force h • Reciprocal of Bulk modulus
(I) B = YP,
h
(2) Y = Adiabatic constant
• Value depends on particle shape,
L F
L F density and chemical composition.
 TYPES OF CAPACITANCE'S
• Capacitance of spherical conductor:
CAPACITOR KIRCHOFF'S LAW OF CAPACITOR'S
FIRST LAW: This law is basically law
C = 4πε r of conservation of charge
• Capacitance of Earth: C = 4πε r ; r = 6.4 × 10 F
6
which states that the sum of incoming
∴ C = 4π × 8.854 × 10−12 × 6.4 × 106 = 7.11 × 10−6 F charges at a function in Equal to the
ELECTROSTATIC
• Capacitance of parallel plate Capacitor: FORCE BETWEEN THE sum of outgoing charges
ε A PLATES OF CAPACITOR PRESSURE
(C0 ) = 0 F
d F θE σ A  σ 
q− = q1 + q2 = q3 + q4
θσ θ2 1 (P ) = = =
= ε 0 AE 2
Where— ε 0 = Free space permitivity A  2ε 
F= ⇒F
2ε 0 2Aε 0 2 A A SECOND LAW: In a closed loop, the
A = Plate Area F = Force; θ = charge
1 σ2 summation of all the
and d = Sepration between plates E = electric field between plates = potential differences must be zero.
2 ε0
σ = surface charge density q1 q3
V− − =0
C1 C3

OTHER TYPES OF CAPACITOR'S

A capacitor is a device which can store more electric COMBINATION OF CAPACITOR'S
• Sphrical Capacitor outer surface Earthed: change or potential energy compared to on isolated
conductor • Serief Equivalent of Capacitor's C1 C2
θ 4πε 0 DIELECTRIC
C= = +q
In serief—θ = C1V1 = C2V2
V  1 1  • Capacitance: Capacitance of a conductor
− Dieletric is a material which
  measure of its ability to store charge.
 V0 = V1 + V2 V1 V2
 R1 R2  q q behaves as non conductor
• Cyllindrical Capacitor: V ∞q ⇒ V = ⇒C= upto certain value of
O c V 1 1 1
r External eletctric Field. If ∴ = +
4πε 0L Coulomb Cequi C1 C2
C= S.I. Unit Farad (F ) = the Field crosses the limiting V0
b Volt
value (Called dielectric
ln   • Parallel Equivalent of Capacitor's Q1+ –
a strogth) then it beging to In parallel— V = V1 = V2 Q0 C1
L, B and a - Parameters of Cyllinder conduct + –
Q2 C2
ENERGY STRORED IN A CHARGED Dielectric constant (k or ER) θ = θ1 + θ2
CAPACITOR E
Er = K = m CEquiv = C1 + C2
CHARGING & DISCHARGING OF ε0
1 θ2 1 1 V0
A CAPACITOR U= = CV 2 = θ V
2 C 2 2
• CHARGING: POLAR NON-POLAR
WORK DONE BY BATTERY DURING
(i) Charging of a capacitor without Resistance DIELECTRIC DIELECTRIC CAPACITOR WITH DIELEATRIC
Charging take no time when switch closed CHARGING OF A CAPACITOR
q 0 = CV • Centers of +ve and • Centers of +ve and
• Capacitance of capacitor having dielectric
(ii) Charging of a Capacitor having series Resistance: θ –ve charge do not –ve charge coincide
θ θ dθ ⇒ WBattery = θ C = CV = 2
constant (k) and (t<d): q –qi qi –q
V0 = VC + VR = + IR = + R q C coincide due to due to symmetric + – + –
C C dt
−
t
−
t Q0 asymmetric shape of shape of molecules. + – K + –
Q = CV0E RC
= Q 0e T
molecules. • Each molecule has Aε 0 t = thickness + – + –
0.632 Q0 C= + – + –
I = Current • Each molecule has prmament dipole t
R = Resistance ENERGY DENSITY OF CAPACITOR dd − t + k = Dieletric + – + –
permanent dipole moment only in k + – + –
T = Time Constant = RC moment In presence presence of External Constant – t +
t + –
t = tc Energy stored in the capacitor per unit + – + –
of External electric electric Field
volume. Separation d d
• Discharging of a capacitor through serias Field
resistance: Energy density of • Capacitance of Capacitor having diebctric
q
θ θ dθ dv - + - + - + + - constant (K) and (t = d):
V0 = VC + VR = + IR = +
+
R Q
capacitor =
-

C C dt
-
0
- +
- +
- +

+
dv
+

t
- +
- +
- +

− - + - +
θ = θ 0 (1 − e ) T
1 +Q –Q - Aε 0 kAε 0
- +
C= = = kC0
-

A, plate area + - +
- +

2
CV
+

θ = 0.368θ 0 U  1 d d
0.368 Q0
⇒ = 2 = ε 0F 2 + – d −d + K
At time t = RC k
t V  A×d 2
t = tc
V (battery) d
 INERTIA OF REST INERTIA OF DIRECTION INERTIA OF MOTION

The property of a
body due to which it
The property due to The tendency of a
body to remain in
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION For Non – inertial frame
which a body cannot
a state of uniform
  
cannot change its
state of rest by it
change its direction of
motion in a Fext + FPseudo = ma
motion by itself.  
self. straight Line. Newton’s 3rd law Fpseudo = − Ma frame
We cannot produce a single isolated
To every action there is always on force in nature force are always
FORCES equal and opposite reaction. produce in action – reaction pair. SOLVING PROBLEMS IN MECHANICS
(i) Normal Contact force
Newton’s 1st law  
(1) always acts along the F AB = − FBA due to no time gap, any one force • Draw FBD of bodies in the system.
common Normal of two surface
A body Continues its sate of can be action, and other reaction. • Choose a convenient part of the assembly as one
in contact. rest or motion until unless an Action & Reaction act on different system.
(2) Always directed towards the external force is acted on it. applicable for all the interactive
bodies and not on the same body. - • Identify the unknown force and accelerations.
system. forces eg. Gravitational,
(3) It is an electromagnetic   action – reaction forces are of electrostatic, electromagnetic,
• Resolve forces into their Components.
type of force. Normal force on If Fext = o ; a = o same type. Tension, friction, viscous forces, etc.
•
 
Apply ∑ F = ma in the direc�on of mo�on.
block is N. N = mg

• Apply ∑ F = O in the direc�on of equilibrium
Newton’s 2nd Law
Horizontal Circular motion • Write constraint rela�on if exists.
  
(ii) Tension Force
The rate of change of linear momentum of a body (Conical Pendulum):- • Solve the equa�on ∑ F = ma & ∑ F = O .
is directly proportional to the external force applied on
(1) Acts along the string and the body in the direction of force.   mv 2
away from the system on dp  TSinθ = & Tcos θ = mg
which it acts. F= = ma r
(2) Tension in a massless string dt
remains constant throughout
S.I . Unit of force = Newton (W) V = rg tan θ θ

the string if no tangential  mdv  v g tan θ
force acts along the string. if m = const F = = ma ⇒ dimensional formula = [M1L1T-2] Angular Speed, w = W = =
O
l

(3) This is force applied by a dt r r T

   dm 
F Cosθ
string on an object or force if V = Cost = F = V 2π r L cos θ
P mg cos  F h
applied by one part of string Conservation of linear momentum:- dt Time Period T = 2 π = 2 π
on the remaining part of if there is no external force convey or belt & w g tan θ g 
θ

string. acting on it, total momentum of rocket propulsion r

mg sin F sinθ
(4) It is an electromagnetic an isolated system of interacting
L mg
type of force. particles is conserved Impulse mg

   

Fext = o =
dp
or Pinitial = Pfinal
I = Favg ∆t = ∆P Vertical Circular motion
dt
⇒ I = ∆P = ∫ F.dt = area under f – t curve
1. Particle ossillates in lower half circle.
Condition of ossillation (O < u ≤ 2 gR )
(iii) Friction Force
(1) Rolling friction:- The force of friction which R
Circular 2. Particles moves to upper half circle but not able to complete the loop.
comes into play when one body Ralls or tends
to roll on the surface of a norther body. motion Condition of leaving the circle: (
2 gR < u < 5 gR ) O a = v² / R
Speed = v
N
(iV) Sliding friction 3. particle completes loop. Condition of looping the loop u ≥ ( 5 gR )
Resistance offered to the
relative motion between
f
the surface of two bodies MOTION OF A CAR M LEVEL ROAD
in contact.
(by friction only):- mg
The frictional force f is Kinematics of Uniform Circular motion Kinematics of non – Uniform
directly proportional to circular motion
≤ µS Rg
N

the Normal force N 1.A particle moves in a circle at a constant Vmax

exerted by the surface speed Speed of the particle in a
on the body. horizontal circular motion
(F ∝ N or f/N = Constant = µ).
2. Angular displacement (θ) SI Unit: rad or MOTION OF A CAR ON f
degree. changes with respect to time.
The friction force depends 3. Angular Velocity (W): BANKED ROAD mg

upon the nature of surfaces ∆θ dθ Tangential acceleration:

Wavg = [Unit . rad / sec] Wins =   
in Contact and independent
of the area of Contact.
∆t dt at = α × r (i) Optimum speed of a vehicle on a banked road. V = rg tan θ
Centripetal Force
Types of friction mv 2 Centripetal force
Fc = mac = = mrw2 rg(µ + tan θ)
r mv 2 maximum safe speed on a banked frictional road. Vmax =
∆S = r∆O v = wr Fc = mac = = mrw 2 1− µ tan θ
Static friction Limiting friction Kinetic friction    r
V = w ×r Tangential force Ft = mat
 Rg(tan θ − µ )
acts when a body is acts when a body is acts when a body V is linear velocity (tangential vector) Vmin =
 minimum safe speed on a banked frictional road
at rest on application just at the verge is actually sliding w (axial vector) Net force Fnet = m a + a
2
c
2
t (1+ µ tan θ)
 
of a force
fs = µsN.
of movement
Fl = µsN. f k = µK N r = radius vector aC responsible for change in direc�on of movement of particle
 Thermal properties of matter NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING dQ
∝ (T − TO ) Graph of Newton's
dT law of cooling
“ The rate of heat loss by the body is
directly proportional to the temperature
T(°C)
difference of the body and surroundings.
HEAT

(1) Heat is the form of Time (minute)

energy.
(2) Transferred from high temp.
to the lower temp water.
(3) measured in calorie or joule.
TEMPERATURE
(1) Quantity which measured
thedegree of hotness or
(1) Expansion in only
coldness of a body is called
Temperature.
(2) S.I. unit is Kelvin (K)
(2) ∆ L ∝ LO
CONVERSION FORMULA
K − 273 o C o F − 32
= =
100 100 180
HEAT TRANSFER
THERMAL EXPANSION Radiation
Transfer of heat energy from
Tendency of matter to a body at higher temperature Radiation is a mode of
heat transfer in which
change its shape, area to a lower temperature. the heat is transfer
and volume is said to From one place to
be thermal expansion another without
heating of
intervening medium
Linear Expansion Volumetric Exp HEAT CAPACITY
ANOMALOUS EXPANSION
(1) Three dimensional
Amount of heat supplied to CALORIUMETRY OF WATER Reflecting Power
one direction or expansion of solids.
an object to produce a
dimension, (2) V = Vo ( 1+ y∆T) (1) When temperature of water Q
Y - Coeff of
unit change in its temperature. Heat loss by the hot body =
increases from 0oC to 4oC, r= r
volumetric expansion, Heat gain by the cold body Q
∆ L ∝ ∆T S.I. unit is joule per kelvin (j/K) the density of water also
. m1c1 (T1 – T) = m2c2 (T – T2¬¬¬), Qr = amount of thermal
Vo - initial volume increases and reaches the
∆ L = ∝ L O ∆T radiation,
of cuboid m1c1T1 + m2 c 2 T2 maximum value at 4oC
Q = total amount.
α is Coeff of SPECIFIC HEAT T=
Linear expansion m1 + m2
L = Lo (1 + α∆T) (1) Amount of heat required y y
Absorbing Power
T is equilibrium Temperature.
to raise the temperature

Volume of 1 kg of water ( cm³)

1000.35
Qa
1,0000
of unit mass of substance
by unity Case – 1
1000.30
a=
Q
1000.25 0,9999

Density of water ( g cm-³ )

Superficial/ Areal 1 dθ
(2) C = 1000.20

expansion m dt If material of body is 1000.15

0,9998

(3) Unit is J/kg same (C1 = C2), Transmitting power

1000.10
0,9997
(1) Expansion of solids in two dimension. m T + m2 T2 1000.05 Q
(2) A = Ao (1 + B∆T), B - coefficient of T= 1 1 t= t
MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT m1 + m2 1000.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x 0,9996
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x
Q
areal expansion, Temperature⁰c Temperature⁰c
Relation between
Ao - initial area of plate. (1) Amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of 1 Case – 2 r,a and t, r + a + t = 1
β = 2α
α = Coeff of Linear expension mole of a gas by 1oC. If mass of bodies is equal.
1 dθ c m1 = m2 = m, Spectral emission
(2) C =
1
=
n dt n Power (Eλ),
c1T1 + c 2 T2
n = number of moles, T= Energy
(3) S.I. unit is J/mol c1 + c 2 Eλ =
Conduction Area × time × wavelength
Relationship between Coefficient
of Linear expansion, areal expansion Case – 3 Unit is J/m2
THERMAL CAPACITY (1) Heat will flow from hot
and volumetric expansion:- if bodies are of same end to the cold end by T1 > T2
T T2
means of oscillation of
β Y
1

(1) Heat required to raise material and equal masses particles but particles
∝ = = or ∝ : β : Y = 1 : 2:3 the temperature of the T + T2 but particles do not leave
A Total emissive Power
2 3 substance by 1oC. T= 1 their original position.
is total amount of
2 heat energy emitted
(2) Q = mc, (2) Medium is necessary. per unit time
(3) Rate of heat transfer is slow ∞
m- mass of substance,
Latent Heat of fusion C - specific heat of Thermal Stress E = ∫ E λ dλ
o
Graph of triple point The amount of heat required to
the substance
The expansion or contraction Convection
of water one kg mass of substance from occurs in solids due to change
(1) Heat is carried by mobile
Emissivity is defined as
solids to liquid or vice – versa. LATENT HEAT in temperature develops the ratio total emissive
particles From the body.
- Q = mLf compressive stress (2) Rate of heat transfer is slow Power of a body to the
1) Amount of Heat required total emissive power
Lf - Latent heat of fusion. to change the phase of the  thermal = Y α ∆Q in free convection and high in
Forced Convection of the black body.
substance at constant Y - Young modulus, E
temperature.  - Coeff of Thermal exp, e = practical
Q - temp. difference.
Eblock
(2) Q = mL, Coefficient of
Latent heat of vaporisation L - Latent heat, Kirchoff’s Law
apparent expansion
m - mass of substance Thermal expansion in Liquid ∆ v apparent Stefan’s Law
The amount of heat required to ϒa = When the body is in Wien’s
Coefficients V × ∆Q thermal equilibrium displacement Law
change 1 kg mass of substance
Volumetric

The change in volume of liquid in Liquids with the surrounding “ Rate of heat loss
From liquid to vapor or by the body is
relative to vessel; the emissivity is When the tempe-
vice – versa. Coefficient of real equal to the rature of the black directly proport-
- Q = mLV, ∆Vapp = V Yapp ∆T absorptivity body increases, the ional to the
expansion
LV - Latent heat of Yapp - apparent Coeff of volume maximum intensity fourth power
∆v . ∝= e, ∝ → absorp�vity shift towards of its absolute
vaporization. expansion. ϒr = shorter wavelength.
V × ∆Q , e → emissivity temperature.”
 Physical Quantity
Units And Measurments

Numerical
Value
- Quantities which can be
measured by an Units ACCURACY PRECCISION
instrument and used to Accuracy is degree of
and

45 kg
describe Laws of physics closeness of measured
Precision is the range
are physical quantities value to the true value; of variation of true
- Physical quantity =
Dimensional Analysis Measurements - shows that how closely value during several
Numerical value (N) × Unit (U) the results with the observation
Unit
Dimension formula is the standard value.
expression for the unit of a
physical quantity in terms of PRINCIPLE OF HOMOGENITY
TYPES the fundamental quantities Principle of homogeneity VERNIER CALLIPERS
states that the ORDER OF MAGNITUDE ERRORS Pitch =
Fundamental quantities do Dimensional formula is dimension of each term
expressed in terms of on both sides of The uncertainty in Least Count (L.C) = displacement of screw
not depend upon other
power of M, L and T. dimensional equation It is defined as the power 1 MSD – 1 VSD; MSD = no. of rotations
quantities:
should be same. of 10 which is closest to measurement is called
(1) Length (2) Mass (3) Time errors main scale division; L.C. =
its magnitude
(4) Temperature VSD = Vernier
(5) Amount of Substance
Primary or fundamental Secondary or derived
N = n × 10x; x = order - Error = true value – scale division Pitch
Dimensional Formula dimensional Formula
(6) Electric current of magnitude. measured Value total no. of divisions
There are seven (i) Other than Fundame- coefficient exponent
(7) Luminous Intensity
fundamental ntal formula all other
dimensional formulas: are derived
- Derived quantities are (1) Mass = [M], (2) Length dimensional Formula TYPES OF ERROR Vernier scale
Main scale

= [L], (3) Time = [T], (ii) example: (1) [speed] = 6.022 x 1023
formed by combining more
than one fundamental (4) Temperature = [K] or [MoL1T-1], Absolute Error, =
[Q], (5) Electric Current
physical quantities = [I], (6) Luminous
(2) [Acceleration] true value –
- Area, Volume, velocity = [MoL1T2] base
intensity = [cd], measured value Total reading = Main
and acceleration are (7) amount of matter scale Reading Zero error = N × L.C
some Derived quantities = [mol] +(Vernier Coincidence
All non – zero
digits are × least Count) N = no. of circular
‘A’ is
significant
Mean absolute errors scale division that
Equivalent
Conversion of Units From RULE OF ROUNDING OFF
r
in area Area r2
4.125 - 4 sf; coincides with the
are system to another
r
r
1
a b
123 - 3 sf reference line
M  L   T  ∆α1 + ∆α 2 + ............. + ∆αn
r

N2 = N1  1   1   1  - Rules of Rounding off the ∆αmean = Zero error = N × L.C;

Two supplementary S.I units are:-  M2   L 2   T2  uncertain digits n N = no. of coinciding L.C = Least Count
Leading zeroes i.e
N1 = numerical part of (up to 3 Significant Figures) division;
(1) Radian(plane angle) , are never
, Q= , arc one system significant placed L.C = Least count of an
N2 = numerical part of Relative error instrunment.
radius to the left of the
(2) Steradian (solid angle),
Ω= arc
another system number
0.0403 - 3 sf; If digit > 5 ∆αmean
(radius)2
KNOW YOUR LCROS 0.04030 - 4 sf then, preceding digit +1
αmean Positive zero error Positive Zero Error
(SIGNIFICANT FIGURES)
0 1 Main Scale
UNITS 10.9 - 3 sf;
The number of digits in the 400.001 - 4 sf If digit <5 then, preceding Vernier scale 10
(1) Unit is defined as the measured values about the 0 5 10
All zero lie in digit remain same Percentage error, 0
reference standard used correctness are known as between the non 5
for measurements. significant figures. – zero digits are Negative zero error
(2) Measurements consists of significant If insignificant digit = 5; is difference the
a numerical value along with 0 1 Main Scale 0
Trailing zero digits (a) Preceding digit measured value and the
a relevant unit.
(3) Example: meter, newton, are significant only Order of magnitud remain same when true value as a 0 5 10
Vernier scale
Positive Zero Error
when they appear
joule, seconds etc. e is not considered
rounded off digit is even.; percentage of true value
after decimal 4.00 - 3 sf; 38.3 × 104 - 3 sf; Negaitive Zero Error
0.043010 - 5 sf 38.30 × 10-9 - 4 sf
(b) Preceding digit +1 when Percentage error
MKS CGS FPS (Ft, rounded off digit is odd ∆αmean
(m, kg, s) (m, gm, s) pound, s) SOME OTHER UNITS × 100 0

(1) mass:- 1 quintal = 100 kg, Constants and pure αmean 0

S.I Units 1 ton = 1000 kg numbers have infinite 95
- The system of units (2) length:- 1 light year = significant figures;
accepted internationally 9.46 × 1015 m
90
1 au = 1.496 × 1011 m
- S.I units of time is ‘sec’ (3) Temperature: Oo C =
is the example of S.I system 273 K 1o F = 255.928 K Negative Zero Error
 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER DUAL NATURE OF
LIGHT

h
PLANCK'S QUANTUM de – Broglie wavelength, λ = & 2πr = nλ
mν
THEORY OF LIGHT nh
• mνr =
2π
(1) The energy of one photon is proportional This is Bohr quantisation Condition
to its frequency
(2) E ∝ ν , E = hν
h = Plank’s constant
= 6.62 × 10-34 Js
(3) Energy of any light or radiation is
one integral multiple of hν.
E= nhν
(4) Energy of one photon. PARTICLE NATURE OF
1240 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT LIGHT
E = hν = eV EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
π(nm) (1) It is a phenomenon of ejecting electrons
DAVISSON-GERMER
• The emission of electrons causes flow of
by falling light of suitable Frequency on
electric current in the circuit.
(1) In interaction of radiation with matter,
radiation behaves as if is mode of
EXPERIMENT
a metal
(2) Ejected electrons are called particles called photons
photoelectrons. hν
(3) Current Flowing due to the photoelectrons (2) E = hν and p=
PROPERTIES OF PHOTONS is called photocentric current c

(1) Photon is just a packet of energy. (3) In a photon – particle collision, total
(2) Energy of photon does not change with LAWS energy and total momentum are
medium. (1) No emission takes place below the conserved.
(3) Photon can not be deflected by electric threshold Frequency.
field and magnetic field. (2) Above threshold Frequency, no. of
 h E photoelectrons emitted per seconds is
(4) Momentum of photon P = m × c = = directly proportional to intensity of
λ C radiation
MATTER WAVE THEORY
Energy (3) The emission of photoelectrons is an • de – Broglie wavelength
(5) Intensity of light beam =
area × time
instantaneous process. associated with moving • at φ = 50o and accelerating
(4) Above threshold frequency, K.E (max) particles, λ = h potential = 54 V, maxima is
depends on Frequency EFFECT OF POTENTIAL p obtained
1 p2 • This experiment confirmed the
Here, evo • K.E of particle = mν =
2

WORK FUNCTION = K.Emax 2 2m wave nature of electron.

FORCE AND RADIATION • Minimum energy required for getting a = hν - φo • momentum, p = mv
PRESSURE EXERTAD BY free electron away from the metal
PHOTON EMITTED A LIGHT BEAM surface. 2m × K.E
PER SECOND • Work function (φo) = hνo SPECIAL CASE FOR
pλ
(1) n = ELECTRON
hc φ
(1) E= nhν νo = = threshold frequency 1.227
(2) Power, P = nhν (2) momentum of one h FOR UNCHARGED λ= nm
p pλ h V
⇒ = = photon =
λ
momentum PARTICLES And
hν hc EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC 150.l
imparted per h h V= Volt
h P λ= = o
Number of photon per
second = n × = EQUATION mν 2m × K.E [λ(A)] 2

second = Power λ C
energy of one Photon ⇒ Force exerted = CP • The electron is emitted with maximum K.E
K.Emax = hν - φo
EFFECT OF INTENSITY
(3) Radiation Pressure = hν = K.Emax + φo
OF LIGHT FOR GASEOUS
• Range of K.E.
F P I EFFECT OF FREQUENCY OF MOLECULES
= = 0 ≤ K.E.photoelectrons ≤ hν − φo
A CA C INCIDENT 3
PHOTON FLUX FOR ACCELERATED K.E = KT
CHARGED PARTICLES 2
• Photon flux is no. of photon STOPPING POTENTIAL h ⇒ λ=
h
incident normally to a λ= 3
• Minimum negative potential required to stop 2m × K.E
surface per seconds 2m × KT
. the electron of maximum K.E.` 2
•φ= n P V = potential difference
= h
A hν Vo =
K.Emax h
= (ν − ν o ) Volts
⇒ λ=
e e 3 mKT
 Standard Graphs and
BASIC MATHEMATICS A
their Equations
y y
y Straight line m = tanθ = slope
θ > 90°
m = tanθ = slope y = mx + c
θ < 90° +c m = –ve

C
mx

–
y = mx m = +ve y=

x
m
θ

=
x

y
O

Trigonometry c
Straight line
Straight line
Straight line

θ
θ
c
θ x
x

• Angle : The angle covered by the Coordinate Geometry O

O

revolving line OP is θ = ∠ POX P

1° = 60′ (minute) ; 1′ = 60′′ (second)
• Origin : Any fixed point from which all Differentiation Integration
measurements are taken from this.
180°
• Physical Meaning of dy = 1
⇒ 1 rad = ≈ 57.3° • Axis : Any fixed direction passing
π θ If I is the integration of f(x) with
⇒ Angle θ° to Radian multiply it by
π
. O X through origin. y
x dx respect to x then I = ∫ f(x)dx
180°
180° y y
(x,y) (i) The ratio of small change in the • Main Formulae of Integration :
⇒ Angle Radian to θ° multiplying it by . function y and the variable x is
π • Distance Formula : origin x xn+1
x called the average rate of change n
• Trigonometrical Ratios : d = (x 2 − x1 )2 + (y 2 − y1 )2
(0,0)
y w.r.t. x.
1. ∫ x dx = n + 1 + c, n ≠ −1
Y
P MP B OM P ∆y ∆y dy
sin θ = =
H OP
cos θ = =
H OP In 3-d (space) – d = 2 2
(x 2 − x1 ) + (y 2 − y1 ) + (z 2 − z1 ) 2 (ii) When ∆x → 0. The limiting value of
∆x
is lim
∆x →∞ ∆x
=
dx
2. ∫ sin x dx = − cos x + c, c = constant
90°
X θ y y = F(x)
P MP
tan θ = =
B OM
cot θ = = O M X • Slope of a linen :
y B(x2,y2) 3. ∫ cos x dx = sin x + c
B OM P MP y2 • Main Formulas of Differentiation
(x1,y1) θ ∆y 1 y
H OP H OP Y d
sec θ = =
B OM
cosec θ = =
P MP m = tan θ =
∆y y 2 − y1
=
y1 1. (K) = 0 K = constant
4. ∫ x dx = loge x + c
∆x dx
∆x x 2 − x1
⇒ sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 ; 1 + tan2 θ = sec 2 ; 1 + cot 2 θ = cosec 2 θ x x x x
x1 x2 d dU
5. ∫ e dx = e + c x=a x=b
2. (KU) = K [U is a function of x] x
• Table : Trigonometry Standard angles dx dx • Define Integrals : dx
from 0° to 180° • Important Formulae of Differentiation : b
d dU dV dW d b
• Four Quadrans and ASTC Rule : 3.
dx
(U ± V ± W ) = ±
dx dx
±
dx
(f(x)) = f ′(x) ∫ f ′(x)dx = f(x) a
90° d d d 1 If dx then a
⇒ In Ist quadrant, all trigonometric ratios are positive. ⇒ (sin x) = cos x ⇒ (cos x) = − sin x (#) (loge x) =
IInd quadrant I quadrant
st dx dx dx x where U, V and W are functions of x. is called definite integral.
In IInd quadrant, only sin sin All 0°
⇒ θ and cosec θ are positive. • Area Under Curve :
180° 360° d d d x d dV dV
tan cos ⇒ (tan x) = sec 2 x ⇒ (cot x) = −cosec 2 x (#) (e ) = e x 4. (UV) = U +V b
⇒ In IIIrd quadrant, only tan θ and cot θ are positive. IIIrd quadrant IVth quadrant dx dx dx dx dx dx
∫ f(x)dx = Shaded area between curve and x-axis.
a
⇒ In IVth quadrant, only cos θ and sec θ are positive. 270° d d ax dU dV
⇒ (cosec x) = −cosec x cat x (#) (e ) = ae x d U
V −U
dx dx 5.   = dx 2 dx
• Important trigonometric formula : dx  V  V
n(n − 1)x 2
y (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + + .....
• Range of trigonometric functions : B d n 2 ×1
Maxima 6. (x ) = nxn−1
P dx • Logarithm Main Formulae :
⇒ sin θ = and P ≤ H
H • Concept of Maxima and Minima
log mn = log m + log n log mn = n log m
H m
P
So, −1 ≤ sin θ ≤ 1  dy d2 y  A minima log = logm − logn loge m = 2.303 log10 m
⇒ Condition for minima :  = 0 and > 0  x n
θ
 dx dx 2  b + b2 − 4ac −b − b2 − 4ac
B B x1 = x2 = • Arithmetic Progression (AP) :
⇒ cos θ = and B ≤ H, So − 1 ≤ cos θ ≤ 1 gives 2a and 2a (AP) = a + a + d + a + 2d + .... + a + (n – 1)d
H  dy d2 y 
⇒ Condition for maxima :  = 0 and < 0  ⇒ b2 – 4ac ≥ 0 For real roots. where a = first term d = common difference
P  dx dx 2 
⇒ tan θ = So, − ∞ < tan θ < ∞ ⇒ Sum of n term’s Sn = n [2a + (n − 1)d] = n [a + nth term]
B ⇒ b – 4ac < 0 For Imaginary roots.
2 2 2

(i) Sum of first n natural number’s — Sn = n(n + 1) ;

• Small Angle Approximation : • Binomial Expression : 2
Algebra An algebraic expression having two n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
If θ is small (θ < 45°) (ii) Sum of squares of first n → S
n2
=
6
• Quadratic Equation and its Solutions : terms only.Lorem ipsum
sin θ ≈ θ; cos ≈ 1 and tan θ ≈ θ • Geometric Progression (GP)
An algebraic equation of 2nd order is called a Example : (a + b), (a + b)4, (2x– 3y)2 etc. (GP) = a, ar, ar2, ar3 ....... arn–1; a = first term, r = common ratio
quadratic equation. Equation = ax2 + bx + c = 0
2
• Binomial Theorem : n
Sum of n terms → Sn = a(1 − r ) ; For 0 ≤ | r | < 1
−b ± b − 4ac n(n − 1) n−2 2 1− r
a b + ....
General Solu�on ⇒ X = 2a (a + b)n = an + nan–1 b′ + 2 × 1 Sum of ∞ terms S∞ = a
1− r
Geographical Meridian Earth also behaves as a magnet. Due to Gauss Law In Magnetism
Curie Temperature
Planes passing through Earth’s magnetic dipole, magnetic Field is GEOMAGNETIC The net magnetic flux associated with the closed CURIE LAW
geographical north and Present everywhere around earth’s surface. surface is µ0 times the net magnetic pole strength Temperature at which Ferromagnetic
south pole is called enclosed by the surface. Curie Law states material can be converted into
geographical Meridian. C   that the magnetic Paramagnetic material, denoted as
Angle of dip (Q) φB = φB . dA , = µo × (net Pole strength), = Zero
Geographical Sus castability of Tc.
North
Angle between the Paramagnetic
Magnetic Meridian φ
θ
A direction of the earth’s substance isinversely Curie – Weiss Law
Planes passing through P H k The number of Magnetic
Magnetic BH magnetic Field  proportional to
magnetic south and North B BV and the horizontal in the Field lines passing through a A
temperature of material. The susceptibility of ferromagnetic
north pole is called E L surface is called magnetic
magnetic meridian at that 1 C material is inversely proportional to
θ X∝ ⇒X=
magnetic meridian, place. flux. T T (T - TC) above curie Temperature Tc.
Magnetic
  
Meridean
φB = B . dA B C
X=
D
S.I Unit of φB is Weber (wb) (T − TC )
Angle of Declination φ
φ
BAR MAGNET MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS
Angle between
Q s
Geographical & magnetic Geographical MAGNETIC FLUX AND FLUX DENSITY
meridian. Meridean . A bar magnet is a physical In Ferromagnetic material Soft Magnetic Hard Magnetic
magnet in which two equal when external magnetic Material Material
and opposite poles are Field is Removed Some of
Directive property of bar magnet:-
Bar Magnetic is freely Suspending
Important Points separated by a small domain remains aligned in
Related To distance. direction of magnetic Field.
in air align itself in N – S direction I
of Earth’s magnetic Fields. Bar Magnet . The shortest distance Br
B
between Poles is known as c Br
A
effective length Le. -H0 D H0
H HC
Magnetic axis 0 G HC
. The effective Length Le is
Pole strength ( M ) F
Magnetic meridian Less than the geometric E
. Pole strength is a Length (Le < Lg)
Monopole Concept:- measure of the strength
Monopole does not exist. If we break of mahnetic pole to
On the basis of Magnetic Properties, Materials
a magnet into pieces each piece will attract magnetic
material towards itself. N
MAGNETISM AND MAGNETIC MATERIALS can be Classified into three Categories.
have North & South Pole of itself.
MATTER PROPERTIES DIAMAGNETIC PARAMAGNETIC FERRO MAGNETIC
. It is a scalar quantity. MATERIAL MATERIAL MATERIAL
S N S

Cause of Motion of electrons Electron spinning Domain formation

. SI unit is Am or N/T. magnetism in orbits
S N S N S N MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH
Behavior when Magnetization is poor Magnetization is poor Magnetization is strong
placed in uniform and in opposite and in same direction and in same direction
 direction. Bm< B0 Bm> B0 Bm>> B0
Properties of Bar Magnets Magnetic Dipole Momant ( M) The magnetic field strength can be defined as
magnetic Field.

  the Force experienced by a unit test north pole

M = m ( 2 ) M
. A magnet attract magnetic substance such as nickel, cobalt,   M M
(m0) placed in that Field. B = F = µ m o

iron e.t.c mo 4π r 2

m
m S N
. North and south poles of magnet are little inward & from Properties of Magnetic Field Lines Relative
L = 2l Permeability (µr) 1 > µr> 0 2 > µr> 1 µr>> 1
geometrical end.
M . No two magnetic Field lines Can cut each other.
. Poles exist always in pair and having equal strength i.e M = magnetic Pole strength . Tangent at a point of magnetic field line give Iron, Cobalt, Nickel,
monopole do not exist.  direction of field at that Point.
Examples Copper, Silver, Lead, Sodium, Potassium,
alnico.
 = affective Length Water. Manganese, aluminum.
. Like poles repel each other or unlike poles attract each other. . These form closed lines whose direction is from
. It is a Vector Quantity North to South always.
. SI unit is Am2 or N/T.
Relation between magnetic
Bar Magnet Placed In permeability and suscaptibility
Magnetic Field at a Distance Magnetic Permeability Intensity of Magnetizing Intensity of Magnetic Susceptibility
 
An External Magnetic Field
 
r from Bar Magnet For Different Position ( )
Field H ()
Magnetisation I (Xm )

τ = M × B = MB Sinθ (1) The extent to which (1) The extent to which a (1) The Extent to which a (1) The Ratio of intensity The sum of magnetic field in vacuum due to
. Torque 
magne�c Field lines can magnetic �ield can magnetic substance is of magnetisation ( I ) to magnetizing force and magnetic field due
. work w = MB (cosθ, -cosθ2) 
  Position Magnetic field at For short Penetrate the substance is magnetize a magnetic magnetized in a magnetic magnetic Intensity ( H ) to magnetization of material is known as total
. Potential U = − M . B, = −MBcosθ known as Magne�c substance is called Field is Known as
this position magnet ( l << r ) applied to the substance is magnetic flux density.
Permeability of that Intensity of Magnetizing Intensity of
  known as magne�c
N
µ 2Mr µ 2M
Substance. It is denoted ( )
Field H ()
magnetization I suscep�bility of
 B = B0 + Bm = µ0 H + µ0I = µ0 ( H + I )
Ba = 0 by µ. 
Axial line 4π ( r 2 − l 2 )2
Ba = 0 3 (2) It is a Field Property  M  I
θ 4π r (2) The Value of µ for free    (2) I = Where M = Substance. Xm = 
B (3) H = H = B µ V H
space or air is:-  I 
(4) SI Unit is: A m magne�c moment and V = (2) Magnetic B = µ0 H  1 +  = µ0 H (1 + χ m )
Equatorial µ0 M µ0 M 4 π × 10 −7 T.m / A Susceptibility is a  H
Be = Be = Volume.
4 ( r + l 2 )3/2
π
S line
2
4π r 3 (3) It is a material unitless and Also, µr = (1 + χm ) [ B H = µr ]
Property dimensionless quantity
(4) SI Unit is A/m.
 1. Position of centre of mass depends upon shaped, size
and distribution of mass of body
System of particles and MOTION OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES
& RIGID BODY
Pure Rotational Motion:-
2. Position of centre of mass of an object changes in
translation motion. rotational motion (1) Since distance between two particles of
3. For bodies of normal dimensions centre of mass & a rigid body remains constant, So the
center of gravity coincide. relative motion of one particle w.r.t other
4. Centre of mass of rigid bodies is independent of the Analogy between linear & Rotational motion particle is circular motion.
CENTRE OF MASS (2) Angular velocity of all the particles
state i.e rest or motion of the body.
The point where whole mass of system is Linear motion Rotational Motion about a given point of a Rigid body is
supposed to be concentrated same
ds Angular velocity S = RQ, V = Rw ;
Position of Centre of Velocity V =
mass of system dt (3) If α = Constant (angular acceleration),
dQ
 RIGID BODY acceleration W= ), Wf = wi + α t ,
dt
∑ mi ri
Rotational Equilibrium Translational Equilibrium
     a=
ds angular acceleration Qf = wit +
1 2 2
αt w f =
r cm = τext = ε r × Fext = O A body with perfectly definite and
∑ Fext = O dt
2

∑m i
unchanging shape.
Force α=
dw
dt
 w + wf 
w i2 + 2αθ, θ =  i
 2 t

mdv
F = ma = 1 1 1
PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS FOR A LEVER MOMENT OF INERTIA dt torque θ = wft - αt 2 → K.Erolling = mv 2 + Iw 2 ,
2 2 2
Velocity of centre of work done
mass of system Inertia of Rotational motion W = F.S d 1 1  V2 
According to this principle;- τ =I∝ = (Iw) mv 2 + mk 2  2 
 n
dt 2 2 r 
 ∑ mi v i M.I. I =∑ miri = MK
2 2
Load × Load arm = effort × effort arm linear K.E 1  K2 
V cm = i =1
1
Work – done mv 2  1 + 2 

∑m
2  R 
i where r is distance perpendicular to the mv 2 w = τ.Q
Factors & radius of axis of Rotation. 2
gyration depends Radius of gyration Power rotational K.E
Acceleration of Centre Combined Rotation + translation Motion
P = F.V,
1 2 (CRTM):-
of mass of system

(1) Position & configuration
r12 + r22 ..........rn2 Iw   
of the axis of rotation K= Linear momentum 2 V CRTM = V pure rotation + V translational

acm =
∑ mi ai (2) distribution of mass
n P = mv Power
  
aCRTM = apure rotation + atranslational
∑m i
about the axis of
Rotation. K=
I Impulse
P = τ.w , Dynamics of CRTM
M F∆t = mv − mu angular momentum for analysing its motion we apply two
L = Iw equation
 
Shape of area Distance x Distance y Area
Theorem of moment of Inertia angular Impulse
∑ τ

ext = Ma cm
  
τpt = I w f − I w i ∑ τ ext = I α = r × Fext
Perpendicular axis theorem Parallel – axis theorem
Square a/2 a/2 a 2 Newton’s laws of motion is valid in inertial
frame.
To apply second equation of Newton about Non
– inertial Point, Pseudo – force is applied at
Rectangle a/2 b/2 ab Com of body Σ of pseudo force is also taken
into account.
→ K.ECRTM = K.Erotation + K.Etranslation;
1 1
Circle r r r2 , Itanget = Idia + MR2 K.E =
2
Icmw 2 + MVcm
2
2
;
IZ = I X + I y 1 1
K.E = MK 2 w 2 + MVcm 2

2 2
Semi-circle 4r/3 r r2/2
→ angular momentum of Rigid body per forming
ANGULAR MOMENTUM CONSERVATION CRTM; Pure Rotational as a Rigid body about
C.O.M; Translation as a particle
 dτ  
τnet = if τnet = O ⇒ L =constant
Right-angled triangle b/3 h/3 bh/2 dt (1) ROLLING ON INCLINED PLANE
 n (EK)r = rota�onal K.E (EK)t = transla�on K.E
L system = ∑ Li (a) for solid sphere, (Ek)r = 40% of (Ek)t,
i =1 (b) For snell (Ek)r = 66% of (Ek)t,
ANGULAR MOMENTUM CONSERVATION
Angular momentum of rigid body performing pure (c) For disc, (Ek)r = 50% of (Ek)t of (Ek)t,
   rotation about fixed axis (Lsys)AOR = IAORw (d) For ring, (Ek)r = (Ek)t
L O = r OA × P (angular momentum about point O)
  Relation between Torque & Angular momentum:
 (2) VELOCITY AT LOWEST POINT
= r OA × (mv)  dt (9) Hollow sphere, Diameter 2
mR 2
  • τnet = radius R 3 2 gh
V=
= mr OA × v dt K2
   • Unit of Torque = N.m 1+ 2
L O = r OA × P = rOA P sin θ R
• Dimensional formula = [m1 L2 T-2] Valid in only iner�al frame. (4) Time taken to reach the bottom of the inclined plane is.
= rOA mv sin θ         (3) ACCELERATION ALONG INCLINED PLANE
Angular Impulse:- J = ∫ τ.dt , Jnet = L f − Li , J = r × I , Unit → NmS K2 g sin θ
2n (1 + 2 a=
1 R
     t= K2
sin θ g 1+ 2
Linear Impulse:- I = ∫ F dt , Inet = P f − Pi , Unit → N.S R
 Semiconductor Electronics: ANALOG SIGNAL DIGITAL SIGNAL
Classification of metals.Insulator And Semiconductor +
Material Devices and simple circuit

Voltage amplitude

Voltage amplitude
TRANSISTOR Level 1

Transistor is a three t
Time
terminal device Level 0

(1) Emitter (E)

t
(2) Base (B)
ON THE BASIS OF Time
(3) Collector (C)
CONDUCTIVITY SEMICONDUCTOR AND ITS TYPES BASIC LOGIC GATES
A Y =A+B
(1) For metals: Semiconductors exhibit electrical PNP B OR gate
conductivity between conductors APPLICATIONS OF JUNCTION DIVIDE E C
S ∼ 10-2 – 10-8 Ω m P N P
n
A

σ ∼ 102 - 108 S/m and non – Conductors. p E C

B
Y
AND gate

B B

Voltage at A
A
Y
They have high conduc�vity. NAND gate
B
+ INPUT ac

(2) For Semiconductors: INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS S1 + A t NPN

A Y
D

Voltage across RL
P – n junction diode
NOT gate
E C
S ∼ 10 – 10 Ω m
-5 6 (1) Pure Semiconductors are intrinsic RL N P N A
OUTPUT VOLTAGE E C Y =A+B
semiconductors.
σ ∼ 105 – 10-6 S/m P – n junction diode is the S2 B B B B
(2) ni= ne = nr, Where, ne = no. of –
They have intermediate free electrons, nh = no. of hales, Combination of P – type and For positive half cycle
WORKING OF N – P – N TRANSISTOR

Waveform at A
conductivity to metals ni = intrinsic carrier Concentration n – type semiconductor. D2
t

and insulators. (3) Examples:- Ge, Si P – region has mobile majority + (i)
emitter-base
juction
Collector-base
juction
IB E C IC
S1
holes and immobile – ve ions. N P N

Output Waveform Waveform at B

B A
(3) For insulators: – +
t IE e– o
IC
n – region has mobile majority RL (ii)
h B
S2 (b)
S ∼ 1011 – 1019 Ω m EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS free electrons and immobile –

(across RL)
Due to Due to Due to Due to

D2
D1 D2 D1 D2 mA E B C mA
VEE IB
IB VCC
σ ∼ 10 -11
– 10 -19
S/m (1) Impure or doped semiconductors Positively charged ions. For positive half cycle t VEE VCC
– + – + + – + – +
They have low conduc�vity are said to be extrinsic
semiconductors POTENTIAL BARRIES CE CONFIGURATION
σ = electrical conduc�vity
(2) Impurities are added to improve SEMICONDUCTOR CHARACTERISTION I C

ρ = resis�vity Conductivity Potential barrier is the potential

ZENERDIONDE DIODES – +
difference developed across ZENER BREAKDOWN IB
mA
B C
depletion region. This phenomenon takes place in Anode(A) Cathode(K) R2

E VCE

The band which is n – type Semiconductor VB = 0.7 for silicon (1) p – n junction having ‘ high
R1

VBE
IE
VCC

ne >> nh = 0.3 for germanium doping’ Zener Diode

Completely filled with VBB

(2) p – n junction having thin I-V characteristics

electrons at OK is (1) Electrons are majority charge FORWARD BIAS depletion layer I (mA)
called valence band. carriers.
In Forward Bias - Here, p -n junction does not IB(µA)
(2) Holes are minority charge carriers.
(1) +ve terminal to p – side damage permanently
(3) Si or Ge doped with pentavalent Reverse bias 100 VCE = 10.0 V

elements (P,As, Sb) (2) -ve terminal to n – side VZ Forward bias

Conduction Band is (3) depletion layer reduced V (V)
80

completely empty (4) diffusion current increases A

60
AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN IB = 40 µ 40
at OK. P – type Semiconductor nh >> ne 10
IB = 30 µA 20
This phenomenon takes place in, I ( A)
8
(1) Si or Ge doped with trivalent ( B, Al)
REVERSE BIAS (1) p - n junction having ‘Low 6 IB = 20 µA VCE (V)

IC (mA)
elements 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
energy band gap is the In reverse Bias doping’ 4
input characteristics
(2) Electrons are minority charge PHOTODIODE IB = 10 µA
difference between carriers. (1) -ve terminal to p – side
(2) p - n junction having thick
2
The symbol of photodiode is IB = 0 µA
Valence band and depletion layer.
(3) Holes are majority charge carriers (2) +ve terminal to n -side
Conduction band - Here, p – n junction damages 1 2 3 4 5
(3) depletion layer increases Output characteristics VCE (volt)
permanently due to abruptly
(4) diffusion current increases
THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM increment of minorities during I-V characteristics of a RB
C
IC
B RC
conduction band repetitive collisions. photodiode APPLICATION OF
Energy (eV)

IB E
forbidden mA TRANSISTOR Vo
The electron and hole Concentration
energy gap Vi
VBB
IE
VCC
in a Semiconductor in thermal
Reverse bias
valence band equilibrium is given by. nenG = ni2 AS A SWITCH
I1 volts

Forward characteristics curve Reverse characteristic curve I2

I3
Vbr I4 A Cut off
iF
VR
I0 I-V characteristics I4>I3>I2>I1 AS AN AMPLIFIER region
(volt)
(mA) of a solar cell. Active
Conductor (Metal) Insulator Semiconductor IC region
IR
Overlapping Empty knee
voltage (µA)
SOLAR CELL RB
C
conduction band EC conduction B
Electron energies

band Conduction 0 I RC Saturation

EC input IB
Electron energies

band 0.7 1.4 2.1 region

Electron energies

VF (volt) Voc (open circuit voltage) signal E V

CE
Eg 3 eV Eg Vo
V V0
EV IE amplified
(E g 0)
Knee or cut in voltage Breakdown voltage VCC AV
Valence output signal
EC EV EV Ge → 0.3 V, Si → 0.7 V Ge → 25 V, Si → 35 V Isc
Valence band V1
Valence Short circuit D2
band band VBB
current Transfer characteristic
common emitter amplifier NPN transistor
 DAMPED OSCILLATION
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

DAMPED AND FORCE OSCILLATIONS

(1) Amplitude → A1 = Ae-bt/2m

k b2
(2) Angular Frequency → w1 = − ,
m 4m2

Where – b = damping
Constant m

CHARACTERISTICS OF LINEAR SHM

FORCED OSCILLATION
Fo
(1) Amplitude (For → wd >> ω) → A1 =
m(w 2 − w 2d ) 1

Amplitude
(2) Amplitude → A1 = Fo/wdb 2

TIME PERIOD CALCULATION ωd → Driving Frequency 3

dx 2 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

ω → Natural Frequency oscillator as a function of the angular

+ ω2
=0     k 
frequency of the driving force

- Differential Equation of S.H.M 2π m

(1) Force → F = − mω2x or F = − k x ;  ω =  Time period T = = 2π
dt 2 x
 m ω k
ANGULAR S.H.M
- Displacement - x = A sin (ωt + φ) K → spring Constant d2 θ 2
(i) Different Equation → 2 tω θ = 0
dt
- Velocity -V = dx = ω A Cos(ωt + φ)
dt ⇒ Displacement → θ = θo sin (ωt + S)
- Acceleration - a = A sin(wt + ) = -ω2x
⇒ Torque → T = Kθ
Spring Block System
K −Kθ
⇒ Angular Velocity → W = ; Angular accelartion → ∝ =
Graph of a - t m I 1
Graph of X - t Time Period → T = 2π
X k eq I
⇒ Time period – T = 2π
A K
acceleration (a)
Displacement

0 t T
2 ω A
2

–A T t (i) keq = K1 + K2 K1 K 2 Physical Pendulum

(ii) Keq = ;
K1 + K 2
I
m :- Time period → T = 2π

PENDULUM
T = 2π ; m mgd
k eq T = 2π
Graph of v - t k eq
I : MoI of system
m
θ

T = 2π m(k1 + k 2 )
k1 + k 2 T = 2π M : Mass of System
T
2
K1 K 2 mg sinθ

d: distance between com and hinge

velocity (v)

T t

k1 k2
k1 k2
mg
m

Simple Pendulum Torsional Pendulum

m T∝θ
F ∝ -θ;
F = -Kθ; T = -Cθ [C = Torsional Constant]
ENERGY OF LINEAR S.H.M TWO BLOCKS SPRING SYSTEM 
Energy
m1m2 Time period → = 2π I
g
T.E

Reduced Mass: µ = Time period – T = 2π

m1 + m2 C
P.E

1 2
→ P.E → U = Kx
2 K.E

m1m2 I : Moment of Inertia

µ
1 -A A
X
T = 2π = 2π
K.E → K = K (A 2 − x 2 ) K (m1 + m2 ) k
2
1
→ P.E → U = K A 2 sin2 (ωt + φ)
K, U

Kmax or Umax or ET
2
k

1 P.E.
m2
m1

K.E → K = K A 2 cos2 (ωt + φ)

2
P.E.

ωt
 Some Important terms THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
THERMODYNAMICS
It is defined as change from one equilibrium Kelvin – Planck’s statement: Clausius Statement:
microstate.
“No process is passible, whose “No process is possible , whose
sale result is absorption of sole result is the transfer of
ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICES heat from reservoir and heat from a colder object to
the complete conversion of hotter object”
Branch of Physics that deals with concepts
Isothermal Process heat into work”
of heat and Temperature including
inter – conversion of heat to another Form.
P

System
Heat Engine Thermal Reservoir
Isothermal V
If two bodies A and B are individually in thermal θ
Process T1 (Source)
equilibrium with third body C, then A and B will . Engine that produces useful work. Q1
also be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
V T . Pumps heat from source and Heat
transfer to sink. W
Engine
. Temperature, T = constant
Q2 T
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS  V2  n = 1− = 1 − sink Q2
(1) W = nRTln   Q1 Tsource
A body of matter or radiation confined in  V1 
P
 V2  T2 Sink
spaced walls with definite Permeabilities
If the energy (Q) supplied to System goes in (2) W = 2.303 nRT log   Where Source > Tsink
separated from surrounding.  V1 
partly to increase the internal energy of system
(3) As, Q = ∆u for isothermal,
(∆U and rest in work on environment, Q = ∆U + W . T
∆u = 0, So, Q = W
Surrounding Warm
Heat Pump Refrigerator Environment TH
(1) Heat (Q) – Energy transfer to or from a QH
. It operates in a cycle.
thermodynamic system = nC∆T
Isobaric Process . It maintains body temperature
Heat
lower than surrounding Win
Pump
(2) ∆U – Energy associated with internal temperature by pumping out
configuration = nCv∆T Coefficient of performance
Everything external to the system is known Isobaric Process QL
as Surrounding. P P QH TH
= = Cold
(3) Area under P – V graph gives work done QH − QT TH − TT
Refrigerated TL
W = 12 ∫ P.dv
Types Of Systems V T

(1) In closed system, only energy transfer is

possible rather than mass, Point function and state function . Isobaric Process Carnot Engine
(2) In open system, both energy and mass 1 Qadd
transfer is possible. (1) W = nR∆T = P∆v V . Best Known reversible cycle. Iso
the
(i) Function whose value depends on initial and rm
al
(3) In isolated systems, both energy and mass (2) Q = ∆U + W . Isothermal expansion

We
final state of system is point function. 2

Ad

xpa
transfer is not possible. (ii) Function whose value depends on W1 = nRT ln  V2 

iab
(3) Pressure, P = Constant. P W

nsio
Ad
atic
T
thermodynamic process is called path Function.  V1  compression

iab

n
PV −PV 4 Isoth

atic
. Adiabatic Expansion, W2 = 2 2 3 3 erm
al
Y −1 3
Equilibrium in Thermodynamics V 
4
. Isothermal Compression, W3 = -nRT ln  V  Qrelease
 5 V
Adiabatic Process Isochoric Process
−(P4 V4 − P1V1 )
(1) When the temperature difference . Adiabatic compression W4 =
Y −1
between two bodies becomes zero then TSink
they are said to be in thermal Equilibrium. . n = 1−
TSource
(2) When all mechanical forces within the P P V
system are balanced to have zero P1V1 − P2 V2 Isochoric
acceleration system is in mechanical (1) W = Process
Y −1 Polytropic Process
equilibrium. Y – adiabatic constant V T
(3) When no chemical reaction occur within Adiabatic
reactants of system, then it is in chemical Process (1) PVn = Const ; n = polytropic index
(2) Q = O for this process θ Isobaric
(2) If n = o, isobaric process

Volume (V)
equilibrium. (1) Volume, V = Constant n=0
(4) System is in thermodynamic equilibrium if
(2) Work done, W = O P (3) If n = 1, isothermal process Isothermal
n=1
all three equilibrium are attained. (3) Q = ∆U + W ; W =∆U
(3) Q = ∆U + W so, Q = ∆U (4) If n = Y, Adiabatic process Adtabatic
n=γ
V Isochoric n=∞
(5) If n = , isochoric process

8
T Pressure P
 WORK WORK,ENERGY AND pOWER COLLISIONS

• Work is said to be done when Force • An instance of one moving body striking
produces displacement. with another
SPECIAL UNITS • Collision of car with truck, collision of
balls in snooker are examples.
• 1 hp = 746 W
WORK DONE BY
ALL FORCES CONSERVATION OF
• 1 KWH = 3.6 × 106 J
MOMENTUM
NATURE OF
(1) If netexternal force
mg Friction Tension on system is zero then
COLLISIONS
Linear momentum of • Value of coefficient of
VARIOUS FORMS 
system is conserved restitution defines
Spring (1) Heat energy (2) ∆P = O nature of collision,
Pseudo Normal
force (2) Chemical energy   Vseperation
POWER ENERGY (3) Electrical energy (3) Pi = Pf e=
Vapproach
(4) Nuclear energy  
(5) Mass – Energy (4) m1 µ1 + ........ + m1 µn • e = O, e = 1, O < e< 1
 
(1) Time rate at which work is done. • Capacity to do work is defined = m1 υ1 + ......... + m1 υn Defines nature of
• W = F d cosθ, equivalence
(2) It is a scalar quantity as Energy collisions
• S.I. unit is WORK DONE FOR
(3) S.I. Unit is watt. • It is a scalar quantity
J (joule) CONSTANT FORCE • S.I. unit is Joule (J) 1 - D COLLISION
& VARIABLE FORCE • In elastic collision,
(1) ( ∆ P) sys
=O
momentum and K.E of
WORK-ENERGY THEOREM
FORMULAE AVERAGE POWER (2) e = V2 − V1 system are conserved
  (1) Net Work done on an object by µ1 − µ 2 •e=1
(1) dW = F .dr Total Work done in time all forces will change in Kinetic • Bodies do not stick
dw t is average power energy of an object (3) V1 = together after collision
(2) P =
dt w (2) Wnet = ∆K
Pavg = Wconservative + Wnon–conservative + Wext = ∆K
 m1 − em2
µ1 +
(1+ e)m2 
µ2 
For small amount of work t 
 m1 + m2 m1 + m2  • In inelastic collision,
(3) W = ∫ F(x).dx, ∫ F(x).dx = ∆K + ∆V TYPES momentum is conserved
• Area under F.S graph gives • If work is done by variable velocity of first particle
if variable force does work . OF • o<e<I
force, then INSTANTANEOUS after collision.
work done  
r2 • Bodies do not stick
• work done = Area under W = ∫ F. dr POWER (4) V2 = COLLISIONS together after collision
ABCD r1 Scalar product of force m1 − (1+ e) m − em
µ1 + 2 µ2
and instantaneous
velocity (v) is
MECHANICAL m1 + m2 m1 + m2
velocity of second particle • In perfectly inelastic
WORK DONE BY instantaneous Power.
 ENERGY IS after collision Collison momentum is
  ds  
CONSERVATIVE & NON- Pinst = F . = F. V CONSERVED (5) Change in Kinetic
conserved
•e=O
WORK CAN BE CONSERVATIVE FORCES dt energy, ∆ K • Bodies sticks together
POSITIVE, NEGATIVE
1 m1m2   2 after collision
OR ZERO ENERGY IN SPRING ∆K = (µ1 − µ 2 ) (1 − e)
CONSERVATIVE FORCES NON – CONSERVATIVE TYPES OF MASS SYSTEM
2 m1 + m2

(1) Kx, mg and electrostatic

POSITIVE WORK
(1) If force and
displacement both
are ‘+’ or ‘-‘ and θ is
acute.
(2) If either of force or
displacement is
negative and θ is
between 90o to 180o.
(1) W = O, if Force is
(2) Either Force or
forces are conservative
forces,
(2) Work For these forces is
stored in the form of
Potential energy.
(3) They are path
independent.
ZERO WORK
perpendicular or to the
displacement.
displacement is zero.
FORCES ENERGY (1) Total mechanical
(1) Non – conservative forces
energy at each point is MOTION IN 2 - D COLLISION SPECIAL CASES
Constant. VERTICLE CIRCLE
are path dependent. (1) Bodies moving in a (1) hn = e2n ho
MECHANICAL ENERGY plane results in
(2) ∆K + ∆V =0 (1) In absence of dissipative e = coefficient of
(2) Friction is an example forces, mechanical arbitrary collision in
Sum of kinetic energy and ( Kinitial+Vinitial) = ( Kfinal+ Vfinal`) restitution.
of non – conservative different directions is
energy is conserved n = nth collision,
forces. potential energy 2 – D.
(3) maximum Velocity (2) V = 5 gl ho = initial height,
hn = height after nth
k
at bottom to reach top  collision
Vmax = xm (3) V = V = 3 gl (2) ∆P = O
m (2) Vn = enVo,
NEGATIVE WORK at bottom to cross ∆ Px = O n = nth collision,
quarter CIrcle m1µ1x + m2µ 2 x = m1v1x + m2 v 2 x Vo = initial velocity,
(1) If both force &
displacement are ‘+’or ‘-‘ vn = velocity after nth
(4) V = gl ∆ Py = O
and θ is between 90o to KINETIC ENERGY POTENTIAL ENERGY collision.
to reach quatre circle
180o. 1 • By virtue of Position, height, m1µ1y + m2µ 2 = m1v1y + m2 v 2 y  1 + e2 
• By Virtue of velocity K = mv 2 stresses within its & Electrostatic (5) Tension at any point
(3) H = ho  2 
(2) If either of force or
2 Factors; on circle,  1− e 
displacement is positive H = total distance
• Gravitational Potential mµ2
and θ is acute.
Energy = mgh T= − mg (2 − 3 cos θ) travelled before it stops
1
• Elastic Potential energy = kx 2 r
2  1 + e2  2ho
• Electrostatic Potential (6) Velocity at any point (4) T =  2 

on circle,  1− e  g
energy = kq1q2 T = time taken by ball
r V 2 = µ 2 − 2gl (1− cos θ)
to stope bounding.
 q ne
Kirchoff's laws
Resistance depending on temperature
• Resistivity of conductor increase with increase in tempreature.
Electric Current •
Current, I = =
t t
In case of electron revolving in a circle of radius r with speed V, 1st law/
Junction law
2nd law/loop
rule
• Resistivity of semiconductor decreases with increases in temperature • Period of revolution, T = 2πr
V • Algebraic sum of Algebraic sum in
S.I. Unit Ampere Rate of flow • Frequency of revolution, f = V
all the current
meeting at
potential around
(A) Coulomb Second 2πr
any closed loop
junction is zero. is zero
i.e., εI = 0
• Current at any point of orbit is I = e = eV
T 2πr
Instaneous, i = dθ Average, i = ∆θ
• Resistance, (R) Ohm's Law dt ∆t
Current density, (J) Meter bridge Balanced Condition
By convection, direction of flow of positive
Current per unit cross-section Based on wheat of wheat stone
charge is taken as direction of flow of current. bridge
• If physical condition remain same current Drift velocity (Vd) area perpendicular to current stone bridge P R
I α V =» V = IR flow. I E P R  R =
J= = = = =
Q S 100 −  S
Q S
• R-electric resistance substances which Drift velocity (Vd) A1 ρ
ρ
R= Obey Ohm's law called Ohmic and that do
A
• Unit of Resistance Ohm (Ω) not obey called non-ohmic substances. Potential gradient (x) Sensitivity of
• Ohm's law is not valid for semi-conductor Potentiometer Potential difference per potentiometer
• Dependency of R on temperature (T)
• For Ohmic substances tan θ = V = R ne AτE 2
V Used to E  unit length of wire • A potentiometer is
i = neAVd = = neAlleE = neAµ e (i) compare emfs 1
= 1
R2 = R1(1 + ∝ (T2 – T1)) I m  E2 2 x = V = Volt more sensitive, if it
E L m measures a small
∝ = Temperature coefficient of resistance Average uniform velocity acquired by (ii) final internal resistance of cell r =  − 1 S
V   e  R potential difference
free electron, where, V = iR =  × more accurately.
• Symbol  (R + Rn + r)  L
i J V eE
Vd = = = or τ
neA ne ρne m
Resistance colour code
• Rheostate is variable resistance Vd = µeE (τ is avg. time between collisions)
Vd
mobility, µe = (ρ is resistivity unit is Ω.m)
E
Resistance colour code In terms of relaxation time τ1
R = 1st digit – 2nd digit × 3rd digit + 4th digit%
ml m
R= 2
and ρ= When cell is discharging
Conductivity (σ) ne τA ne2 τ
1 1 1 1 When cell is discharging current inside the cell is
Conductance, C = = n, τ, and ρ are properties of material.
Resistance R
σ= =
Resistivity ρ from cathode to anode current I = E
Unit is mho (Ω )
–1
r +R
Unit = 1 = 1 or mho Electric Energy and Power or E = IR + Ir = V + Ir or V = E – Ir
Ωm ohm ⋅ m m

Grouping of Resistance Principle of bulb When cell charging

Parallel grouping of resistance •
2
Resistance of bulb, R = V or R ∝ 1 (V and P is rated value on bulb)
Series grouping of resnstance P P When cell is charging current inside the cell is
• Equivalent resistance,
• Equivalent resistance, RS = R1 + R2 + R3 ..... from anode to cathode.
1 1 1 1 • In parallel, P = P1 + P2
= + + + ....
Rp R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 Current, I = V − E or V = E + Ir
• In Series, = +
• Current flow through each resistance is same. P P1 P2 r
• Potential difference, V ∝ R • In parallel a bulb having more rated power glows more brightly.
When cell is open circuit
• In series a bulb having less rated power glows more brightly. R=∞
• Potential difference across
Some Important Formula E
each resistance same
• Heat energy developed across a resistor I= = 0 and V = E
• After stretching, it length R+r
current distribution,
1 in each H = I2Rt; t = time
increases by n times then I∝
resistance, R
resistance will increase by n2
• Power, P = I2R = V
2 When cell is short circuited
times i.e., R
1
Electric Cell : R = 0 and I = −E and V = IR = 0
If radius be reduced to n �mes then area of P2Rc R+r
1 Source of energy that maintains • For transmission cable, power loss, ρc = I2Rc = , P = const.
Vc2
cross-sec�on decreases n2 �me so the continuous flow of charge in a
• resistance become n4 times i.e., R2 = n4R1 circuit. Power transferred to load by cell
w E2R
Using n conductors of equal resistance, the number EMF of cell, ε =
q
Grouping of cells P = I2R = and P = Pmax
of possible combina�on is 2n–1. (r + R)2

If the resistance of n conductors are totally Cell in series, Cell in parallel if dP and P = Pmax if r = R
different, then the numbers of possible dR
Cells in series and parallel
• combination will be 2n. nε nε ε
i.e., mixed current in the circuit, I = Current in the circuits, I = Current in the circuit, I = 2 2
nr
+R R + nr R+
r Pmax = E = E
m m 4r 4R
 QUANTIZATION ELECTRIC ELECTRIC DIPOLE
OF CHARGES CHARGES ELECTROSTATICS A pair of Equal and opposite point • Electric field due to Electric Dipole
• Charge is an intrinsic charges repeated by fix distance (i) Electric Field (E.F.) on the axis of dipole
All charges must be integral
multiple of e i.e.
CONSERVATION property of matter by at a distance r from center of dipole:
virtue of which it experience Electric Dipole Moment
Q = ne (e = 1.6 × 10-19C) OF CHARGES Electric & Magnetic Effect

p = q (2a ) cm E=
−kq
+
kq
=
k 2qa 2
Where — n = integer
• Two kinds of charges +ve (γ − a )2 (rta )2 (r 2 − a 2 )2
It is not possible to create or
and -ve (ii) Electric field at a distance r from
destroy net charge of an
• S.I. Unit Coulomb(c) centre of dipole
 on its Equatorial line:
isolated system ELECTRIC FLUX −kP
E net =
Total number of electric field lines 3

passing normally throng an area (r + a )

2 2 2

 
COULOMB'S LAW −φ = ∫ E .ds • Electrical potential due to Electric Dipole:
 
Electric Flux (φ ) = E ds cos θ KP
• Force between two charged (i) Axial → Vp =
particles (r 2 − a 2 )

 Kq q r Kq q rˆ (ii) Equatorial → Vp = 0
F= 1 2
= 1 2
ELECTRIC FIELD GAUSS LAW
3
r 2
r • Force and Torque on dipole in uniform

 lim F It states, total flux of an E.F. external (E.F.)
1 −2 • Electric field intensity (E) ⇒ E = 
k= = 9 × 10 NM C
4 2
q0 → 0 q0 through a closed surface is equal Force → F net = qE − qE = 0
4πε 0  1 Q  to times of total charge   
In vector Form— E = r enclosed by the surface. Torque → L = PESinθ = P × E
ε 0 = Permitivity of Free Space 4πε 0 r 2
S.I Unit − =
N V THEORY OF CONDUCTOR Total Flux through surface Work Done in Rotating Dipole
= 8.854 × 10−12 C 2 / Nm 2 q enclosed → q → W = PE (cos θ 1 − cos θ 2 )
C m A material having free electrons in its valence shell (φ ) = E dS =
→
dS  
• Forces In Vector Form is called conductor.
ε0 0
E
→
• Potential Energy → U = −PE cos θ = P .E
• Electric Field Intensity due to point
 • Inside a conductor, the net electrostatic field is zero
1 q 1q 2   charge Q
F12 = (r − r2 ) 1 Q • At the surface of a charged conductor, the
4πε 0 r1 − r2 3 1 (E ) = electrostatic field must be normal to the surface at
4πε 0 r 2 every point
• Forces between Multiple • Net Electric Field with respect toorigi • The interior of a conductor can have no excess charge
Charges
1 n qi  in the static situation i.e. excess charge reside only on
 q h q 
Fnet = 0 ∑ 2i roi
E net = ∑ r
4πε 0 i = 1 roi2 oi
the outer surface of conductor.
4πε 0 i = 1 roi • Electric field at the ssurface of a Charged conductor ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
• Electric field due to finite length line  σ
charge at distance r from conductor − E =  where, σ is Surface charge density.
 ε0 
λ  π • Work done By External charge to move • Electric potential Energy: Amount of
E || = cos 0 − cos
ELECTRIC FIELD LINES 4πε 0r  2 
 1  from postion 1 to 2 in static Electric work done(w) required to be done to
 σ = Field E.   2 
move a charge from infinity to any
radius of curvature 
λ Wext = ∫ F .dl = −q ∫ E .dl
• E⊥ =  sin φ2 + sin φ1   given point inside the Field.
Aways normal to conducting surface. 4πε 0 r  • Electric potential P  
1 A  

• Lines originating from +ve charge W (∞ → P )  U A = W∞→ A = −q ∫ E .dl = qVA
(Here, l is linear charge density) → Vp = ext = − ∫ E .dl
• Terminating at -ve charge Case(I): E.F due to Infinite line charge
q ∞
−∞

• Never intersect Each other. π λ • Electric Potential due to a point charge • Work done in moving charge from A to
φ1 = φ2 = → F1 = ;E =0
• Never form closed loop. 2 2πε 0r || Kq B will be:
• Electric Field lines are in its surrounding: → Vp = Wext = ∆U = ( U B − U A ) = q (VB − VA )
Case(II): E.F due to semi-Infinite line r
imaginary. charge • Electric Potential due to a point • Electric potential Energy due to two
(i) uniform Electric Field π λ charged ring at its center: point charges:
φ1 = , = φ2 = 0 → E || = F⊥ =
(ii) Non-Uniform E.F. 2 4πε 0 r Kdg Kθ Kq 1q 2
V = ∫ dv = = ∫ U=
(iii) Radial Electric Field • Electric field due to charged spherical R R r
• Electric Field due to a charged Circular shell or conducting sphere • Electric potential due to conducting and
ring at a point on its Axis. Non-Conducting sphere: • Electric potential Energy of a system
e = (r < R ) = 0

Fele
→
(i) Inside (r < R) of charges:
kQx (ii) Outside (r > R) 1 1 Kq 3q 4
→ Ep = 1 Q U (Total) = kq 1q 2 + Kq 2q 3 + + ...
→ E 3
e = (r > R ) =
E (R
+x 2
)
2 2
4πε 0 r 2
(iii) At surface (r = R) r12 r23 r34

→
dl
• Relation Between Electric Field and

+
Hollow conducting
• Electric field due to a plane Infinite sheet
1 Q Kq Potential:
(i) Non-Conducting sheet: e = (r = R ) = Vp =

Fext
Electric Field at a point is negative of

→
σ 4πε 0 R 2 R
UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD NON- UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD E⊥ = (Charge density) + + • Electric field due to a solid non-conducting Kq potential gradient
2ε 0 + + Vp =
 −dv 

O1
(ii) Charged conducting plate + + sphere - (f = Volume charge density) r
potential gradient → E =
+ + + Vp =
Kq  dr 
+
σ + + kQr fr
EI 1 E = (r < R ) =
+ +
E⊥ = 2
= R

+
++
++ + + +
2
EI
+ +
+
++ +
(Near Point)
P
ε0 + + EII R3 3ε 0 Solid Non-Conducting

O2
+ +
+
+
+
E EII + + 2
+ + + kQ 1Q Kq
E = (r > R ) =
+ +
+
+ + Note - independent of +3 + = Vp =  3R − r 2 
+++ seperation from E1= + + E2= r 2 4πε 0r 2 2R 3
I + + II
+
+ +
+ the sheet Kq Kq
+
+ + 1 Q Vp = Vp =
= Surface charge
density E EI E = (r = R ) = r R
II
Enet = 0 (Inside point) 4πε 0 R 2
RADIAL ELECTRIC FIELD
 WEIGHTLESSNESS
GRAVITATION (1) During Free fall under gravity in
side a spacecraft or satellite, body
KEPLER's is weightless.
LAW OF
(2) Effective weight of body becomes
PLANETARY Zero.
MOTION
GEOSTATIONARY & POLAR
SATELLITE

(1) GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITE

Height from earth’s surface = 36,000 km
RADIUS = 42,400 Km
LAW OF ORBIT Time Period = 24 hours.
Every planet revolves around the
sun in an elliptical orbit and sun is GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL (2) POLAR SATELLITE
at it’s one of the foci points. NEWTON'S LAW OF & GRAVIATATION POTENTIAL
Height from earth’s surface = 330 Km
Time Period = 84 Min
GRAVITATION Orbital Velocity = 7.92 Km/s
POLAR ORBIT
• Energy required to bring a mass T = 2-3

THE gravitational Force acting between GRAVITATIONAL from an infinite position to point
two bodies separated by distance ‘r’ is ACCELERATION under gravitational field of earth
directly proportional to product of their with constant velocity
masses and inversely proportional to Gm 1 m 2 ROTATION OF EARTH
T = 24 hours
square of distance between them At surface of earth,
u=
r
Gm1m2 SUPERPOSITION
Fgravitational = Weight • Generally, infinite is reference
F= GmMe point
r2 PRINCIPLE IN VECTOR Mg =
Rc2
LAW OF AREA −11 Nm2 FORM Amount of work done in moving a ESCAPE SPEED &
⇒ G = 6.67 × 10 Gme unit test mass from  - position
(i) The line joins any planet to the Kg2 gs = ENERGY CONSERVATION
sun sweeps equal area in equal     Rc2 to point under gravitational field
intervals of time F1 = F12 + F13 + ....... + F1n of earth
dA L Gm U Minimum speed required by an
(ii] = V= = object to escape Gravitational
dt 2m 1 + h −2 r M
 gn = gs ( ) (i) Field of Earth
(iii) Areal velocity is constant r1 = position of first particle Rc
Ve =
2GM
= 2gR
 2 2
(3R − r ) R
r2 = position of second particle (i) r < R → v = −GM
if h <<<< Rc (ii) 2R3 Ve = 11.2 Km/s
 SUPERPOSITION
r12 = Force between them. GM
2h (ii) r = R → v = −
PRINCIPLE IN SCALAR FORM gh = gs (1 − ) (iii) R
 Gm m Rc GM
F12 =  1 22 r12 (iii) r > R → v = −
r
Resultant force acting on a
r1 − r2
particle due to other particles is Variation of ‘g’ with depth
 
 Gm m (r − r ) vector sum of forces exerted by Strength of Gravitational field
GM
LAW OF PERIODS F12 = 1 2
  3
1 2
individual particle in it d
applied per unit test mass is (i) orbital velocity =
r
gd = gs (1 − ) defined as Gravitational Field
r1 − r2 Rc Intensity (ii) Total energy of satellite =
(i) The square of time period of Ms
F1 = F12 + F13 + ……. + F1n ME  −GM Constant
E = 2 r
revolution of a planet is
proportional to cube of semi –   K.E + P.E = constant
F12 = − F21 r GMM GMM
major axis of an ellipse (iii) Total energy = =
2r r
(ii) T 2 ∝ R3 Y Relation between GMM
=−
4π2R3 Gravitational potential 2r
r21 Variation of ‘g’ from equator to pole
(iii) T 2 = m1 F12 r1
F01
Gm m2 & Intensity m
h
F21 rn r2 R+h
F02
r1
F0n
g = g − Rw 2 cos2 dv v0

(i) E = R

r2 dr
r3 F03
 
Mr (ii) ∆V = ∫ E . dr
O X
 SPEEDS OF GAS MOLECULES SPECIAL RELATIONS RELATION BETWEEN KINETIC SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY DEGREES OF FREEDOM
. Pressure exerted by a gas, ENERGY AND TEMPERATURE
Root Mean square speed: 1 2 . Specific heat capacity for an ideal gas,
P= ∫ Vrms . For monoatomic gas, F = 3
. Square root of mean of square 3 3KT 1 CP − CV = R
. Kinetic Energy = = mv 2rms
of speed of different molecules, . Relation between pressure 2 2
CP 5
V12 + V22 + ............... + Vn2 and Kinetic Energy. Kinetic Energy of Gas molecule. . For diatomic gas, =Y= . For diatomic gas,
Vrms = CV 3
n 3 1 3RT (a) at room temperature, F=5
E= PV . K.E = mv 2rms =
2 2 2 CP 7
3RT 3P . For diatomic gas, =Y= (b) at high temperature, F = 7
Vrms = = Kinetic energy of one mole of molecule. CV 5
M ∫

1 3RT CP 4+ f
. K.E = mv 2rms = . For polyatomic gas, =Y=
Average Speed: Most probable speed: 2 2m CV 3+f . For polyatomic gas,
. Arithmatic mean of speed of . Speed possessed by maximum Kinetic energy of one gram of gas molecule. and f is degrees of freedom. (a) at room temperature , F = 6
molecules of gas at given number of molecules of gas.
(b) at high temperature, F = 8 , f degree of
temperature. . CP = (1 + f ) R , C = f R
vmp =
2RT
=
2P 2 V
2 freedom.
Vavg = I V1 I + I V2 I + ....... + I VnI Mo ∫
n Cp 2
8RT 8P . Y= = 1+
Vavg = = CV f
πM π∫

Average distance travelled by

ASSUMPTIONS IN KINETIC IDEAL GAS LAWs molecules between two
THEORY OF GASES successive collision
. Pressure, Temperature and 1
Gas consists of small λmean =
particles known as Molecules. volume of Gas are related to 2 πd2n
each other by following
Molecular of Gas are equation, PV = nRT. d = diameter of molecules.
identical rigid sphere and n = no. of molecules per
elastic points mass. . P – pressure, V – volume, n – no. unit volume
of moles; R = Universal Gas
Molecular of Gas moves Constant = 8.314 J/mol.k ;
randomly in al directions T – Temperature.
with possible velocity.
m n
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
. PV = RT ; PV = KT DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL
mA nA
PRESSURE

Boyle’s Law Charlee’s Law Gay lussac’s law LAW OF EQUIPARTITION OF ENERGY

. The total Kinetic energy

of a gas molecule is equally
P PV V V/T
P P/T distributed among it’s all
degrees of freedom.
V V
f
U= K BT
T V T P

. For Fixed mass, pressure of gas
is inversely proportional to
volume.
. PV = constant, if T = Cosntant
. P1V1 = P2V2 When gas changes it’s
state under constant
temperature.
. For a Fixed mass, volume of gas
is directly proportional to
temperature.
. V α T; = constant; P = constant.
. 3 PV ,When gas change its state
2
under constant pressure.
2
F = degrees of freedom.
KB = Boltzmann Constant. Total pressure of a mixture of non –
. For a fixed mass, pressure of a reacting gas is equal to summation of
gas is directly proportional to pressure of individual Gasses.
its temperature. . For monoatomic gas, U = 3 K B T
2
. P α T; = constant; V = constant. P = P1 + P2 + P3 +………..+ Pn
. When gas change its state . For diatomic gas, U = 5 K B T
under constant Volume. 2
 MOVING COIL CURRENT CARRYING LOOP
BIOT – SAVART’S LAW MAGNETIC FIELD FLEMING'S LEFT-HAND RULE
GALVANOMETER AS MAGNETIC DIPOLE
If we stretch our finger’s like Image, then
The Biot – Savart law gives the The Region around a magnet in our thumb gives direction Force, Index It works on the principle that a The Current Carrying Coil behaves
Relationship of magnetic field which its magnetic influence can Force
finger gives direction of Magnetic Field & current carrying Coil in uniform as a bar magnet and magnetic
at any point with current   be experienced
 is called magnetic Middle Finger gives current. magnetic Field, experience a Torque. moment of Such Coil Can be
Carrying element. µ o d × r Field. ( )
B
expressed as M = niA ,
dB = ∫ . Torque - τ = nBiA
4π
3
r . S.I unit Tesla ( T ). F n = Number of Coils
Y Magnetic field n = Number of coils
. Denote Coming out. A = Area
θ A = Area re
idl . Denote going into the paper. Co S
Current r . Restoring Torque = τ = Kφ
P dB current
element Current
φ = Deflection F Magnetic →
F = nBil moment M
l RIGHT-HAND RULE
i . In Equillibrium = τ = nBiA = Kφ
B i =K φ
Holding a currant carrying conductor in
Current nBA
 X right hand in such a way that thumb Points
 µ0 i dl × r in the direction of current and curling φ nBA
4π ∫ r 3
In vector form : B = Current sensitivity : Si = =
finger’s gives direction of magnetic field. i K
Clockwise Anti-clockwise
φ Si nBA
Voltage sensitivity : S V = = = Direction of current in Coil show’s
i R KR
AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW Polarity

B
This Law states that the line θ ATOMIC MAGNETISM Orbital Current
Bohr Magneton
integral of magnetic field B
i5
MOVING CHARGES The magnetic moment associated The orbital Current generated
v
around a closed loop is equal to i3 ACW
µ0 times the net current enclosed
i1
i2
AND MAGNETISM with an electron which is revolving When an electron revolves, due to by electron revolving around
nucleus −I = eω
+Ze
by the loop. in First orbit of an atom. its movement it behaves as a +
2π r e–
  i4
φ B . dl = µo ∑ i enclosed current carrying loop and Produce Fe
MAGNETIC FORCE ON A
It is represented as:-
magnetic Field. This is Known as ω is angular velocity of
eh I(current)
MAGNETIC FIELD OF µB = = 0.923 × 10 −23 Am2 Atomic Magnetism. electron.
MAGNETIC FIELD OF TOROID : MOVING CHARGED PARTICLE
LONG SOLENOID : 4 πm
B = µ0ni ; Here, n = N → Magnetic Induction at Nucleus Position
F (Force vector) e = electronic charge
2πr Relation Between Magnetic Moment µ I µ ew
m = mass of electron B= o = o
r = average radius N S and Angular Momentum of Charge 2r 4 πr
N = Total number of h = Planck & Constant Particle r = orbital Radius, I = orbital current
→
B
turns in toroid. qL M q Magnetic Moment circular orbit
B = µ0ni M= = =
B 2m L 2m
M = IA =
ewr 2 evr
= A = Area of orbit.
N = Number of turn's per Case 2: x x x x x x
θ →
v x v v x x where, M = Magnetic Moment 2 2
unit length. q x F
charge v F x x
F
L = mvr – Angular Momentum
i = Current flowing 
x x x
   x F F x x
m = mass of particle.
F = q(V × B) , F = q VB Sinθ x x v
+q x x
x x v x x Torque Acting on Work done in Rotating a coil Potential Energy of a Coil
MAGNETIC FIELD OF SOME SPECIAL θ = Angle between direction of o
x x x x x x current Carrying Coil: placed in magnetic Field: Placed in Magnetic Field:
CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTORS motion of charge and magnetic Field.
When charge Particle moving W = MB ( 1 − Cosθ ) U = − MB Cosθ
τ = nBiA Sinθ  
. Power delivered by Magnetic Force Perpendicular to magnetic Field:- = − M.B
N = Number of turns Here, M = Magnetic Moment
Shape of current Formula Special case to Charged Particle is always zero. Magnetic Force – F = qvB Sin900 = qvB
mv 2 mV
A = Area of coil.
carrying conductor     ∴ = q vB ⇒ r =
Y P = F . V = υ [∴ (F ⊥ V) r qB
I = current  
Radius of circular- Path r=
mV Magnetic moment − M = i A
  
φ2
P  µ i For infinitely qB
φ1 
B = o (Sinφ1 + Sinφ2 ) η 2πm
i r
4 πr long conductor. Path of charged particle in External Time period – T = qB ∴τ = M × B
X Magnetic Field:- y

i
B v⊥ v
Case 1: Case 3: MAGNETIC EFFECT
 µ i θ  Force between two Parallel
B= o ( )η For Semicircular
2 πr 360o OF CURRENT Current Carrying Conductor’ s
θ
r arc. When charge
0 Particle is moving z q χ
+
µoi1i2
v Force on current carrying F1 = F2 = F = ×L
in any orbitary 2 πa
pitch
conductor in magnetic field a = distance between two
r  µ i direction with radius
B= o η  r = radius of Coil. Helical motion
In uniform Magnetic Field the wires.
O
B
2 πr respect to Magnetic   dF
i
Field:- Magnetic Force F = q (V × B) = qvB sin θ total force acting on conductor L = Length of wires.
When charged particle is moving →
of Length L is expressed as, i B i1 i2
parallel or antiparallel to magnetic Charge particle follow Helical path.   
dl
r  µoir 2 X = distance Field: Magnetic Force F = qvB sinθ = 0 Radius of Helix – r = mV Sin θ = mV ⊥ F = i(L × B) = iLB Sin θ
P B= from the center qB qB
Charge Particle move un – deviated
B
O x
2(x 2 + r 2 )3/ 2 2 πr θ = Angle made by current a
i of coil. Radius of Path is r = Time Period – T =
qB direction with magnetic Field.
8
 MAGNETIC FLUX INDUCED ELECTRIC PROPERTIES
LENZ’S LAW ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION FIELD
It is defined as the number of
magnetic field lines passing through
a surface normally. This Law states that polarity When magnetic field in a region . Induced electric field is different
of induced emf is such that it varies with time then an electric from electric field produced due to
φB = B . A = BACOSθ tends to produce a current field will induce within and stationary charges.
SELF INDUCTANCE outside that region.
which apposes the change in Induced current;
B magnetic flux that produced it. . Induced electric field Lines always
A i = 1 -dφB φE . dl = -dφ
dt form closed curves.
S N R dt . Inherent properly which the change
in current.
ACW Induce charge; . For induced electric field φE . dl = 0
v q = ( ∆φB )
. Dimensional Formula: [ ML2 T-2 A-2 ] but for electrostatic field φE . dl = 0 ,
N S . When current flowing in coil
always.
R
change with respect to rime, then
. SI unit: henry, wb/A or 5/A2 self – inductance;
rest . The direction of induced electric field
L = -E will be same as direction of induced
ELECTROMAGNETIC MOTIONAL EMF dI / dt current.
INDUCTION N S
SOLENOID dB
CW in cylindrical
v . When current flowing in coil is dt
It is phenomena of inducing an b constant then Coefficient of space (B )
N S 2
electric field or emf in a self – inductance;
d
conductor by varying the v
magnetic field. rest L = φtotal
1
B I
a
METHODS TO CHANGE . When a conductor moves in a magnetic
FARADAY’S LAW field it will experience a force and
IN MAGNETIC FLUX
emf is induced in the coil, This emf is µ0N2A MUTUAL
know as motional emf. . L= Concentric circular field lines of
This Law states that magnitude α l INDUCTANCE Einduce (inside/outside)
of the induced emf in a circuit E= ( dl x v ).B
. Magnetic flux can be increased D
A = Cross-section Area
is equal to the rate of change by increasing the strength of l = Length
in magnetic flux through a circuit. The phenomena in which emf is
magnetic field and Vice – versa. N = No. of turns (N1) I1
E = dφb = - d ( BACOSθ ) induced in a circuit due to change
STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR
in magnetic flux in its neighbouring A
dt dt . The magnetic flux can be IN B
circuit is called Mutual Induction.
increased by increasing the STRIAIGHT CONDUCTOR ROTATING
area of coil and vice – versa. IN MAGNETIC FIELD (N2) S

. When coils are Co – axial;

. The magnetic flux can vary B . When current in primary coil is M12 = µ0N1N2A
from maximum to, minimum v b constant, then coefficient of
l
value for variation in θ. mutual inductance;
a M = N2φ2 = n2B2A2
. The magnetic flux can be dx I1
I1
R – L DC CIRCUIT increased by increasing the B N2 N1
number of coils. x B . When current in primary coil
Induced emf, E = BWl2 change with respect to time, r2
A O
CURRENT GROWTH then coefficient of mutual
Induced emf, E = 1 BWl2 inductance; M = -E2
CURRENT DECAY 2 r1 I1
dI1
R L dt
I L R L R
ENERGY STORED IN COMBINATIONS OF INDUCTORS (r1 >> r2)
+ – AN INDUCTOR COIL
I1 L1 L2 I2 L3 AC GENERATOR
E Switch A . When coils are concentric and
a
A L R coplanar;
−t
a I M = µ0N1N2πr22
. I = Io (I − e ) z
S e1 e2
E b e e . It works on the principle 2r
L
. Decay constant t= E i . Ls = L1 + L2 of EMI.
R −t i
. I = Io e z
I I
(dI/dt)
I I1 I2 . Magnetic flux,
EDDY CURRENT
φB= NBACOSWt
(dI/dt)
E/L – line I0 – line e e
E/L I0 I
E L1 L2 L3
I0 – line
I0 (E/L) – line
0.63 I0 (E/L)
. Induced emf E = -dφB
Exp. Decay Exp. Decay Exp. Decay
I The current induced in a conductor
1
0.37 I0 . U = LI2 1 1 1
dt when placed in a changing magnetic
t=0 t= t t=0 t 2 . = + = NBAω Sin wt
t=0 t= t=0 t= t
Lp L1 L 2 flux is known as eddy currents.
 Pressure INTRODUCTION
Gauge Pressure SURFACE TANSION Excess Pressure Inside a Curved Liquid Surface
P=F Anything which can
A flow like liquid & Excess pressure inside Excess pressure inside a Excess pressure inside a
Exass Pressure over Force acting per unit Gases Known as Surface energy the drop cavity or air bubble in liquid soap bubble
the Atmospheric Area. Fluids. 2S 2S 4S
Pressure (Po - Patm Pex = (Pi + P0 ) Pex = + ρ gh Pex = Pi - P0 =
Additional potential r r r
Measured with P0 2S
energy exhibited by Pinside = Patm + + ρgh
instrument. r
liquid molecules present
Pgauge = P – P0 = rgh F1 h1 dr Pout = Patm
A at the surface of the
h2 molecules. P0
P0
L P1 h
Atmospheric MECHANICAL PROPERTIES r r Pi
P
Pressure A OF FLUIDS Pin
F2
Force exerted by
Atmospheric Column
on Unit area at
ANGLE OF CONTACT
Archimedes Principle Cohesive Force and Adhesive Force
mean sea level.
[P0 = 1.013 × 105 N/m2]
“Whenever a body is immersed Law of Floating Shape of Meniscus Cohesive Force:- Attractive Force between the molecules of same
inside a liquid then an up thrust materials.
forces states acting on it, VS V = Volume of body Angle between tangent Plane at the liquid surface and tangent plane
b
Hydraulic Paradax whose magnitude is Equal to the = Vs = Volume of at point of contact of solid. Adhesive Force:- A Hr active Force between the molecules of
weight of the liquid displaced”. l
V submerged part. different Materials.
water is filled to a Relation between FC FC FC
Upthrust Force - F B ∫b = density of body. FA > FA = FA <
height H behind a = (∫e × g × Vd) = weight of liquid cohesive and 2 2 2
∫e = density of liquid. adhesive force
dam of width w. The displaced. convex surface Capillarity
resultant Pressure FA FA horizontal surface FA
∫l = density of liquid. concave surface
on dam will be – It is Property due to which liquid elevates & depressed in a
Pnet = rgH g = gravity ; Vd = volume of Case – I [Vs < V ∫b < ∫l] FR
FC FR
FC
FR
FC
capillary Tube. The Rise in height of liquid in
liquid displaced. water water mercury

Case – 2 [Vs = V ∫b = ∫l] glass silver glass 25 Cos

capillary tube is given by – h =
Angle of contact θ < 90 ο θ = 90ο θ > 90ο r g
Case – 3 [Vs > V ∫b > ∫l]
(Acute angle) (Right angle) (Obtuse angle)
Pascal Law Hydraulic Brakes Shape of meniscus Concave Plane Convex
Wetting property Liquid wets the solid Liquid does not wet Liquid does not wet the
Whenever external A1d1 = A2d2 HYDRODYNAMICS surface the solid surface solid surface VISCOSITY
Pressure is applied Level of Liquid Liquid rises up Liquid neither rises Liquid does not wet the
D
on any part of Fluid nor falls solid surface
Contained in a Vessel, Example Glass-Water Silver-Water Glass-Mercury Stoke’s Law:-
it is transmitted Equation of
undiminished and B C Continuity Newton’s Law of Viscosity:- When a small sphere of radius
equally in all direction r is moving with velocity v
dv
Speed of Efflux: VB = 2g H Viscous Force F= nA through a homogeneous Fluid,
is known as Pascal Law. A1V1 = A2V2 dx
Applications P0 A = Area then viscous force acting on
A
A dv sphere – FV = 6 πnrv;
velocity Gradient= dx Where n = Coefficient of
h
Magnus Effect: viscosity; Unit of n = Poise.
Characteristics of H V
force on ball B
Hydraulic lift Hydraulic Machine Ideal Fluids speed of air flow
increases H –h
pressure
reduces Terminal Velocity
PA = PB = PC = PO Incompressible
F1 F F1A 2 Spin
H = Height from the Top
P1 = = P2 = 2 , F2 = FA FB FC FD
A1 A2 A1 . Non – Viscous Constant Velocity achieved Before net force on a body
Venturi meter: The entering
A B C D . Irrotational becomes Zero.
Lever system . Steady (Liminas) speed of air flow decreases Velocity of fluids is given by
To other pressure increased
wheels Tube T P 2 gh
V1 = A 2
Blowing off of thin Roof in A2
1
A 22
F1
Wheel P1 P2 Master storm: Reynold number
cylinder cylinder
Brake
pedal
Bernoulli Theorem p p0 p0
A2 wind v large so Vd
A1
Brake p<p0 It tell us about the nature of fluid flow Re =
p0 h
n
shoe
P + ∫gh + ∫V2 = Constant
F2 S1 S2
P = Pressure; V = Volume Where ∫ = density; V = velocity; d = pipe parameter.
A1 V2
∫ = density ; h = height V1
Critical speed:- Maximum Value of speed for which fluid will
Hydraulic Brakes
g = gravity H
A2
remain laminar. [VC = Ren/∫d]
Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion Nuclear Fusion
. Splitting of a heavy nucleus . Combining two lighter nuclei to form a heavy nucle us.
into or more lighter nucler. Nuclear 1 1
→ 21 H +e + +v +0.42 (energy )
235 n1 141 92 n1 1H+ 1H
e.g ⇒ 92 U +0 → 56 Ba + 36 kr + 30 + 200Mev
Application
. Uncontrolled chain reaction: principle of atomic bank. Nuclear fussion is the source of energy in the sun and stars.
. Contralled chain reation: principle of nuclear reactors.
Fusion
Nuclear of an atom onsists of proton and
Nuclear Fission neutrons collectively called nucleons. Nuclei can be

. Isotoper (same Z but different A)

Representation . Isobars (same A but different Z)
. Isotores (same N but different A) discoverd by henri
Becquerel in 1896
zxA
A = mass number
z = Atomic number

Radio activity
Nuclear Force theory
. Nuclear force is a force which
holds the nucleons together. Phenomenon of Disintegrakon
of heavy elements into
n
comparatively lighter elements
Rodius of a nucleus by emission of α, β, & γ radiations.
R = R0 A 1/3 { R0 = 1-2fm}
Binding Energy of Nucleus
. Density of Nucleus (S)
⇒ B .E = Dmc 2
⇒ B .E = [zmp + (A - Z ) m n - m n ]c 2 Mass Mass of 1 nucleon × A α decay β− decay γ decay
=
Volume 4 1 . radiations are the two types
(Where, c is the speed of light π R 3 = π R 03A z γ -decay office an α or
3 2 helium nuclei. These
c = 3 × 108 m/sec) - decay, nucleus vibrates
. Nuclear density is constant its . For atomic number < 20, most are emitted as β + (positron) β (Electrons)
B .E with the energy shared
⇒ B .E per nucleon = value is nearly 2.38 × 1017 kg/m3 stable nuclei have n:p ratio A-4 A →0 β + A Y + ν by it and electromagnetic
No . of nucleons A 4 z X
z X → 2 He + z − 2 Y
nearly 1:1 −1 z+1 ↓
waves of very high
. Mass of nucleus is measured . For atomic number > 83, there (electron) (antineutrina)
Nuclear binding energy is maximum for α-particle frequency (α-radition) are
in atomic mass unit (u) or (amu) are no stable nuclei. (Product)
mass number 50-60. Daughter emitted
1 amu (or u) = 1/12 (mass of C12) atom . A nucleus is stable when its A
→ +01 β + zA− 1 Y + V
nuclei z X least ionizing power but
= 1.6 × 10-27 kg Binding energy per nucleus (nutrino)
(Position) highest penetrating power.
value is around 8 mev per . highest ionizing power
nucleon or more. but least penetrating . less ionizing power than α
. Mass defect
. Following are observations from power. -particle and moderate
The difference (∆m) between mars of
Binding energy per penetrating power.
constituent nucleons and nucleus is
called mass defect of nucleus. nucleon versus mass number cerve.
Mass and energy [∆m = sum of the masles of nucleons
. Mass m of a particle is equivalent ∆Ebn
- mass of nucleus]
to energy given by E = mc2 Law of radio activity
= {zmp + (A - Z)mn} – Mn
. Also known as rest mass energy.
− dn
4He = λn
dt
7Li N = n 0e - λ t
mean life or any life
Q-Value
56 z 1 T1/2
A+B - C + D + Energy τ = = = 1.44 T1/2
mA mB mc md λ 0.693
Reactants product + Q- Value . B.E. per nucleon is more for some
Fraction of nuclei left
Q value = B.E of product - B.E. OF reactants nuclei than their neighbours.
undcayed after n half
Q-value = [(mA + mB) - (mC + mD)] C2 This andicates a shell type structure
Half - life lives is
Q-value = [(k.EC + k.ED) -(K.EA + K.EB)] of nucleus. N t decay rate or activity
. B.E. per nucleon is around 8meV N N  1  1 t1 2
where N = 0 =  =  dn
FOR 30 ∠A ∠120, these are 2 N0  2   2 R=-
dt
stable elements. ln 2 0.693
T1 = = Where, t = nT1/2
2 λ λ R = λ N 0 e - λt or R = R 0 e - λt
 Compound Microscope Simple Microscope
eye lens

Ray Optics Optical Instrument object lens h

v0 ue
h
B object I
h F0 A’ C O β F
F
A F0 C A’’ h1 u
C

final image
V
u0 h2 B’
1. Image formed at infinity
2. Image formed at near point D
ve=L MP =
Laws of Reflection c MP =
−v 
u 
D
1 + 
f0 
B’’ 1. Image formed at infinity

MP =
−v  D  2.
f
Image formed at near point
D
  MP = 1 +
u  f0  f

Spherical Mirrors Astronomical Telescope

1. The incident ray reflected ray and 1. Image formed at infinity
f0

normal to the reflecting surface all Prism fe

lie in same plane.

TIR −f
MP = 0 R
Angle of deviation δ = i + e – A u0 α A
α
F0 A Fe
1 β

2. Angle of reflection is always equal to Mirror formula L 2. Image formed at near point
O
B1
β

angle of incidence, i.e., <i = <r The balancing back of light ray in the −f  f 
1 1 1
F

MP = 0 1 + e 
EO N
GL
AN VIATIO
ue
same denser medium after reflection DE

fe  D 
= +
M B
δ
ve
from an interface with a rarer medium
f u v
Q
P
δ1 δ2

i2

is termed as boral internal reflection.

i1
r1
r2

EM
E
AY RA RGE
TR Y NT
EN

i r In proper sign convention.

INC
ID
N

R
In person sign convention
A
B C

M
O

v
Total internal
reflection µ1 i µ2
Critical angle

Object Focal For minimum deviation

Point Air
1. i = e

y
const.

ra
Principal
Image
Pole r
α θ

d
axis

te
A P N C

c
n O I

fra
2. r = R

Re
Mirror r = 90⁰

Sign Convention n
2 u v

ay
 sin+ A  B

nt r
f
u
min
sin   µ 2 µ1 µ 2 − µ1

ide
i r
Water i
θc
 2  − =

Inc
3. µ = v u R
A
i sin  
i=e 2
1. All distances are measured from Linear magnification 1  1 1 
the pole and is the origin. = (µ − 1)  − 
2. Distances measured to the right of Critical Angle f  R1 R2 
X
the pole are taken as positive.
For thin prism,
A
B
3. Distance above the principal axis are It is the angle of incidence for which the µ
A µ
taken as positive. A angle of incidence is 90°. δ = (µ – 1) A O C2 C1 I I1
4. Angle measured from the normal in B1 C o n  R1

θc = sin−1  2 
R2 v1
the anti-clockwise direction are B F P u v

positive. Incident +
I u
 n1  δ Y

Ray v
In proper sign convention
A1

I −v Conditions for TIR Lens formula

m= =
- +

O u 1. The light ray must travel from denser

∞
h0
2F F O F 2F I ∞
-
to rarer medium. o ∆f = 7 Hz
In proper sign convention 2. The angle of incidence must be greater Dispersion through Prism hi

u v
Absolute Refractive Index than the critical angle. When white light passes through the prism,
1 1 1
Longitudinal magnification then it splits into its seven constituent = −
colours. This phenomena of splitting of f v u
It is defined as ratio of speed of light in h′ v
In person sign
vacuum to speed of light in medium
Application of TIR white light is known as dispersion of light. m= =
h u
convention
i.e n = c
object
v image 1. Sparkling of diamond Power of lens
u2 u1 2. Optical Fibre
v2
v1 3. Mirage and optical looming. It is defined as the reciprocal
of focal length of metres, i.e.,
Laws of Refraction v 2 − v1 1 100
mL = P= =
1. The incident ray, refracted ray and u2 − u1 f(m) f(cm)

normal to the interface of two media

all lie on the same plane. For small objects, mL = m2 Scattering ere
d lig
ht

S catt
2. Snell's law µ2 sin r = µ1 sin i The deflection of light ray by the fine Compound Lens

particles of matter is known as For combination of lenses,

i
Superficial Magnification scattering of light. From Ray Leigh P = P1 + P2
scattering, 1 1 1 1
ms = ma × mb For small objects, mL = m2 I∝ 4 = +
r a×b λ f f1 f2
=m 2 b mb where λ is wavelength of light and I is intensity of light. Observer
In proper sign convention
a
ma
 Mechanical Wave
Doppler effect in sound wave
Non- Mechanical Wave SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES
Waves associated Doppler effect refer to
with Constituents the change in wave
of matter i.e, DISPLACEMENT RELATIOn IN A PROGRESSIVE WAVE
frequency due to
electrons, protons, relative motion between
neutrons, atoms SPEED OF LONGITUDINAL SPEED OF TRANSVERSE WAVE a wave source and its
and molecular are Progressive Waves
Wave length, L
Progressive wave travels WAVE (SOUND WAVE) observer.
called matter waves Amplitude Direction of progress
continuously in a medium Speed of sound wave in  ν ± νo 
Wave
Height h h
B T → fo =   fs , fs = frequency
Speed of sound wave υ = C tight string
H
H without changing its ν=  ν ± νs 
amplitude. p µ emitted by source
B = Bulk modulus,
ι = density, For solids, T = Tension in the string fo = Frequency heared by observer
→ Wave which require a
material medium For µ = linear mass density. V = Speed of sound
y = young modulus. Vo = Speed of observer
propagation and to
transfer energy
Matter Wave AMPLITUDE
Vs = Speed of source

continually are said RESONANCE

Amplitude is maximum
to be mechanised wave.
displacement of
→ Example:- (1) Water waves, Waves which do not LAPLACE CORRECTION Phenomenon of increased
constituident particles - V0observe= o m/s and Source
(2) Sound Waves require any material amplitude when the
from their equilibrium moving towards observer with
medium For propagation Propagation of sound is not Frequency of periodically
position. speed vs,  ν 

Case - 1
and to transfer of an isothermal process. applied force is equal to fo =   fs
VS
- It is an adiabatic process the natural frequency of  ν − νs 
Vibration of Particles

energy. Example:- S O
Electromagnetic Time Period system on which it acts. n nÅ
y.p (moving)
waves (X – rays, - ν= (rest)
Time to Complete one ∫
radio waves)
revolution of oscillation, - y = CP NATURAL FREQUENCY
- S.I. unit is sec (&) CV Vobserve= o m/s and Source
Frequency at which system

Case - 2
moving away From observer
tends to oscillate in the with Vs  ν 
Longitudinal waves Wavelength NEWTON’S FORMULA absence of any damping Force. VS fo =   fs
S O  ν + νs 
minimum distance between n nÅ
Waves in which the propagation of sound wave (moving) (rest)
two points having
is an isothermal process
direction of disturbance same phase.
of wave particle is along - S.I. unit = Meter (m) ∆T = O,
P
Vobserve= o m/s and observe
the direction of propagation ν=  228 m/s
Transfer of energy

∫ is moving towards source with

Case - 3
of wave.
Frequency P = Pressure, ∫ = density speed Vo ν +ν 
BEATS VO fo =  O
 fs
Frequency is number of S O  ν 
oscillations per second. Beats is the phenomenon n nÅ
Transverse Waves n ω caused by superposition (rest) (moving)
f= = PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES
T 2π of two waves of same
In which the direction amplitude and slightly
of disturbance is n = no. of oscillations Phenomenon of mixing of two
or more waves to produce different angular Vobserve= o m/s and observe
perpendicular to the w = Angular Frequency.
frequency. is moving away From source

Case - 4
direction of propagation - Unit = Hertz (Hz) a new wave.
φ φ
of wave. y (x,t) = 2a cos sin (kx − wt + ) Ynet = 2 cos  w 1 − w 2  cos  W1 + w 2  with speed Vo.  ν − νO 
2 2 A1
2  2    VO fo =   fs
φ + A 1+A 2 S O  ν 
Angular Frequency Anet = 2a cos A2 Beat frequency ∆ f = Fmax − Fmin
2 n nÅ
If φ = o, Anet = 2a (amplified (rest) (moving)
Angular frequency is wave)
Stationary Wave angular displacement If φ = π, Anet = O (Standing Vibration of air column
Which seems to be at rest of any element wave) in open organ pipe Source and observe both moving
due to superposition of two per unit time towards each other with speed

Case - 5
Fundamental Ist Overtone IInd Overtone
REFLECTION OF WAVES
waves having same 2π Vibration of air column A A Vs & Vo respectively.  ν + νO 
amplitude, wavelength ω= = 2 πf ((Reflection From rigid boundary) f =   fs
T VS VO o
N

travelling in straight line

in closed organ pipe N
S O  ν − νs 
Unit = rad/sec. Fundamental - Yincident = a sin (wt – 2l 2
A
3l 3 n nÅ
in opposite direction.
1
Ist Overtone IInd Overtone
A A A
kx) ( in +ve x- direction)
N 2 A 2 N 2
(moving) (moving)
N

Wavenumber N - Yreflected = - a sin (wt N

A

Progressive Wave Relation between 1

4
3 2 A
4
N
5l 3
4
+ kx) (in – ve x – direction) N
particle velocity A
A A A A
and wave velocity (i) (ii) (iii) Source and observer both
Wavenumber is defined (i)
N N
(ii)
N
(iii)
moving away From each other
Which travels continuously in For nth harmonic,

Case - 6
as 2π times the number For nth harmonic, with speed Vs & Vo respectively.
a medium in same direction υp = aw cos(wt − kx + φ) frequency of vibration
of waves per unit length frequency of vibration
without changing its amplitude. ω ν (2n +1) ν
REFLECTION FROM FREE END ν (n + 1) ν VS VO  ν − νO 
υw = 2π fn = = S O fo = 
Example: (1) longitudinal wave, k K= fn= =
λ 4L λ 2L  fs
λ - Yincident = a sin (wt – kx) n nÅ  ν+ν 
(2) Transverse Waves (n = 0, 1, 2,……) n = (0,1,2,3,….) (moving) (moving)
υw = − tan θ. νp - S.I. unit = rad/m - yreflected = a sin (wt + kx)
L = Length of tube
L = Length of the tube
Em WAves

Electromagnetic Wave Spectrum

Electromagnetic Waves Maxwell's Equations
Frequency, Hz Wavelength, m

1023
Generation of EM waves 10-14
Gauss's Law in Electrostatic 1022 400 nm
  q 10-13
1021 Gamma rays Violet
1. Em waves are created as a
∫ E. dA = E 0 1020
10-12
10-11
1019 450 nm
result of vibrations between on X-rays 10-10
Displacement 1018
10-9 Blue
electric field and a magnetic field. Current 1017
Gauss's Law in magnetism 10-8
2. Directions of propagation of 1016 Ultraviolet 500 nm
  1015
10-7
∫ B. dA = o
wave is perpendicular to the 10-6 Green
Visible
direction of magnetic and 1014
Current produced due to 10-5
electric field. 1013 Infrared
10-4 550 nm
time varyingelectric Field. 1012
Gauss's Law in Electromagnetic 10-3
1011 Microwaves Yellow
dφ  dε  induction induction 10-2
ID = ε0 = ε0A   1010
Short radio waves 10-1 600 nm
dt  dt    dÆ 109
1 Orange
φ = electric flux emf = ∫ E. d = B 108 Television and FM radio
101
dt 107
E = electric field AM radio 102 650 nm
106
103 Red
105
104
Maxwell-Ampere's Circuital 104 Long radio waves
105
Law 104 700 nm
106
  dφε 102
107
Ampere circuital Law.
  ∫ B  d = µ i
0 c + µ ε
0 0
dt
10

∫ B.d = µ 0 I Different types of Electromagnetic Wave

I=net current passing through Amperian loop.
This law only consider current passing through
Energy density of wave PRODUCTION
the wire but it did not consider the current TYPES WAVELENGTH RANGE
generated due to variation of electric flux
or electric field with time. For electric Field Radio waves Greater than Rapid acceleration and
decelerations of electrons
1
UE = ε 0 E 20 in aerials.
4
Microwaves TO Klystron valve or magnetron
For magnetic Field valve.
1 Infrared Vibration of atoms and molecules
Characteristics UB = B 20 waves
TO
4µ 0
TO X-ray tubes or inner shell
1 1 X-rays
1. Trasverse in nature. ⇒ U average = ε 0 E20 + 2 B 20 electrons.
4 4µ 0
2. Do not required any medium for propagation. Gamma rays TO Radioactive decay of the nucleus.
3. Produced by accelerated charge.
4. Travels with speed of light in free space,
1 Intensity of EM waves Intensity of EM waves
C= = 3 × 108 m / s
µ 0ε 0
  Intensity is the energy crossing per second per unit
5. ε and B are in same phase, Linear momentum of EM WAVES WITH ENERGY
area perpendi cular to direction of propagation
6. In free space, 'u' is given by,
 of EM waves.
ε 1
I = ε 0 E20 C p=
U
 = c ( Speed of light in vaccum )
B 2 C
 RELATIVE MOTION ON 2 D – PLANE PROJECTILE ON INCLINED PLANE
Vector (magnitude + Direction)
   u A
X
motion of one body w.r.t. other: V P/Q = VP − VQ
Basic Terminologies VP/Q = velocity of P w.e.t.Q y
n
Resolution of vector gsi
 g
gcos
. Null vector: A =0 Py = PSinθ
Umbrella problem: VmG = (Vm – VG) = Vm O B

 P V X – Components y – components
= A MOTION IN A PLANE 1) Vrm = velocity of rain w.r.t man 2) Vrm = Vr – Vm 3) tanθ = m ux = u cosθ ug = usinθ
. Unit vector: A  =1 Vr
A ax = g sinθ ay = g cosθ
  River Boat Problem Vr = Vbr Cosα & Vb = Vbrsinα
}
 θ Time of flight (T)
→A Height (H)
. Equal vector: 
→B
A =B Px = PCOSθ Shortest distance d 2u sin θ u2 sin2 θ
Vr= river velocity Vbr sinα = = dmin = (Vbr sinα)t = =
Projectile motion t gcos ∝ 2gcos ∝
Vbg
. Axial vector: used in rotation
Range (R) = 2u sin θ cos(∝ + θ)
2
Vbr θ Vbr d = width of Vbr = V +V
2 2
Mathematical operations river
b r
V   α g cos2 ∝
( 9g A = (a1 i + b1 jLorem & B = (a1 i + b1 jLorem
+ c1 K )ipsum + c1 K )ipsum
v v

oblique projectile Vr d X2 + d2
tmin = =
for Hmax = θ = 90o
r W V= r xW
Shortest time Vb Vb2 + Vr2 for Rmax = θ = π +∝
4 2 or α= 0o
u Vr x 
Arithmetic operations uy Drift (x) = Vr t min
. Orthogonal vector Angle b/w Horizontal projectile
Vb Vbr d
A & B ( θ = 900 ) Addition θ Vr x
  H tanθ = =
A + B = (a1 + a2 )i + (b1 + b2 )j + (c1 + c 2 )k y y Vm d vx
θ
β
uy = 0, ux = u
B θ = 900 H v
Subtraction t2
vy
  t1 ux
A A + B = (a1 − a2 )i + (b1 − b2 )j + (c1 − c 2 )k
A R Projectile passing same height at two x
. Parallel Vector : x – component y – component
B Multiplication different times t1 and t2 respectively x=uxt =ut, t = x/u
. ux = uCosθ . ug = usinθ Equation of Trajectory vins v2x v 2y
Angel b/w A & B ( θ = 00 ) Dot product Cross product  2 
1 µ sin θ  2 gy 
IAI=nIBI (Scalar product) (vector product) . ax = 0 . ag = -g 1) y= gt1t 2 2) t1= 1 − 1 −    X2
2 g   µ sin θ   Y = 1 gt 2 = 1 g 2 v u2 g2 t 2
  2 2 µ
       
. Anti-Parallel Vector : 1) A + B = A B Cosθ 1) A + B = A B sin θ Equation of Trajectory (parabolic track) 2H = u2 + 2gy
   2  Range (R) = uxt = u
A
2) A . B = a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c 2 i j k 1 gx 2 x µ sin θ   2 gy   g
B   y = xtanθ - = x(1 − ) tan θ 3) t2= 1 + 1− 
2 u2Cos2 θ R  vy gt
3) i . i = 1
2) A × B = a1 b1 c1 g   µ sin θ   2H tanφ = =
Angel b/w A & B ( θ = 1800 ) a2 b2 c2   Time of flight (T) = vx u
i . j = 0 Time of f hight (T), T = 2usinθ/g g
IAI=-nIBI
v v

i (b1c2 - c1b2) + j (a1c2 - c1a2) µ 2 sin2 θ Projective with complimentary angles,

i . k = 0 etc v

+ k (a1b2 - b1a2) Range (R) = uxT, = If θ1 = θ then θ2 = 90 - θ

g Equation of motion on Circular track:
3) i × i
=0
2 2
µ sin θ 1) R = Hcosθ Tθ
Height (H) = 2) = tanθ wf = Wi + αt θ = Wit + ½ nαt2
Vector law’s i × j = 1 2g T90 − θ
i × k = − 1 Circular motion
Triangle law: W f2 - W i2 = 2 ∝ θ

Angular velocity ( w ): Types of Circular motion:

R By = Bsinθ F3
Final position dθ 2 π Uniform circular Non – uniform
B Lammis Theorem: W= = = 2πf (rads−1 ) motion Circular motion
r
dt T
α θ α V V2
F1 F F V V3
θ L T= Time period if = frequency
A Bx = Bcosθ = 2 = 3 F2
sin ∝ sin β sin γ β r r r
γ V = RW
initial position
 F1 linear velocity (ms-1)
− R = ( A + Bcos θ ) i + Bsin θ j V V4
V V1
Parallelogram law: Angular displacement ( θ ): Angular Acceleration ( α ):
   1) aτ (Tangential 1) V1 ≠ V2 ≠ V3 ≠ V4
2 2
− R == A + B + 2 A B Cos θ A α dw acceleration) = oms-2
∝= (rads−2 )
F2
 = Rθ Angular dt 2) aT ≠ oms
−2

F3 displacement (rad.) 2) ar (Radial

 B V2 2
Vins
B sin θ B
γ Radius (m) a= R ∝ acceleration) = 3) a =
r

− tanα =   R R
A + B cos θ α θ
2 2
A β F1
Arc length (m) linear acceleration (ms-1) 3) anet = a2 + a2 = a
T 0 r
4) anet = aT + ar
 Huygen’s Wave Theory DIFFRACTION POLARISATION
According to Huygen’s principle a body emits light
in the form of waves. Each Points Source of
WAVE OPTICS Bending of light waves around the sharp
edges of opaque obstacles or aperture
The Process of Confining
the vibrations of
light is a center of disturbance from which and their encroachment in the geometrical unpolarised light in one
waves propagates in all direction. shadow of obstacles or aperture. single plane using polariser
(i) Necessary Condition:- Size of obstacle is called polarisation.
Wave Front INTERFERENCE YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT (a) must be the order of
wavelength (λ). i.e a > 1
A wavefront is a surface along which the waves
Interference is a phenomenon of EXPERIMENT λ Unpdarised light
phase remains Constant.
Superposition of two coherent waves
(i) The energy of wave travels in a direction (i) For Bright Fringes An ordinary beam of light
through which they transfer energy and
perpendicular to wavefront. Xn d consists of a large number
momentum. S2P − S1P = = nλ ; d = slit width
(ii) Rays are perpendicular to wavefront, D of waves emitted by the
(iii) The time taken by light to travel from one nλ D atoms or molecules of the
Xn = ; Xn = TYPES OF Diffraction light source.
wavefront to another is the same along d
anyray. Distance between Central Fringe and Fresenel Diffraction:- Fraunhofer Diffraction Z
Y
Fresnel Diffraction :- It deals with plane
nth Bright fringe ; l = wavelength
involves spherical wavefronts and an
Types of wavefronts = Bright fringes are also called maxima’s. wavefronts, So that effective viewing Y
X

Spherical Cylindrical Plane

MATHEMATICAL INTERPRETATION OF (ii) For Dark Fringes S P − S P = Xn d = (2n − 1) λ Source ‘s’ and Point ‘P’ distance of infinity.
D 2
2 1
wavelength wavelength wavelength INTERFERENCE OF TWO WAVES are at finite distance.
(2n − 1)D Lens
Let a1 and a2 be amplitudes of the ⇒ Xn = Lens
P
unpolarised light unpolarised light
d moving along x axis
waves and φ the phase difference Xn = Distance between central Fright and θ
θ

between them. nth dark fringe Source

Slit Plane Polarised light
Then y1 = a1 sin ωt; y2 = a2 sin(ωt + φ);
Slit Screen Incoming
= Dark fringes are also called minima’s wave Screen
Beam of light in which
Y = y1 + y2 = A sin (ωt + θ); Vibration of Electric field
Resultant
FRAVNHUFER DIFFRACTION
y 2
Vector are perpendicular
A = a + a + 2a1a2 cos θ
2
1
2
2 1
Fringe Width:- FOR SINGLE SLIT
φ
to wave motion and
a2 Sin θ t Fringe width of dark & bright fringes are Confined to Single plane
tan θ = In this diffraction Pattern Central
(Due to point (Due to line (Due to line same and given by λD only.
a1 + a2 Cos θ A
a2 β = Xn − Xn − 1 = maxima is bright on the both side of it, Polaroid

Source of light), Source of Light), Source of Light), d maxima & minima occurs symmetrically.
θ φ
a1 (i) Position of Secondary Maxima in S

Angular width of fringe:- diffraction α Sin θ = (2n − 1) λ

Polarised light

(2n − 1)D
2 Ordinary
light transmission axis
β λ S2 ⇒ Xn = λ
TYPES OF INTERFRENCE ∝= = 2a
d d α β BREWSTER’S LAW
(ii) Position of Secondary Minima in
Constructive Interference Destructive Interference nλ D
S1 diffraction:- α Sin θ = nλ ⇒ Xn = This Law state that when
α
• Phase difference → (∆φ) = 2nπ; n = 0,1,2,…… • Phase difference → (∆φ) = (2 n – 1)π, Where n = 1,2,3,… D Diffraction rays light is incident on a
P transparent sustenance
λ λ
• Path difference → ∆X = 2n   • Path difference → ∆x = (2n -1) xn at polarising angle QP, the
2 2 reflected light is
T
Resolving Power (R.P) a
O
T • Time Interval → ∆T = (2n – 1) completely plane polarised.
• Time Interval → ∆T = 2n  
2 2 Incident plane
µ = tan θP ; θP = Polarising angle.
Resolving Power an optical Instrument is its wavefront

• Resultant Amplitude → A = a1 + a2; if φ = 0,2π, 4π…………2nπ • Resultant Amplitude → A = a1 – a2 ; If φ = π, 3π, 5π …….. (2n – 1)π
ability to distinguish two Closely placed Point.
( )
Lens
2
µ = Refractive Index of medium
( )
Screen

• Resultant Intersity → Imax = I1 + I2 + 2 I1I2 = I1 + I 2

2
• Resultant Intersity → Imax = I1 + I2 − 2 I,I2 = I1 − I2 Slit
Unpolarised Polarised

• Imax = 4 I where (I1 = I2 = I) • Imin = O (When I1 = I2 = I)

R.P For Microscope WIDTH OF CENTRAL MAXIMUM i = θP r

Crest Crest
Resultant (i) The minimum distance to form separate The distance between two secondary
images of two objects. minima formed on two sides of Central
1.22 λ
Partially Polarised
maximum is known as width of
∆Xmin = Central maximum.
2 µ Sin β MALUS' LAW
Trough 2 fλ
W= I2 = K (A Cosθ)2 = K A 2Cos2 θ
Trough Resutant 1 2 µ Sin β α
R.P = = f = focal length of Convex lenses I2 = I2 Cos2 θ; I = int ensity
∆Xmin 1.22 λ
R.P For Telescope α = Slit width Iunpolarised
(i) IPolarised =
Resolving limit of a telescope is Medium (µ) 2
Unpolarised
Star 1 smallest angular separation (dθ) Intensity Polariser

between two distant objects. β Slit

Polarised

dθ D xmin
Star 2 I0 Analyser

1.22 λ 1 D θ
Polarised
→ dθ = ; (i) R.P = = ; D = Aperture of objective Lens.
D dθ 1.22 λ Transmission Axis I1= I0/2
Incoming
wave Viewing screen I2 = I1cos2θ
Transmission Axis
 ALTERNATING CURRENT AND VOLTAGE L C OSCILLATIONS TRANSFORMER POWER CONSUMED
ALTERNATING CURRENT IN AC CIRCUIT

When the magnitude and direction of Laminated sheets

Average Power dissipation,
current and voltage change continuosly L – R CIRCUIT <P> = Erms I rms cosφ
with time, then current or voltage is said AC SERIES CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
L Power factor, cosφ =
to be alternating. L R
q0 C Source Input output
VL VR Average Power R
RESISTIVE CIRCUIT =
Iron core rms Power Z
R E = E sin t
E and I
I=I sin t

I I It is defined as the oscillation

I I
of energy between capacitor Transformer ratio, Wattless Current
O
t E=E0sin t
3 2 2
2 and inductor. Ns No. of turns in Secondary
K= = Erms
T t T
E = E0sin t Np No. of turns in Primary
(Irmssinφ)
t XL Frequency of Oscillation,
-I
-I
φ = 0° Z s
I as a sine function I as a cosine function VI
current and voltage
f=
1 1 co
of t of t Pav = 0 0
are in same phase.
2π LC ASSUMPTIONS I

s
x

rm
2
R Irms

I rms
q0
I = I0 sin(ωt + φ ) or EC EC =
2C
cos2 ωt

sin
I = I0 cos (ωt + φ )
INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT I = I0 sin(ωt − φ) No magnetic flux leakage,
Z= R +X 2 2
t
When the power consumption
I = instantaneous values of current L L
T/2 T Es = Ns in AC circuit is zero, then
I = peak value or amplitude Inductive reactance, XL = ωL
EL Ep = N p

E and I
E = E0 sin t
EL
q0
sin2 t
current is said to be wattless
ω = angular frequency −1  X  2C current.
Phase angle φ = tan  L 
φ = initial phase. O /2 3 /2 2  R 
Wattless current is a sine
t No power loss, efficiency
T/2 T component of current
I = I0 (sin t – /2) (n) = 100%.
R – C CIRCUIT q0
Average or Mean Value E=E0sinωt EC = cos2 ωt pOut
π
I = I0 sin(ωt − ) C R
2C n= × 100% , Pin= POut
q pin Half power Frequency
I
2
π EL = 0 sin2 ωt
I0sin t φ= VC VR
2C
2 Ip = Es = Ns Frequency at which power
π
t
Voltage leads current by •
Is = Ep = Np
0 T/2 T
2 becomes half of its maximum
2I0 P av = 0 value.
Iav = 2V0 E = E0sin t
At half Power frequency,
π Vavg =
π P
LCR CIRCUIT
cosφ = 1 or φ = 60⁰
I O X
CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT R
2V0 L C R Y 2
Vavg = I0sin t C E = E0sin t XL
E and I

π XC Z Q
0
t VL VC VR
T/2 T
t XL–Xc Z Quality Factor
O Q S
/2 3 /2 2
O x
R P It represents sharpness
I = I0sin(ωt + /2) I = I 0 sin ( ωt + φ ) E = E0sinωt I
E = E0sin t R curve (I vs f).
Xc
π Z= R +X 2 2
It is unitless and
ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE I = I0 sin(ωt + ) C • I = I0 sin(ωt ± φ)
2
2I π π Capacitive reactance, XC = 1 dimensionless.
φ = − or R <R <R
Iav = 0 2 2 ωC • Z = R2 + (XL − XC )2
ω0L 1 L
π X  Q=
Current leads voltage by π
• φ = tan−1  C  =
 R   X − XC 
φ = tan−1  L R R R C
Vav =
2V0
Pav = 0 2 •
 R 

π f0
Q=
band width (∆f)
RESONANCE IN SERIES LCR CIRCUIT

Variation of Z with F R
Y
t = T/4 f f Sharpness ∝ Q
I0sin t
I0
I0sin t t Zmin = R
I0cos t t = 0 T/4 T/2 3T/4 T Variation of I with f
E E
φ = 0° Imax = = 1) f< f 0 , X L< X
φ ( negative )
C
Zmin R Imax
t = 3T/4 Conditions Capacitive in nature.
Z Imax
. The projection phasor on x – axis or y – axis gives for resonance 2) f = f 0 , XL=XC φ=0
E
As frequency (f) increases 2 Imax
the instantaneous value of Alternating Resistive in nature
cosφ = 1 X L = XC R current (I) decreases R
current/voltage. f
3) f> f 0 , XL> X C φ ( Positive ) I
. A phase rotates with angular speed ω about the
VL = VC Resonant
Inductive in nature. f0 f Band Width, ∆f = f 2 - f1
origin. frequency,
. Arrow length of this vector is equal to the peak fo = 1
f1 f0 f2 f
value of Alternating current/voltage. 2π LC