Themes of Modern

Literature Themes of Modern Poetry

Themes of Modern Drama Themes of Modern Novel Important Themes of Modern Literature (1900-
1961) Themes of Modern Literature

Loneliness

Alienation

Homelessness

Aimlessness

Hopelessness

No Family Unit

Loss of Centre

Communication Gap

Loss of Faith

Sex Frustration

Economical Problem

Psychological Disorder

Conflict Between Illusion verses Reality

No Morality

No Religious Concept

Rootlessness

Industrial Chaos

Disintegration

Lack of Tolerance

Tyranny

Hatred

Strife

Nihilism

Destruction, Decay

Stream of Consciousness

Marxism
 Psychoanalysis

Feminism

Pessimism

Hemingway “ Modern generation is a lost generation”

The Second Coming

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BY WILL IAM B UT L E R YE AT S

Turning and turning in the widening gyre

The falcon cannot hear the falconer;
Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold;
Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world,
The blood-dimmed tide is loosed, and everywhere
The ceremony of innocence is drowned;
The best lack all conviction, while the worst
Are full of passionate intensity.

Surely some revelation is at hand;

Surely the Second Coming is at hand.
The Second Coming! Hardly are those words out
When a vast image out of Spiritus Mundi
Troubles my sight: somewhere in sands of the desert
A shape with lion body and the head of a man,
A gaze blank and pitiless as the sun,
Is moving its slow thighs, while all about it
Reel shadows of the indignant desert birds.
The darkness drops again; but now I know
That twenty centuries of stony sleep
Were vexed to nightmare by a rocking cradle,
And what rough beast, its hour come round at last,
Slouches towards Bethlehem to be born?

Setting

The setting in "The Second Coming" is deliberately disorientating and abstract, in the first stanza at least.
The poem opens with a metaphorical image—the separated falcon and falconer—within a "widening
gyre." This "gyre" is more of a philosophical idea than a concrete location, meaning that the poem's
opening is quite difficult to place. Indeed, according to Yeats's own beliefs, these "gyres" are huge spiral
shapes that represent the major movements of history (e.g. "twenty centuries" of Christianity), and so
accordingly the setting is as generic as simply "the world." The rest of the stanza builds this general
sense of "anarchy," chaos, and misery, but it resists tying it to one place or time. The poem was, of
course, written just after the end of World War I, so it's easy to read the early 20th century into the
poem too. The mention of "twenty centuries" also seems to confirm that this is the 20th century (twenty
centuries after the birth of Jesus Christ), even if it's a nightmarish and abstract version of it. The setting
in the second stanza gets more specific but even weirder. The reader is suddenly brought into the
subjective experience of the speaker, who in turn is receiving a vision from the Spiritus Mundi (Yeats's
term for humanity's collective unconscious). This vision is situated in a barren, inhospitable desert.
Eventually, the speaker comes out of this vision and imagines the beast (or perhaps another similarly
nightmarish one) in a new location: the path to Bethlehem. According to Christianity, Bethlehem was
the birthplace of Jesus Christ, and in geographic terms, it's located in modern-day Palestine.

Literary context

LITERARY CONTEXT Along with Seamus Heaney, William Butler Yeats is one of Ireland's most prominent
poets. He was born in 1865 and began writing around the age of seventeen, and this poem appears in
his 1921 collection, Michael Robartes and the Dancer. Yeats's influences were wide and diverse,
including the English Romantics—figures such as Wordsworth, Blake, and Keats—and the French
Symbolists, such as Stephen Mallarmé and Arthur Rimbaud. Irish mythology and folklore were also
especially formative of his work, particularly given his desire for Ireland's political independence from
England. Yeats was also interested in mysticism and the occult. This poem demonstrates that interest,
using the "gyre" image that Yeats discusses in A Vision, a wide-ranging book that outlines Yeats's
"System" ( a complicated mix of different philosophies and cultural ideas). Yeats believed in a kind of
collective unconscious of humankind (the "Spiritus Mundi"), from which powerful (but not necessarily
easy to understand) images and symbols could be gathered by poets. His wife at the time, Georgie Hyde-
Lees, was instrumental in this aspect of Yeats's work, acting as a psychic channel through which Yeats
believed he could find spiritually valid poetic ideas. Additionally, there is one key literary influence
running through this poem from start to finish: the biblical Book of Revelation (and the Bible more
generally). In the Book of Revelation, Jesus is predicted to return to the Earth (in what's called "The
Second Coming") and usher in a new era of peace, joy, and union with God. This poem is a kind of
perversion of that story, seeing a bizarre beast in place of the expected hero. The author of the Book of
Revelation names himself as John of Patmos, but the book's genuine authorship and its relationship to
the rest of the Bible are the subject of much scholarly debate. The book itself is full of surreal imagery
and prophecy and well worth a read.
Yeats’s Apocalypticism and the “Gyre”
In many respects, apocalyptic themes were a motivating force across Yeats’s work. As well as his
most famous apocalyptic poem ‘The Second Coming’ (1921), ‘The Valley of the Black Pig’ (1899),
‘The Magi’ (1913), and ‘Meru’ (1934) stress apocalyptic themes, as do plays like The Shadowy
Waters (1900), The Hour Glass (1903), The Unicorn from the Stars (1908), The Player
Queen (1922), and The Resurrection (1927). In the 1920s, Yeats privately published a book called A
Vision—subtitled An Explanation of Life Founded upon the Writing of Giraldus and upon Certain
Doctrines Attributed to Krusta Ben Luka. The book is an attempt to capture the complex mystical and
esoteric system of meaning, symbol, and historical progression revealed to Yeats by the spirit
interlocutors he communicated with through his wife. Harold Bloom referred to the work as
“technically an apocalypse” (Bloom 1970, 216). George Watson’s (1976) account of “Yeats’s View of
History” draws attention to a broadcast on ‘Modern Poetry’ by Yeats in 1936:

I think profound philosophy must come from terror. An abyss opens under our feet; inherited
convictions, the pre-suppositions of our thoughts, those Fathers of the Church Lionel Johnson
expounded, drop into the abyss. Whether we will or no we must ask the ancient questions: Is there
reality anywhere? Is there a God? Is there a Soul? We cry with the Indian Sacred Book: “They have
put a golden stopper into the neck of the bottle; pull it! Let out reality!”

Watson goes as far as to call Yeats a “connoisseur of apocalypse, the avid chewer of the corpses of
civilization, delighting in ruin and chaos because they offer such powerful images for poetry”
(Watson 1976, 42). Frank Kermode says that Yeats is an exemplar of the literary attitude to
apocalypse of his time: He is “certainly an apocalyptic poet” (although, Kermode says, he does not
take the apocalypse literally) (Kermode 1968, 98).

‘The Second Coming’ was published in the aftermath of the Great War which was, as David Rudrum
has put it, “a time when an apocalyptic sense of the end of an era was every bit as tangible as it was
at the close of the twentieth century” (Rudrum 2008, 59), and the poem captured that mood. The
poem is built around Yeats’s concept of a “gyre,” which refers to the great cyclic sweep of history
first described in his Vision. A notoriously difficult concept to describe, the gyre is centred on the
moment when a great transition occurs between one form of historical meaning system and another;
it is apocalyptic to the extent that it requires the collapse and symbolic reversal of the established
order. Paul Deane describes the system:

As one gyre widens, the other narrows, until a crisis point is reached every two thousand years. At
this crisis point, one gyre has grown as wide as it may, and is spent; the other gyre, narrowed to its
limit, can narrow no more. This crisis signals the birth of a new civilization based on entirely different
principles; it begins to expand, while the old gyre recedes. (Deane 1995, 641.)

In Yeats’s words:

a narrowing and a widening gyre reach their limit, the one the utmost contraction, the other the
utmost expansion, they change places, point to circle, circle to point … and continue as before, one
always narrowing, one always expanding, and yet bound for ever to one another. (Yeats 1925, 131.
Quoted by Jeffares 1951, 89)
The transitions are between two eras, one subjective in character, the other objective. Each phase
lasts 2,000 years. In Yeats’s accounting, the Greco-Roman phase from 2000 BCE to 1 CE,
transitioned to the Christian in 1 CE, which would itself soon give way—a movement of which Yeats
discerned the signs in his own day (Hirschberg 1979, 305). ‘The Second Coming’ is Yeats’s poetic
exploration of that occurrence, marked by the World War, the flu pandemic, and the national uprising
he lived through, and entailing the collapse of meaning systems undergirding the civilization he was
part of.

The Second Coming

Turning and turning in the widening gyre
The falcon cannot hear the falconer;
Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold;
Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world,
The blood-dimmed tide is loosed, and everywhere
The ceremony of innocence is drowned;
The best lack all conviction, while the worst
Are full of passionate intensity.

Surely some revelation is at hand;

Surely the Second Coming is at hand.
The Second Coming! Hardly are those words out
When a vast image out of Spiritus Mundi
Troubles my sight: somewhere in sands of the desert
A shape with lion body and the head of a man,
A gaze blank and pitiless as the sun,
Is moving its slow thighs, while all about it
Reel shadows of the indignant desert birds.
The darkness drops again; but now I know
That twenty centuries of stony sleep
Were vexed to nightmare by a rocking cradle,
And what rough beast, its hour come round at last,
Slouches towards Bethlehem to be born?
The poem is in two parts: the first reflecting on the breakdown of the existing order of the world, and
the second on the new order that will emerge to replace it. The first line refers to the “gyre” which
seems at first to have a passing significance referring to the turn of the falcon through space (in
conventional use, “gyre” refers to a vortex or spiral in the ocean), but is ultimately a grand symbol for
the historic transition or reversal of symbols and meanings. The breakdown of the existing order is
captured in the image of the falcon wheeling around the falconer but disconnected by the ever-
increasing circles of its trajectory; no longer responding to control as the falconer’s calls are lost in
the space between them. So, “anarchy is loosed upon the world” as the transition approaches; “the
centre cannot hold” and the “best lack all conviction” as the social and political order degrades.

The second part explores the character of the new order that will replace the old one that is
collapsing. The central image is the sphinx-like “shape with lion body and the head of a man” with
“gaze blank and pitiless.” It has “indignant desert birds” reeling around it: their flight is disorderly and
chaotic in contrast to the structured flight of the falcon—albeit the falcon and falconer are lost to one
another. In a manoeuvre condemned by Bloom as “a misleading and illegitimate device for
conferring upon the poem a range of reference and imaginative power it does not possess and
cannot sustain” (Bloom 1970, 318), Yeats commandeers the notion of the second coming from
Christian apocalypticism to describe the monstrous sphinx lumbering into life. While Christianity
expects the renewed appearance of the loving messiah, the one who comes this time—Yeats
imagines—is his opposite. This opposition suggests we can read the falconer of the first stanza as
Christ, and the falcon as the civilization which no longer hears him. In fact, the Christian era has
been the nightmare of the sphinx-creature’s slumber since the birth of Christ—alluded to in the
“rocking cradle.” The entire process is finally captured in a perversion of the immaculate and salvific
scene of the birth of Christ: as behind the scenes of history the “rough beast […] Slouches towards
Bethlehem” to become incarnate as the spin of the gyre is reset.

Theologically, the apocalypse Yeats envisages has no process of salvation. The usurpation of
Christ’s place imaged by the poem, and the cyclic nature of the gyres of history, generates a
relentless and ultimately fruitless outcome utterly defanging the teleological eschatology of
Christianity. The incarnation of a Christian messiah in a blind, oscillating, perpetual machine is no
messiah in a Christian sense because it can offer no conclusive salvation. The nihilism emerges, in
the end, not merely from Christ’s replacement by the beast, but from the usurpation of a Christian
teleological model of history by Yeats’s cycles of gyres.

ABOUT THE TITLE The title "The Second Coming" refers to the return of Jesus Christ in the Last Judgment
prophesied in the biblical Gospels and Book of Revelations

In context

Modernist Poetry

"The Second Coming" by W.B. Yeats is an example of a modernist poem. In broad terms, modernist
poetry demonstrates dissatisfaction with the aesthetic and cultural values of the past and strives to
break away from them. In Yeats's poem, this is reflected aesthetically in the use of strange imagery that
may surprise or even shock the reader. Additionally, "The Second Coming" is built around concepts of
disillusionment with contemporary culture and society. World War I (1914–18) was an important
catalyst for the development of modernist literature. The war destroyed societal norms and cultural
values of the prewar era and opened a path for art that offered new ways of interpreting the world.
Another hallmark of modernism at work in "The Second Coming" is that it requires interpretation from
the reader to understand its allusions and message. In this last regard, the poem is similar to one of the
foundational modernist poems, "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" (1915) by Anglo American poet T.S.
Eliot (1888–1965).

Of course there is no one exact moment when modern poetry began, but "The Love Song of J. Alfred
Prufrock" did signal the beginning of a new era in English-language poetry. Modernist poetry was in
many ways a rejection of Romantic poetry and its values. Romantic poetry, part of the late-18th to mid-
19thcentury Romantic movement, celebrated nature and the

imagination. Modernists believed that the Industrial Revolution, which had transformed English society
from agrarian to industrial, had changed culture so profoundly that literature must change to remain
relevant. Instead of celebrating the beauty of nature, modernist poetry should underscore the
challenges of living in an industrialized society. Instead of glorifying the human spirit, modernist poetry
should train a glaring spotlight on the damage industrialization was doing to the Western psyche.
Instead of providing steady rhymes and rhythmic meters, modernist poetry should reflect actual human
speech patterns. American writer Ezra Pound (1885–1972), another founding modernist poet, insisted
that a poem's rhythm must "correspond exactly to the emotion or shade of emotion to be expressed."
"The Second Coming" uses an irregular rhythm, constructing its lines in modulating lengths between 12
and 13 syllables, incorporating but ultimately rejecting iambic pentameter (stressed syllable followed by
an unstressed syllable in a line of 10 syllables). In this way the poem's use of meter reflects its content:
showing the corruption and dissolution of old values that the modernists witnessed.

A key aspect of modernism was its emphasis on universal experience. When English Romantic poet
William Wordsworth (1770–1850) wrote, "I wandered lonely as a cloud," he was talking about himself.
In "The Second Coming" the "I" speaker is almost entirely undefined and without a specific personality.
A line from another English Romantic poet, John Keats (1795–1821)—"Beauty is truth, truth beauty"—
would not have fit into the modernist viewpoint either. The modern world in which Yeats lived was
defined by bloody global warfare, massive outbreaks of disease (such as the influenza pandemic of
1918–19), and sweeping social and technological changes. When World War I broke out in 1914, issues
of poetic terminology must suddenly have seemed less important. As critic Martin Gilkes later wrote,
"Modern poetry, as it happened, chose a very awkward moment to be born ... No sooner had the
modern infant found its feet and uttered one loud intelligible cry than there came the War."

World at War

Yeats wrote "The Second Coming" shortly after the conclusion of the First World War. World War I
(1914–1918)—also called the Great War—was at that time the largest armed conflict in history. In terms
of the high number of deaths (21 million), the number of nations involved, and the global geographic
scope, it was unprecedented. Apart from the high death toll, World War I also introduced startling new
military technologies that made warfare deadlier and more brutal than ever. The war destroyed older,
romanticized ideas about warfare, with new weapons such as poison gas, landmines, and machine guns,
changing military tactics and making older polite ideals obsolete. In addition to the incredible loss of life,
the war redrew the map of Europe following the disintegration of four major empires. Europeans (and
the rest of the world) were forced to reevaluate the values of prior generations. The aftermath of the
war saw political and social changes in many nations. These included the woman suffrage movement in
the United States that led to American women receiving the right to vote in 1920.

Yeats's writing of "The Second Coming" encompasses not only World War I, but also the Easter Rising
(1916) and the Russian Revolution (1917). Early drafts explicitly mentioned such historical events, but
Yeats stripped all of these contextual clues from the poem, suggesting that he believed the imagery and
symbols could have multiple interpretations. One such interpretation is that the poem is an apocalyptic
religious vision that can be read as an allegory for war. Yeats was horrified by the destruction and
carnage wrought by modern warfare. In 1915 Yeats wrote to an American friend that World War I was
"the most expensive outbreak of insolence and stupidity" in history and that he tried not to think about
it. When asked by American author Henry James (1843–1916) to write a poem about the war, he
penned "On Being Asked for a War Poem" (1915). The poem expressed his belief that poets had no
place speaking of the war because poets couldn't hope to influence the politicians who start and end
wars. World War I also coincided with the first battle of the Irish War of Independence: the Easter Rising
of 1916, an Irish rebellion that was brutally suppressed by the British. During the Russian Revolution of
1917, the imperial government was overthrown by the Bolsheviks, a wing of the Russian Social-
Democratic Workers' Party led by the future prime minister of the Soviet Union, Vladimir Lenin (1870–
1924). These conflicts also deeply troubled Yeats. Despite not writing much of substance about warfare
while it was ongoing, in 1919 Yeats may have expressed his horror at the violence and immorality of the
modern world in "The Second Coming."

"The Second Coming" describes the destruction of old values and innocence: "the ceremony of
innocence is drowned." "Mere anarchy [is] loosed upon the world" and a "rough beast" brings about the
end of days. By describing catastrophe in terms of religious allegory, Yeats captures its horror indirectly.
He imagines war and other calamities facing modern society as the birth of a terrible monster, the
creature described in the poem's later lines.

Christianity versus Paganism

Yeats was born into a devoutly Christian society, but his personal faith was more shaped by occultist
beliefs and reverence for traditional Celtic mythology. These values can be seen, for example, in his
book on Celtic myths and folklore, The Celtic Twilight (1893), and his involvement in the Hermetic Order
of the Golden Dawn, an occult society that practiced ritual magic. Both Yeats's Christian background and
his enthusiasm for the occult are on display in "The Second Coming." The poem's title references the
Christian belief in the return of Jesus Christ foretold in the New Testament's Gospels and in its last book,
Revelation. In Christian theology the Second Coming of Christ is the event said to precipitate the end of
the world. According to most Christian sects, the Second Coming is the time when the resurrected Christ
will reward the faithful and punish the wicked and nonbelievers. In the poem the speaker remarks on
the terror and "anarchy" threatening the world and wonders whether it's the Second Coming. The poem
suggests that such terrible calamities can only mean the end of the world. In addition to the Christian
allusion in the title, Yeats also uses specific Christian imagery in the poem. The poem's final line
references Bethlehem, the Palestinian city that was the birthplace of Jesus Christ. However, this
reference subverts the Christian tradition, replacing the Son of Man referenced in the Bible with a
horrible monster similar to the beasts described in Revelation.

Plot Summary

Structure

"The Second Coming" is structured in two stanzas of unequal length. The first stanza is made up of 8
lines and the second of 14 lines. Most of the lines are between 9 and 11 syllables long, so the poem
approximates iambic pentameter. (The term iambic pentameter refers to a poetic structure in which
each line consists of five two-syllable feet with the stress on the second syllable.) Thus, "The Second
Coming" has no set rhythmic pattern. There also is no rhyme scheme, so the poem is an example of free
verse

Stanza 1 (Lines 1–8) The poem begins with the unnamed speaker's description of a "widening gyre"—a
gyre is a spiral or circle—that is turning. A falcon is caught inside the turbulence of the gyre and can't
escape. The falcon is "unable to hear the falconer." The speaker goes on to say that "things fall apart"
and "the centre cannot hold," indicating a rapidly deteriorating situation. The speaker then states that
"mere anarchy" has been "loosed upon the world." The apocalyptic tone continues as he alludes to
terrible violence and loss of life across the world, destroying innocence ("the ceremony of innocence is
drowned"). The speaker then remarks on the quality of people, saying "the best" of people lack the
conviction to make things better. At the same time, evil people are energized and active, "full of
passionate intensity."

Stanza 2 (Lines 9–17) The speaker, grasping for meaning in this strange vision, remarks that "surely some
revelation is at hand." He then surmises "the Second Coming" (of Jesus Christ) is "surely" imminent.
However, the speaker's impression swiftly changes when a troubling new vision emerges. From the
desert a gigantic creature rises from the sand: "a shape with lion body and the head of a man." The
creature's expression is "pitiless as the sun" as it moves slowly across the desert. Around it whirl the
shadows of desert birds disturbed by its passage.

Stanza 2 (Lines 18–22) The speaker's vision ends as "[t]he darkness drops again." Yet, the speaker has
gained enough understanding to interpret his vision's meaning. He realizes that the creature has been
sleeping for 2,000 years and is now awake, enraged and ready to cause destruction. "What rough
beast," the speaker asks, "[s]louches towards Bethlehem to be born?"

References to "The Second Coming"

in Other Works "The Second Coming" is arguably Yeats's most famous work of poetry, and as a result it
has been widely referenced in literature and popular culture. A 2015 essay published in the Paris Review
entitled "No Slouch" went so far as to say that the poem "may well be the most thoroughly pillaged
piece of literature in English." The same essay highlights how news media and journalists frequently use
(and misuse) the poem's language to describe current events in international affairs. One example given
is "Europe is slouching toward war." The most prominent of the literary references to the poem is
Nigerian author Chinua Achebe's (1930–2013) novel Things Fall Apart (1958), whose title is a direct
quotation from line 3 of "The Second Coming." American author Joan Didion (1934–) also referenced
"The Second Coming" with the title essay of her 1968 collection, Slouching Towards Bethlehem.
American filmmaker and writer Woody Allen (1935–) entitled his 2007 essay collection Mere Anarchy,
referencing the line "mere anarchy is loosed upon the world." Meanwhile, pop culture references to the
poem vary widely, ranging from Batman comic books to musical references by bands such as U2.

The Falcon

The falcon described in "The Second Coming" is symbolic of the human race, specifically in modern
times, as it has become disconnected from its roots. When Yeats writes, "[t]he falcon can't hear the
falconer," he means that humanity has lost touch with its original values. This corruption is what leads to
terrible hardships like World War I. The falcon being unable to hear the falconer could also represent
what Yeats perceived as a collective loss of religious faith across the world. Thus, people (the falcon) are
disconnected from their spirituality (the guiding falconer). There are alternative interpretations as well
regarding what the falcon symbolizes. The falcon could also represent logic, and thus the falcon losing
contact with the falconer suggests humanity abandoning logic.

The Gyre

The "gyre" Yeats writes of in "The Second Coming" can be understood literally as a vortex of air so
powerful that it consumes whatever is lost inside it. It should also be understood figuratively as a
representation of Yeats's concept of time. Yeats believed time to be cyclical, broken up into epochs. The
end of one epoch brings about a new epoch, and over time epochs repeat.

The Sphinx The sphinxlike creature described in the poem symbolizes both destruction and rebirth. It
also symbolizes the pagan world that predated the Christian era. This is typified by the ancient
Egyptians, who built the actual Sphinx. The Sphinx rises up to "slouch" toward Bethlehem. There, it will
presumably destroy the birthplace of Christianity and in so doing end the Christian epoch and the values
that define that epoch. This end will also be the beginning, however, of an era defined not by Christ but
by the Sphinx. Depending on interpretation, this could be positive or negative, as it would destroy
everything modern humanity believes and values, but it might also purge humanity's corruption.
Alternatively, the sphinx can be interpreted as symbolic of World War I, which Yeats believed destroyed
the old order of the world.

Themes Humanity and Its Loss of Spirituality

Perhaps the most important theme in "The Second Coming" is explored in the poem's second line: "The
falcon cannot hear the falconer." On its surface this line merely refers to the physical impossibility of a
bird lost in a "widening gyre" hearing the instructions of its falconer. Yet, the line really signifies how
time and change have disconnected humanity from traditional spirituality. The falcon represents
modern humanity, while the falconer represents the spiritual compass that in Yeats's mind used to guide
humanity. Indeed, the early 20th century, when Yeats wrote the poem, was a time of unprecedented
and rapid secularization of European society. While at least one recent study published by Scientific
Advances argues that this secularization preceded and perhaps caused rapid economic development, at
the time traditionalists would have seen the trend negatively. Yeats, however, would have had a more
ambivalent reaction to secularization. Although born into a Protestant Christian family, Yeats never
formally adopted or personally held Christian beliefs. Instead, he sought a belief system founded on
empirical values, which concern evidence and experimentation. This quest for experience-based
spiritualism led Yeats to partake in occult activities like the demonic ritual he describes in the chapter
"The Sorcerers" from The Celtic Twilight (1893). His interest in traditional Celtic folklore would lead him
to explore folkloric and occult themes in much of his writing, including "The Second Coming." In "The
Second Coming" Yeats presents a subversion of the traditional Christian concept of the Second Coming
of Christ, depicting instead the return of older, pagan values. This change is brought about by the
movement of time itself but also by the weakness of humanity.

"The best lack all conviction," Yeats writes, "while the worst / Are full of passionate intensity." Those
who still follow old spiritual worldviews "lack conviction" and are unable to act upon their values, while
those who have abandoned old mores are taking power. The end of spirituality (or at least of the
Christian spirituality Yeats was familiar with) is signaled in the poem by the rise of the monster. This
"rough beast" is modeled after the Sphinx of Egypt. Once humanity (the falcon) has lost contact with its
spirituality (the falconer), the beast arises to destroy the world and make a new one in its place.

Evil Flourishes in Times of Crisis

Yeats perhaps wrote "The Second Coming" as an allegory for modern warfare. World War I (1914–18)
had been a conflict of unprecedented bloodshed and scope that radically altered the world map and
also altered Western thinking. Other conflicts around the same time, as well as concurrent disasters
such as the global influenza outbreak that killed millions, would have influenced Yeats. A key theme of
"The Second Coming," then, is the way Yeats perceives war and disaster as bringing out the worst in
humanity, empowering the wicked and bloodthirsty and disempowering good people. In "The Second
Coming," Yeats describes a moral dichotomy between good people ("the best") and bad people ("the
worst"). The former, he writes, "lack all conviction," and the latter are "full of passionate intensity."
Sensitive poets and gentle people would have been swept aside by a conflict such as World War I, while
the more violent and ambitious would rise to prominence. However, it should also be noted that Yeats's
sense of causality in the poem goes both ways. While the people described in the first stanza are made
more destructive by events in the world, they are also the cause of them in the first place. The
emergence of the monster in the poem's second stanza is preceded by humanity's corruption in the
first. Yeats seems to suggest, then, that humanity's wickedness will bring about the world's end. In
describing the monster that rises from the desert, Yeats writes that "its hour [has] come at last" after
"twenty centuries of stony sleep."

The monster then arises from slumber, awoken by the terrible, bloody chaos of the Great War and
other calamities. It is not the monster who destroys human society, but rather human society that
destroys itself, allowing the monster to be born.

Time Is Cyclical

Central to understanding the poem's meaning is Yeats's concept of cyclical time represented by his
vision of overlapping "gyres." These gyres could be physically described as interpenetrating cones. The
gyre is mentioned in "The Second Coming" in the poem's first line, where Yeats describes the
metaphorical falcon (humanity) becoming lost in a widening gyre. The falcon is lost and unable "to hear
the falconer" because of the interchange between gyres. Time and history are changing, and everything
the falcon understands is being altered. Yeats's personal model of history can be boiled down to a few
core concepts. First, history is necessarily cyclical. Events and epochs repeat themselves over the course
of time. Second, these repeating gyres, or epochs, each last roughly 2,000 years—the "twenty centuries
of stony sleep" mentioned in the poem. Third, as one gyre degrades and gives way to the next, the
endings of each epoch are cataclysmic. As such, the ideal time to live would be at the midpoint of an
epoch, for example, 1000 CE. Finally, although one gyre/epoch supersedes another, the earlier one still
exists—subdued but exerting its own quiet power. Thus, although Yeats believed he lived in the
Christian epoch, he also recognized elements of the preceding pagan epoch still existed. The "rough
beast" Yeats describes "slouch[ing] towards Bethlehem" is moving to destroy the "rocking cradle" of
Christianity. This would end the Christian epoch and bring about a new one, likely more similar to the
preceding pagan epoch. In presenting this scenario, Yeats is subverting the traditional Christian, biblical
view of history. The biblical view of history is more linear and has a definite ending: the victory of Christ
over evil and the effective, permanent end of the world. Yeats's more pagan attitude toward history,
however, would argue that Christianity has had its time. Now the pagan beast rises again, "its hour come
around at last."

CIVILIZATION, CHAOS, AND CONTROL

“The Second Coming” presents a nightmarish apocalyptic scenario, as the speaker describes human
beings’ increasing loss of control and tendency towards violence and anarchy. Surreal images fly at the
reader thick and fast, creating an unsettling atmosphere that suggests a world on the brink of
destruction. Yet for all its metaphorical complexity, “The Second Coming” actually has a relatively simple
message: it basically predicts that time is up for humanity, and that civilization as we know it is about to
be undone. Yeats wrote this poem right after World War I, a global catastrophe that killed millions of
people. Perhaps it’s unsurprising, then, that the poem paints a bleak picture of humanity, suggesting
that civilization’s sense of progress and order is only an illusion. With the above in mind, the first
stanza’s challenging imagery starts to make more sense. The “falconer,” representing humanity’s
attempt to control its world, has lost its “falcon” in the turning “gyre” (the gyre is an image Yeats uses to
symbolize grand, sweeping historical movements as a kind of spiral). These first lines could also suggest
how the modern world has distanced people from nature (represented here by the falcon). In any case,
it’s clear that whatever connection once linked the metaphorical falcon and falconer has broken, and
now the human world is spiraling into chaos. Indeed, the poem suggests that though humanity might
have looked like it was making progress over the past “twenty centuries”—via seemingly ever-increasing
knowledge and scientific developments, for example—the First World War proved people to be as
capable of self-destruction as ever. “Anarchy” was “loosed upon the world,” along with tides of blood
(which clearly evoke the mass death of war). “Innocence” was just a “ceremony,” now “drowned.” The
“best” people lack “conviction,” which suggests they're not bothering to do anything about this
nightmarish reality, while the “worst” people seem excited and eager for destruction. The current state
of the world, according to the speaker, proves that the "centre"—that is, the foundation of society—was
never very strong. In other words, humanity’s supposed arc of progress has been an illusion. Whether
the poem means that humanity has lost its way or never knew it to begin with is unclear, but either way
the promises of modern society—of safety, security, and human dignity—have proven empty. And in
their place, a horrific creature has emerged—a grotesque perversion of the “Second Coming” promised
by Christianity, during which Jesus Christ is supposed to return to the earth and invite true believers to
heaven. This Second Coming is clearly not Jesus, but instead a “rough beast” that humanity itself has
woken up (perhaps, the first stanza implies, by the incessant noise of its many wars). With this final
image of the beast, the poem indicates that while humanity seemed to get more civilized in the 2,000
years that followed Christ's birth, in reality people have been sowing the seeds of their own destruction
all along. This “rough beast” is now “pitilessly” slouching toward the birthplace of Jesus—likely in order
to usher in a new age of “darkness” and “nightmare.

MORALITY AND CHRISTIANITY

“The Second Coming” offers an unsettling take on Christian morality, suggesting that it is not the stable
and reliable force that people believe it to be. The poem clearly alludes to the biblical Book of Revelation
from the start, in which, put simply, Jesus returns to Earth to save the worthy. According to the Bible,
this is meant to happen when humanity reaches the end times: an era of complete war, famine,
destruction and hatred. The poem suggests that the end times are already happening, because
humanity has lost all sense of morality—and perhaps that this morality was only an illusion to begin
with. In the first stanza, the speaker describes the chaos, confusion, and moral weakness that have
caused “things” to “fall apart.” In the second, the poem makes it clear that it’s a specifically Christian
morality that is being undone. In describing this wideranging destruction, the poem asks whether
Christian morality was built on weak foundations in the first place—that is, perhaps humanity was never
really moral, but just pretended to be. The first stanza's imagery develops this sense of morality being
turned upside down: good and evil (the "best" and "worst") are no longer the reliable categories that
they once were, replaced by “mere anarchy” (“mere” means something like “pure” here). Humanity has
drenched itself in blood—the “blood-dimmed tide”—suggesting that morality was only ever a
“ceremony,” a performance that conjured the illusion that humankind was innocent.

What's more, the poem suggests that no one—not even Jesus—can remedy this bleak reality. The
biblical Book of Revelation predicts a kind of final reckoning in which people essentially get what they
deserve based on their moral behavior and religious virtues; it indicates that Jesus will come to save
those who are worthy of being saved. But “The Second Coming” offers no such comfort. Instead, in the
first line of the second stanza the poem hints that a moment of divine intervention must be at hand
after the chaos of the first stanza ("surely some revelation is at hand"). And, as it turns out, "some
revelation" is at hand. But rather than returning the world to peace, this new revelation makes things
worse: a new and grotesque beast heads toward Bethlehem, the birthplace of Jesus, to be brought into
the world. If Jesus was the figurehead for a moral movement, this new beastly leader is the figurehead
of a new world of “anarchy,” in which the “best” people (likely the most moral people) lack the courage
of their convictions and the “worst” are allowed to thrive. In other words, the poem portrays Christian
morality and prophecy as weak, or even proven false, in the face of the violence and destruction that
humans have created. The “blank gaze” of this new creature provides further evidence of just how
hopeless the situation is. This being might have the head of a “man,” but it doesn’t have moral sense—
instead, it is “pitiless.” It is arriving to preside over “blood-dimmed tide[s]” and “drowned’
“innocence”—not a world of kindness, charity, and justice. Its sphinx-like appearance is also deliberately
at odds with Christian imagery, which further suggests a break with Christian morality. Meanwhile, the
“Spiritus Mundi” mentioned by the poem is what Yeats thought of as the world’s collective unconscious,
from which the poet could draw insight. This vision of the beast, then, is suggestive of a worldwide shift
into “anarchy,” as the collective mind of humanity lets go of morality. “The Second Coming” is a deeply
ambiguous poem. Indeed, Yeats revised specific cultural references out of the poem before its
publication. But there’s no mistaking that this is a bleak vision of the future of humankind, one which
presents morality as a kind of collective dream that is now turning into a nightmare.
A mythical interpretation of Yeats’ The Second Coming

W. B. Yeats’ poetry is rich in mythical symbols and imagery. He gleans the religion and philosophy of
different cultures and traditions to give his poetic oeuvre an aura of profundity. His seminal poetic work,
The Second Coming, can be read in the light of the ancient Indian myth of Narasimha avatar, the hum-
animal hybrid incarnation of Lord Vishnu. The idea of the second coming of Christ sounds very much like
the concept of reincarnation, which lies at the heart of Hinduism. The ferocity of the antiChrist as
envisioned by Yeats stands close to Narasimha’s brutality in quelling the head of a horrendous demon.
Yeats’ vision emanates from the shared consciousness, which among other things could invariably have
a place for the ancient Indian myth and traditions. The Second Coming of Christ, thus, could be seen in
an altogether new perspective through the concept of re-incarnation myth.

INTRODUCTION

Yeats’ The Second Coming exhibits the coming on of an anti- Christ that will shake humanity out of its
stony sleep from twenty centuries. The figure is that of a sphinx: “with lion body and the head of a
man.” This ferocious creature will incarnate to set the things right in a chaotic world where “things are
falling apart” as “the centre cannot hold” them together. This second coming of God or of Christ sounds
similar to Lord Vishnu’s Narasimha avatar, the “hum-animal hybrid” (Saniotis, 2007). Though in this case,
the head is of lion and body is of man, but the idea hinges upon the similar premise, that is, the hybrid
creature combines the ferocity of a beast and wit of a man. The Sanskrit word avatar “represents the
descent of God into the human world by becoming a human being or one of the other creatures of this
world” (Philips, 2007). Giving the literal meaning of avatar, Mathew writes that it “signifies the descent
or condescension of God, from the high celestial realm to the lower terrestrial regions” (2005). In
Bhagvad Gita Lord Krishna, who is also one of the ten avatar of Lord Vishnu, says that whenever there is
loss of religion and evil increases in the world he incarnates to re-establish religion and faith into the
world (Chapter 4, Verse 7). In the poem, however, Yeats is talking about the second coming of Christ
himself, not of a different God, though the second coming is diametrically opposite from the first. In
fact, the concept of avatar in Hindu religion is different from Christianity; in Hindu thought many an
Avatara of One and the Same Lord is acknowledged. This is a point of contrast with Christianity, which
accepts the only one and the unique incarnation in the person of Jesus, the Christ, who is said to be the
only begotten Son of his Father (Mathew, 2005). In the story of Narasimha avatar, the demon king
Hiranyakashipu was ruling over the earth and was persecuting the worshippers of Lord Vishnu in all the
worst possible ways. He was blessed with “inviolability from all beings, and immortality” by the lord
Brahma that made him invulnerable in day and night, on earth and in sky, inside of his house and
outside; he could not be killed neither by man nor by beast nor by any weapon (Soifer, 1991).
Incidentally, Hiranyakashipu‘s own son Prahalada was the biggest devotee of Lord Vishnu, and bears the
brunt of his father’s wrath. In order to save the life of Prahalada, Lord Vishnu incarnates in the shape of
Narasimha -body of man and the head of lion-and sitting at the threshold of Hiranyakashipu‘s palace,
putting him on his lap, he tears him to pieces through his nails.
ANALYSIS The story of Narasimha avatar finds echo in “The Second Coming”. Yeats’ poem paints a grim
picture of the modern society where “the ceremony of innocence is drowned”; similarly an innocent
devotee of God like Prahalada is also tortured by his father. Further, in the kingdom of Hiranyakashipu
“the best lack all conviction” as all the sages and holy men were made to suffer, whereas “the worst”
people like Hiranyakashipu and his followers were full of “passionate intensity.” In a rough world like
that of Hiranyakashipu and that of the twentieth century, a beastly figure and a ferocious Anti-Christ is
required to put things right. A ruthless creature with “a gaze blank and pitiless as the sun” can only bring
back the order in the chaotic world. “The Second Coming” is not the only poem that reverberates the
influence of Hindu mythology on W. B. Yeats. There are other instances of his indebtedness to Indian
myths and tradition. Ajay Kumar writes about the influence of Hindu mythology on Yeats. The myth of
reincarnation, a characteristic feature of the ancient wisdom literature has been poetized as well as
dramatized by Yeats (2011). Kumar points out that Yeats’ poem “Leda and the Swan” as well as his play
The Hearne’s Egg pay tribute to ancient Indian myths by alluding to the Indian concepts of Godhead, re-
incarnation and Samadhi. The recourse to ancient culture and myth is taken “in reaction to the
emergence of spiritual and religious crisis in life” (Kumar, 2010). With his encyclopedic range of
knowledge, Yeats was able to perceive his idea of “The Second Coming” of God in sync with the ancient
Greek myth of sphinx, Christian beliefs regarding the birth of Christ—“the image of the rough beast
slouching toward Bethlehem with which “The Second Coming” concludes . . . is quite plainly an
association of the idea of the beast, the Anti-Christ, with the birthplace of Jesus” (Weeks, 1948)—and
ancient Indian myth of re-incarnation. In fact, in “The Second Coming”, Yeats employs “images from
many religions and theories to convey his personal belief in the cycles of history” (Fletcher, 2008). The
image of Yeats’ anti-Christ can be comprehended by looking at it through the concept of Chimera found
in Greek mythology—“a monster which was part lion, part snake and part goat and breathed fire”
(Saniotis, 2007). Commenting on the mythical and symbolical significance of Chimera, Saniotis writes,
“The plethora of chimera found throughout the world testifies to their imaginative power and our
primal connection to the non-human world. In addition, their unnatural forms personified the capricious
and ambiguous power of nature (2007).” Yeats’ ferocious anti-Christ possesses the demeanor and
disposition of a rough beast which is also incidentally the characteristic features of Vishnu’s Nar-Simha
avatar. The chaos and mayhem of the modern world or the anarchy of Hiranyakashipu’s reign could
have been overcome only by an omnipotent power acquiring the spirit of not just the human world but
also of the non-human.