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MACHAKOS UNIVERSITY
CENTER OF OPEN, DISTANCE AND e-LEARNING
IN COLLABORATION WITH
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY & SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION

EPS201: PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

WRITTEN BY:
ROSEMARY MULE

Copyright © Machakos University, 2021

All Rights Reserved

NOVEMBER, 2021
 MEMORY AND LEARNING

Introduction

In this topic we will discuss memory which is part and parcel of the learning process. This is partly
because unless past experience can be remembered, it is not possible to conclude that learning took
place. Memory is very important in our lives because without it we will not be able to get to places,
make progress in school work, remember our names and so on. We think and reason using
remembered facts (Mwamwenda, 1995). Without memory you will not be able to pass the
examination after reading this module. By the time you work through this module you will notice that
there are three types of memory that operate in different stages/levels and discover why we remember
some things and why we forget others.

Definition
Memory is the faculty of the brain by which data or information is encoded, stored and retrieved
when needed. It is the retention of information over time for the purpose of influencing future action.

The three stages of memory

How is information processed before it is permanently stored in our memory? You may have
noticed that there is no day that passes without forgetting something, such as where you placed
your keys or pen, a telephone number you wanted to call, learnt material during an examination
and so on. You may be also amazed by how sometimes you are able to vividly remember
experiences you had very many years ago, such as, your first day in school, the name of an old
friend, the streets of a town and so on. Memory refers to the processes that are used to acquire,
store, retain and later retrieve information. There are three major processes involved in memory:
encoding, storage and retrieval. In order to form new memories, information must be changed
into a usable form, which occurs through the process known as encoding. Once information has
been successfully encoded, it must be stored in memory for later use. Much of this stored memory
lies outside of our awareness most of the time, except when we actually need to use it. The retrieval
process allows us to bring stored memories into conscious awareness.

Sensory memory

This is memory at the level of our senses. Our sensory organs are capable of retaining what
impinges on them, but only for a very short time, perhaps for a fraction of a second or more.
Immediately after we experience something, our sensory system contains for a brief moment an
image of the incoming information, even after the stimulus has disappeared. If you look at an object
within your vicinity and close your eyes immediately, you will notice that you are seeing an image
of the object. The information in sensory memory is temporary, lasting for about a half a second.
It involves a continued excitement of the sense organ itself. Any information that is registered in
sensory memory is available to be selected for attention and for processing into a more permanent
type of memory, that is, short-term memory (STM) or long-term memory (LTM). Figure 26 shows
how information is processed for purposesof retention
 Short-term
Long-term
Environment Sensory memory (STM) memory (LTM)
Stimuli (input) register/sensory

Discarded Forgotten
Information information

Figure 26. Information processing for retention in memory

(Source: Mwamwenda, 1995:235)

Any information encountered in the environment enters the sensory register, so called because it is
believed that the information is stored as it is received, without any major changes in its form.
Many of the sensory stimuli which enter the sensory register are not processed and only those which
are processed proceed to the next chamber, which is the short-term memory.

Short-term memory

Information received from the sensory register in its raw form is processed in the short-term
memory, in which it is retained for a short while. Short-term memory, also known as active
memory, is the information we are currently aware of or thinking about. In Freudian psychology,
this memory would be referred to as the conscious mind. STM consists of what is in our
immediate awareness at any given time. For this reason STM is often called working memory. It
is a working memory in the sense that it consists of what you have in mind at the present time.
Information that enters the STM is either processed for further storage in a more permanent way or
is ignored.

In STM, new materials are evaluated, organized and combined with new information and previous
one taken from storage places. STM has a very limited capacity. According to Miller (1956) most
of us can retain seven separate items (plus or minus two) at a given time. Items here can be numbers,
words or letters. Our immediate consciousness is limited to this capacity and as additional items of
information come in, they push out some that are already there.

Unless the new information is very vivid and simple, we need rehearsal to keep it in STM. In
rehearsal, the information is practiced in one way or another. For example, the event is repeated
several times like saying a telephone number again and again. The aim of rehearsing is to keep the
material available until it can be used or until it can be stored in some integrated fashion.
. Long-term memory

Long-term memory refers to the continuing storage of information. In Freudian psychology, long-
term memory would be called the preconscious and unconscious. This information is largely
outside of our awareness, but can be called into working memory to be used when needed. Some
of this information is fairly easy to recall, while other memories are much more difficult to access.

The long-term memory has an unlimited capacity and duration. Information in LTM can be stored
for as long as we live. LTM is the final storage for information. The transfer of material to LTM
requires a process known as encoding, which involves the preparation or organization of
information in a useful and meaningful way so that it can be easily remembered. The information
needs to be organized so that it can be easily available for future reference and can beupdated by
new information.

During the transfer of information from STM to LTM, incoming information is “tagged” or
encoded to be filed in the appropriate place. If it is not properly encoded and stored in LTM it may
not be accessible later. Some of the work of memory organization and filling apparently occurs
during sleep in which our recent additions to LTM are reviewed, improved and systematically
tagged (Crick and Mitchison, 1983).

In addition to any specific memory organization processes that occur during sleep, sleep and rest
may also enhance our ability to recall what we have learned because there is less interference from
addition from new information. You may have noticed that when you revise for anexamination and
have a good rest/sleep you are able to recall better than when you revisethroughout the night or up
to the last minute. Because of the nature of LTM, our memories can include additions to, omissions
to and revisionof the original event. So that what we remember is not a perfect copy of the original
event. When the information is being stored, the meaning of the item is more important than its
exact physical form. For example, at the end of this topic you will be able to answer any question
on STM and LTM correctly without recalling the exact wording in this module.

In the organization of information in the LTM, material seems to be filed in categories and sub-
categories as a network with several pathways to reach a piece of information. The organized
material is thus easily remembered. Clustering is used to organize related information into groups.
Information that is categorized becomes easier to remember and recall. For example, an attempt to
remember a piece of information may trigger memory of related information because related
material appear to be filed together (Huffman et al., 1995).
Memory retrieval

The Curve of Forgetting describes how we retain or get rid of information that we take in.

It's based on a one-hour lecture

On Day 1, at the beginning of the lecture, you go in knowing nothing, or 0%, (where the curve
starts at the baseline). At the end of the lecture you know 100% of what you know, however well
you know it (where the curve rises to its highest point).

By Day 2, if you have done nothing with the information you learned in that lecture, didn't think
about it again, read it again, etc. you will have lost 50%-80% of what you learned. Our brains are
constantly recording information on a temporary basis: scraps of conversation heard on the
sidewalk, what the person in front of you is wearing. Because the information isn't necessary, and
it doesn't come up again, our brains dump it all off, along with what was learned in the lecture that
you actually do want to hold on to!
By Day 7, we remember even less, and by Day 30, we retain about 2%-3% of the original hour!
This nicely coincides with midterm exams, and may account for feeling as if you've never seen
this before in your life when you're studying for exams - you may need to actually re-learn it from
scratch. You can change the shape of the curve! Reprocessing the same chunk of information
sends a bigsignal to your brain to hold onto that data. When the same thing is repeated, your brain
says, "Oh
- there it is again, I better keep that." When you are exposed to the same information repeatedly, it
takes less and less time to "activate" the information in your long term memory and it becomes
easier for you to retrieve the information when you need it.

Here's the formula and the case for making time to review material: Within 24 hours of getting
the information - spend 10 minutes reviewing and you will raise the curve almost to 100% again.
A week later (Day 7), it only takes 5 minutes to "reactivate" the same material, and again raise the
curve. By Day 30, your brain will only need 2-4 minutes to give you the feedback, "Yes, I know
that..."
Often students feel they can't possibly make time for a review session every day in their schedules
- they have trouble keeping up as it is. However, this review is an excellent investment of time. If
you don't review, you will need to spend 40-50 minutes re-learning each hour of material later - do
you have that kind of time? Cramming rarely stores information in your long term memory
successfully, which makes it harder to access the material for assignments during the term and
exam preparation.

Depending on the course load, the general recommendation is to spend half an hour or so every
weekday, and 1.5 to 2 hours every weekend in review activity. Perhaps you only have time to
review 4 or 5 days of the week, and the curve stays at about the mid range. That's OK, it's a lot
better than the 2%-3% you would have retained if you hadn't reviewed at all. Many students are
amazed at the difference reviewing regularly makes in how much they understand and how well
they understand and retain material. It's worth experimenting for a couple weeks, just to see what
difference it makes to you!

Source: http://www.adm.uwaterloo.ca/infocs/study/curve.html

Memory retrieval is the process of returning LTM contents to STM for analysis or awareness.
It is a process of accessing stored memories. The ability to access and retrieve information from
long-term memory allows us to use these memories to make decisions, interact with others and
solve problems. Sometimes a cue or prompt may be necessary in the memory retrieval. A cue is
a stimulus or hint that can trigger/begin a retrieval process from LTM. For example, you might
have walked to the bedroom to pick something only to forget after getting there, but when you
return to the sitting room you remember because you get the necessary cue.

Research has found that when thinking or the retrieval process is left unfinished, the brain will keep
on working on the problem unconsciously until an answer is obtained, psychologists call this the
Zeigarnik effect (Bonello, 1982 & Zeigarnik, 1927). The unfinished problem motivates us to find
a solution. Unconsciously, perceptual processes continue to select things that give us further
information about the problem and we continue to search the categories of our memories until we
find the information we need. For example, you may have met somebody whom you thought you
knew his/her name very well, only to fail to recall, but days later you recall his/her name effortlessly.

Decay theory
This theory assumes that memory disappears or deteriorates with the passage of time. There
appears to be decay or fading of memory traces of information due to the continuous metabolic
processes of the brain. The traces of information that were learned slowly disintegrate and become
extinct as time lapses. Because we have a limited capacity for processing informationrehearsal
can prevent decay. However, as we may agree with this theory, it doesn’t explain why sometimes
we are able to remember things we learned long time ago.

Consolidation theory
This theory assumes that memory trace needs undisturbed period of time to be firmly fixed.
Certain conditions occurring soon after an experience can eradicate the memory before it becomes
permanent. Physical and emotional shock can cause forgetting of recent events possibly due to the
disruption of normal neural functioning. For example, people who suffer brain injury may not
remember what happened before an accident even though their memory of the distant past is normal.
The accident disrupts immediate memories before they have a chance to consolidate.
Interference theory
This theory proposes that forgetting occurs as a result of what happens between point A, when the
information is learnt and point B, when the person is required to recall what he/she learned awhile
ago. We forget something because other information blocks its retrieval. This type of forgetting is
common with similar materials. There are two types of interference effect, namely retroactive
inhibition and proactive inhibition.

Proactive inhibition: Proactive inhibition involves forgetting something because information

learned previously or earlier interferes with it. Proactive interference is when an old memory
makes it more difficult or impossible to remember a new memory. For example, when a child goes
to school and starts to learn a second language say, Kiswahili he/she may have difficulties in
remembering his/her mother tongue.
Retroactive inhibition: Retroactive inhibition involves forgetting something because
information learned afterward interferes with it. Retroactive interference occurs when new
information interferes with your ability to remember previously learned information. For
example, if you learn the gospel of Luke and afterwards learn the gospel of John, you may have
difficulties recalling the contents of the latter which may be very similar to that of the first one.
The pronunciation of words in a second language is sometimes heavily interfered with learning of
a first language.

Motivated forgetting theory

This theory assumes that we wish to forget something unpleasant or something that would cause
pain, anxiety or embarrassment. Sometimes, we may actively work to forget memories, especially
those of traumatic or disturbing events or experiences. The two basic forms of motivated forgetting
are: suppression, a conscious form of forgetting, and repression, an unconscious form of forgetting.
In such cases the information is not forgotten because it is still in the LTM and could be
remembered if the protective mechanism were overcome. In short, we forget certain experiences as
a matter of choice.

Retrieval failure theory

This theory assumes that memories stored in LTM are never forgotten but rather are momentarily
inaccessible as a result of interference, emotional state and lack of adequate cues. Sometimes we
may require the setting in which we learnt to be able to recall. For example, learners may recall
better if they are tested in the room they were taught. We may fail to recall something at a particular
moment, but when conditions are different the information comes back more or less automatically.
Research shows that you may be able to remember information whenyou are in the emotional state
in which the learning occurred (Gordon Bower, 1981). This is what is called state-dependent
memory. For example, subjects who had been sad during learning may remember better when
they are sad during recall.

Thus, forgetting is a temporary rather than a permanent phenomenon according to the retrieval
failure theory. It is like being unable to find something but not losing it. This type of forgetting
can be explained best by what is known as a tip of the tongue (TOT) experience, that is, an
understanding that you know something but you cannot get to it.
 Exceptional memories
Some people are able to remember things so vividly that they are said to have a photographic
memory. The technical term for this ability is called eidetic memory.This ability is rare and is
inborn. Instead of using a selection process that concentrates on the most important aspects of
incoming information, the person with a photographic memory stores all the information.

Methods for measuring memory

i) Recall: This method requires a person to reproduce correctly what he/she has previously
learned.
ii) Recognition: Recognition is discrimination between seen and unseen materials, items
and objects. This is common in multiple choice tests in which you are required to identify
the correct answer out of the distracters.
iii) Recollection: This type of memory retrieval involves reconstructing memory, often
utilizing logical structures, partial memories, narratives or clues. For example, writing an
answer on an essay exam often involves remembering bits on information, and then
restructuring the remaining information based on these partial memories.
iv) Relearning: This is a type of memory retrieval that involves relearning information that
has been previously learned. This often makes it easier to remember and retrieve
information in the future and can improve the strength of memories. The difference
between the number of trials or opportunities required to learn the material initially and
the number of trials required to relearn is considered to be an index of retention. The index
is often referred to as a saving score. For example, relearning material that was once learnt
may require 10 trials while learning the material afresh may require 20 trials. Thus, 10 is
the index of retention. However, improved ability may account for the improved score.

How to improve memory

Various methods can be used to improve our ability to retain information in LTM. Let us briefly look
at these methods.
i) Recitation: This method involves repeating to yourself what you have learnt. Recitation
forces you to practice retrieving information as you learn.
ii) Summarizing and paraphrasing of the major points helps to enhance memory.
iii) Overlearning: overlearning means practicing beyond the point of mastery. Degrees of
overlearning are expressed as percentages. For example, if it takes 10 trials to learn
(master) a task and you practice for five more trials, this is 50 percent overlearning, 10
extra trials is 100 percent overlearning. However, overlearning will depend on the learner’s
ability, motivation, interest and subject matter. Overlearning is beneficial with material
that must be remembered for a long time. More and more practice makes whatever is
learned to become more and more automatic, for example, riding or driving.
iv) Chunking: Chunking means grouping a set of items into subgroups for easy recall. This
reduces the number of items to be remembered. For example, trying to memorize the
telephone number –0721205873, you may reduce the chunks to be recalled as 0721, 205,
873 or as 07,21,20,58 and 73.
v) Spaced Practice: Spaced practice is superior than massed or continuous practice. We
should have breaks instead of studying continuously. This allows the mind to process and
store the information.
vi) Sleep/rest: Sleeping or resting after studying reduces interference and enhances memory
consolidation. Thus, study schedules should have ample breaks between subjects.
 vii) Review: Reviewing of learned material involves going over the major concepts again.
viii) Organization: If the material you are learning is well organized, it will be easy to
remember. One way of organizing information is by breaking it into smaller units and
trying to link these to each other in the way they relate to each other so that remembering
one unit can lead to remembering yet another unit.
ix) Cueing: Cues such as, highlighting the key concepts or terms can help in recall.
x) Mnemonic device: These are strategies used to aid memory. They involve organizing
information visually or verbally for easy remembering. They can be special phrases,
acronyms or symbols, which may be used to group information. For example, trying to
recall the order of the colours of the rainbow by relating them to a person’s name Roy G.
Biv (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet) or putting the information to be
remembered in a story narrative, for example, if you were to recall the days in each
month, you will do it easily using the narrative, “Thirty days have September, April, June
and November, all the rest have 31 days, except
February which has 28 days and 29 in each leap year.”

Educational implications
As a teacher, to help learners improve their memories on what they learn you should:
• Not overload them because of the short duration and processing capacity of STM.
• Allow them enough time to rehearse what they have learned.
• Ensure that the speed of instructing matches their abilities to process the information.
• Help them to encode material by encouraging them to attend to the most important areas of the
lesson or text reading. This can be accomplished by the use of clear instructional objectives.
• Provide them with questions before the lesson and review the questions at the end of the lesson
or topic.
• Properly organize learning materials for easy encoding and remembering. For example putting
related materials together.
• Show them how different facts and concepts are linked to each other. This is because memory
is organized in networks with related concepts being stored together.
• Realize the fact that prior knowledge on material will make learning easy. You should ascertain
what pupils know before you start teaching. If little is known you should provide the base.
• If possible present the material using more than one modality. For example, presenting a picture
of the tree you are describing. Involvement of most of our senses in learning helps retain what
is learned.
• Teach students how to use mnemonic devices.
• Advice students to study in a quiet place to avoid interference or attention diversion.
• Advise learners to periodically review the learning material. The learner can arrange to review
what he/she has learned weekly or fortnightly. This can make retention more effective than
cramming a week or so before an examination.
• If possible ensure overlearning which can improve memory.

Summary
• Memory is the process by which we encode, store and retrieve information.
• Human beings have three different kinds of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory
(STM), and long-term memory (LTM).
• Sensory memory is the memory that occurs within our senses while incoming
messages arebeing transmitted to the brain and lasts for only a fraction of a second.
• Short-term memory involves memory for current thoughts. It can hold about seven
items forabout 30 seconds or so.
• Long-term memory is more permanent memory where information is stored for future
use.
• Retrieval is the process of getting information out of long-term memory.
• Forgetting can be caused by decaying, interference, distortion, repression, failure of
consolidation of information or retrieval failure.
• People with eidetic (photographic) memory can retrieve a detailed copy of the original
imagefrom LTM.
• Forgetting can be minimized by overlearning, periodic review, rehearsal and so on.

Revision questions
1. Describe the three stages of memory.
2. Explain how information is processed in the three levels of memory.
3. What is state-dependent memory?
4. Discuss the following theories of forgetting.
• Decay theory.
• Consolidation theory.
• Interference theory.
• Motivated forgetting theory. Retrieval failure theory.
5. What is eidetic memory?
6. Explain three ways of measuring memory.
7. Explain the methods you can advise learners to use to improve their ability to retain
information in long-term memory.
8. Discuss what you can do as a teacher to help your learners to improve their memories