TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
PULCHOWK CAMPUS

Home Assignment (Odd CRN)

Course: Water Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH)

Masters in Disaster Risk Management

Submitted by:

Pranish Adhikari (079MSDRM011)

Submitted to:

Prof. Nagendra Raj Sitoula

Department of Civil Engineering

Pulchowk Campus

IOE, T.U.

March, 2024
1. Differentiate between natural and anthropogenic disasters. What are the
consequences of disasters in WASH management?

A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society at any scale due to hazardous
events interacting with conditions of exposure, vulnerability and capacity, leading to one or more of
the following: human, material, economic and environmental losses and impacts. Natural disasters are
events caused by natural forces such as earthquakes, hurricanes, floods, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions,
and droughts. These disasters occur due to geological or meteorological processes and are beyond
human control. Anthropogenic disasters, on the other hand, are caused by human activities such as
industrial accidents, pollution, deforestation, and nuclear accidents.

The differences between Natural and Anthropogenic Disasters;

Aspect Natural Disasters Anthropogenic Disasters

Cause Caused by natural forces such
as geological or meteorological
processes (e.g., earthquakes,
hurricanes, floods).
Occurrence Unpredictable and
uncontrollable, occurring due
to natural phenomena.
Examples Earthquakes, hurricanes,
floods, tsunamis, volcanic
eruptions, droughts.
Impact on Environment and Can cause widespread
Society destruction and loss of life due
to their sheer magnitude and
intensity. Often result in
secondary hazards such as
landslides and fires.
Frequency Occur periodically and are part
of the natural cycle of the
Earth.
Caused by human activities
such as industrial accidents,
pollution, deforestation,
nuclear accidents, etc.
Often predictable to some
extent, occurring as a result of
specific human actions or
negligence.
Industrial accidents (e.g.,
chemical spills), oil spills,
deforestation-induced
landslides, nuclear accidents.
Can lead to environmental
degradation, health hazards,
and socio-economic
disruptions.
Can occur with varying
frequency depending on
human activities and their
impact on the environment.
 Mitigation and Prevention
Classification
Mitigation efforts focus on Mitigation involves regulation,
preparedness, early warning environmental management,
systems, and infrastructure and technological
resilience. advancements to minimize
risks and prevent future
occurrences.
Natural disasters are generally Anthropogenic disasters are
classified into three major broadly classified into two
groups: major groups

1. Geophysical disasters 1. Technological disasters

2. Hydro-meteorological 2. Sociological disasters
disasters
3. Biological disasters

The consequences of disasters in Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) management can be
significant and wide-ranging:

[1] Disruption of Water Supply: Disasters such as earthquakes, hurricanes, or floods can damage
infrastructure such as water treatment plants, pipelines, and wells, leading to interruptions in
the supply of clean water for drinking, cooking, and sanitation purposes.
[2] Contamination of Water Sources: Floodwaters, tsunamis, and other disasters can introduce
contaminants such as debris, chemicals, sewage, and pathogens into water sources, increasing
the risk of waterborne diseases such as cholera, typhoid, and diarrhea.
[3] Sanitation Challenges: Disasters can damage or destroy sanitation facilities such as toilets,
sewage systems, and latrines, resulting in improper disposal of human waste and posing
sanitation challenges that can contribute to the spread of diseases and environmental pollution.
[4] Health Risks: Lack of access to clean water and proper sanitation facilities can lead to a higher
incidence of waterborne diseases and hygiene-related illnesses, particularly among vulnerable
populations such as children, the elderly, and those with compromised immune systems.
[5] Increased Vulnerability: Disasters often exacerbate existing vulnerabilities,
disproportionately affecting marginalized communities with limited access to WASH services.
Lack of access to clean water and sanitation facilities can increase the risk of morbidity and
mortality during and after disasters.
 [6] Displacement and Overcrowding: Disasters can force people to flee their homes, leading to
overcrowded shelters and displacement camps where access to clean water and sanitation
facilities may be limited, heightening the risk of disease transmission and exacerbating existing
health challenges.
[7] Environmental Impact: Disasters can result in environmental damage, such as pollution of
water sources, soil erosion, and habitat destruction, which can further complicate efforts to
ensure access to safe water and sanitation services in affected areas.
[8] Long-Term Economic Burden: Rebuilding and repairing damaged water and sanitation
infrastructure, addressing health issues related to poor WASH management, and implementing
disaster preparedness and response measures can impose significant financial burdens on
affected communities and governments, affecting long-term development prospects.

In summary, the consequences of disasters in WASH management can have profound implications for
public health, environmental sustainability, and socio-economic development, underscoring the
importance of disaster preparedness, response, and recovery efforts that prioritize access to clean
water, sanitation, and hygiene services for all populations, particularly in disaster-prone areas.

3. Explain the relationship between sanitation, diseases, and health. What are the
components of the hygiene improvement framework?

The relationship between sanitation, diseases, and health is intertwined and has a profound impact on
public health outcomes;

• Sanitation and Disease Transmission: Poor sanitation practices, such as open defecation or
inadequate sewage disposal, can lead to the contamination of water sources and the
environment with fecal matter and pathogens. This contamination increases the risk of
waterborne diseases such as cholera, typhoid, dysentery, and hepatitis A, as well as diseases
transmitted through vectors such as mosquitoes breeding in stagnant water, leading to illnesses
like malaria and dengue fever.
• Hygiene and Disease Prevention: Proper hygiene practices, including handwashing with soap
and clean water, are essential for preventing the transmission of infectious diseases. Inadequate
 access to sanitation facilities and hygiene resources can compromise personal hygiene, making
individuals more susceptible to infections and contributing to the spread of diseases within
communities.
• Impact on Health Outcomes: Access to safe sanitation facilities, clean water, and hygiene
resources is fundamental to maintaining good health and preventing disease. Improved
sanitation infrastructure, such as toilets, latrines, and sewage systems, reduces exposure to
fecal contamination and lowers the risk of diarrheal diseases, respiratory infections, and other
hygiene-related illnesses, particularly among vulnerable populations such as children, pregnant
women, and the elderly.
• Social and Economic Implications: Inadequate sanitation and poor health outcomes can have
significant social and economic consequences, including reduced productivity, increased
healthcare costs, and decreased quality of life. Children affected by waterborne diseases may
miss school due to illness, leading to educational setbacks, while adults may be unable to work
or earn a livelihood, perpetuating cycles of poverty and inequality.
• Environmental Impact: Proper sanitation practices and wastewater management are essential
for protecting the environment and preventing pollution of water bodies, soil, and air.
Inadequate sanitation infrastructure can lead to environmental degradation, habitat destruction,
and the spread of waterborne pollutants, posing risks to ecosystems and biodiversity.

In summary, sanitation, diseases, and health are interconnected aspects of public health, with sanitation
playing a critical role in disease prevention, health promotion, and environmental sustainability.
Access to safe sanitation facilities, clean water, and hygiene resources is essential for protecting
individuals and communities from infectious diseases and improving overall health outcomes,
particularly in resource-limited settings and areas prone to environmental contamination. Efforts to
improve sanitation infrastructure, promote hygiene behavior change, and ensure equitable access to
WASH services are essential for achieving global health goals and reducing the burden of preventable
diseases worldwide.

The Hygiene Improvement Framework (HIF) developed by the Environmental Health Project (EHP)
is a comprehensive approach for preventing childhood diarrhea, a major health threat in many
developing countries. It focuses on three core components that work together to encourage key
household behaviors that reduce the spread of disease;
[1] Improving Access to Water and Sanitation (Hardware):

This component addresses the physical infrastructure needed for proper hygiene practices. It includes;

• Improved water supply: Ensuring access to safe drinking water through interventions like
drilled wells, protected springs, or piped water systems.
• Sanitation facilities: Promoting the construction and proper use of toilets to safely dispose of
human waste. This could involve building latrines or promoting alternative sanitation
solutions.
• Handwashing facilities: Encouraging the construction and use of handwashing stations with
soap and water at critical locations, such as near toilets and cooking areas.
[2] Promoting Hygiene (Software):

This component focuses on changing behaviors and creating a culture of hygiene within communities.
It involves;
 • Hygiene education: Educating people, especially mothers and caregivers, about the
importance of handwashing, proper sanitation practices, and safe water handling. This can be
done through various channels like community meetings, demonstrations, and educational
materials.
• Behavior change communication: Using targeted communication strategies to motivate
people to adopt and sustain healthy hygiene behaviors. This might involve using local
influencers, role models, and culturally appropriate messaging.
• Community mobilization: Encouraging community participation in hygiene promotion
activities. This could involve forming hygiene committees, promoting social marketing
campaigns, and fostering community ownership of hygiene practices.
[3] Strengthening the Enabling Environment:

This component addresses the broader social, political, and economic factors that influence hygiene
practices. It includes;

• Policy advocacy: Advocating for policies that support hygiene promotion, such as allocating
resources for sanitation infrastructure and promoting hygiene education in schools.
• Financing mechanisms: Exploring sustainable financing options for hygiene interventions,
such as microfinance schemes for toilet construction or user fees for water supply maintenance.
• Capacity building: Training community health workers, educators, and local leaders on
hygiene promotion strategies and behavior change techniques.

By focusing on all three components – hardware, software, and enabling environment – the Hygiene
Improvement Framework aims to create a holistic approach to improving hygiene practices and
reducing the incidence of childhood diarrhea. This comprehensive strategy is essential for achieving
long-term sustainable improvements in public health.
5. Highlight the importance of sanitation and cleaning during or after a disaster.
What are emergency water sources? Assess and explain source protection and
emergency water treatment during a disaster.

Sanitation and cleaning play crucial roles during and after disasters to protect public health, prevent
the spread of diseases, and facilitate recovery efforts. Here are some key reasons why sanitation and
cleaning are important in disaster situations:

• Prevention of Disease Outbreaks: Disasters often result in contaminated water sources,

damaged sanitation infrastructure, and unsanitary living conditions, creating breeding grounds
for infectious diseases. Proper sanitation practices, including the safe disposal of human waste,
cleaning of contaminated areas, and provision of clean water and hygiene resources, are
essential for preventing outbreaks of waterborne, vector-borne, and hygiene-related diseases
such as cholera, typhoid, and diarrhea.
• Protection of Public Health: Maintaining clean and hygienic environments helps protect the
health and well-being of affected populations, particularly vulnerable groups such as children,
the elderly, and individuals with weakened immune systems. Sanitation and cleaning
interventions reduce the risk of exposure to environmental contaminants, prevent secondary
infections, and promote faster recovery from injuries and illnesses.
• Reduction of Environmental Hazards: Disasters can result in environmental hazards such
as debris, hazardous materials, and chemical spills, posing risks to human health and safety.
Proper sanitation and cleaning practices help mitigate these hazards by removing debris,
containing hazardous materials, and decontaminating affected areas to minimize exposure and
prevent further harm to the environment and ecosystem.
• Restoration of Infrastructure and Services: Cleaning and sanitizing affected infrastructure,
including water supply systems, sanitation facilities, and public spaces, are essential for
restoring essential services and enabling communities to resume normal activities. Clearing
debris, repairing damaged infrastructure, and disinfecting contaminated areas are critical steps
in the recovery process that facilitate the return to safe and functional living conditions.
• Psychosocial Support and Dignity: Maintaining cleanliness and sanitation amidst the chaos
and disruption of a disaster can provide a sense of normalcy, dignity, and well-being for
affected individuals and communities. Access to clean water, sanitation facilities, and hygiene
 resources helps preserve human dignity, promotes mental and emotional well-being, and
fosters a sense of resilience and hope during challenging times.
• Prevention of Secondary Hazards: Poor sanitation and hygiene practices can lead to
secondary hazards such as mold growth, vermin infestation, and respiratory problems,
exacerbating health risks for disaster survivors. Timely cleaning, disinfection, and waste
management interventions help prevent these secondary hazards, minimize health risks, and
create safer and more habitable living environments for affected populations.

In summary, sanitation and cleaning are essential components of disaster response and recovery
efforts, contributing to public health protection, environmental safety, infrastructure restoration, and
psychosocial support for affected communities. Prioritizing sanitation and hygiene interventions
during and after disasters can help mitigate health risks, prevent disease outbreaks, and promote the
well-being and resilience of disaster survivors.

Following are some of the emergency water sources that may require some sort of treatment;

• Rainwater collected in clean, food-grade storage containers; boil before drinking to kill
bacteria.
• Bottled water in factory-sealed containers.
• Streams, rivers, and other moving bodies of water.
• Natural springs.
• Stored water.
• Tap water.
• Melting ice or snow

The importance of water source protection is emphasized due to limitations in water treatment systems'
ability to remove all contaminants. Prevention of water sources through proper management and
reduction of hazardous waste is more effective and economical than remediation. Key measures for
source protection include maintaining septic systems, inspecting sources annually, preventing
potential pollutants from reaching sources, and regularly checking water and solid waste conveyance
systems.

During emergencies, various methods can be employed to treat water at the point of use, removing
physical and microbiological pollutants:
1. Infiltration Wells: The sand and gravel deposited beside and below a river acts as a very
effective water filter. So, wells dug a short distance from a river bank will usually provide
better quality water than the river itself.
2. Aeration: Increases oxygen content, removes volatile substances, and aids in oxidizing
dissolved minerals like iron and manganese. Simple methods include shaking water vigorously
and allowing suspended particles to settle.
3. Storage and settlement: Allowing water to stand helps larger particles settle. While settling
reduces contamination, treated water should still undergo further purification. Two days of
storage further reduces contamination risk.
4. Filtration:
• Membrane filters: Effective in removing even smaller organisms like viruses but require
regular cleaning.
• Sand filters: Utilize layers of sand and gravel in containers to physically block particles
while allowing water to pass through.
• Ceramic filters: Slowly pass water through a ceramic candle filter, mechanically removing
suspended particles. Some are impregnated with silver for disinfection, eliminating the
need for boiling. Regular cleaning is necessary.
5. Disinfection:
• Boiling: Effective but energy-consuming. Water must reach a rolling boil to kill harmful
organisms. Aeration can improve taste post-boiling.
• Chemical disinfection (e.g., chlorine): Kills most viruses and bacteria, but some protozoa
may be resistant. Various forms like liquid, powder, and tablets are available, each requiring
different dosages. Proper adherence to manufacturer instructions is crucial.
• Solar disinfection (SODIS): Sunlight's UV rays deactivates pathogens. Water is filled into
transparent containers and exposed to sunlight for a specific duration, typically 24-48 hours
depending on sunlight intensity and water clarity. Devices are available to indicate when
sufficient temperature for pathogen inactivation is reached. Water should be cooled and
shaken before use.
7. Argue the solid waste issues in emergencies. What is the procedure for the
appropriate disposal of human corpses (dead body management)?

Solid Waste Issues in Emergencies

Emergencies like earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, and conflicts generate a significant amount of solid
waste, creating major challenges. Here's an explanation of the problems and their impact:

• Increased Waste Generation: Disasters disrupt normal waste collection routines, leading to a
pile-up of household waste, debris from damaged buildings, and hazardous materials.
• Strained Infrastructure: Damaged collection systems and overflowing landfills become
overwhelmed, hindering waste management efforts.
• Health Risks: Improper waste disposal attracts pests and creates unsanitary conditions,
increasing the risk of disease outbreaks, especially in already vulnerable populations.
• Environmental Contamination: Contaminated waste can pollute water sources and damage
ecosystems if not managed properly.
• Hindered Recovery: Debris can block roads and critical infrastructure, hampering rescue and
relief efforts.

These issues highlight the importance of proper solid waste management during emergencies;

• Planning and Preparedness: Developing pre-disaster plans for waste collection, temporary
disposal sites, and resource allocation is crucial.
• Prioritization: Focus on removing critical debris for search and rescue operations and
ensuring safe disposal of medical waste to prevent disease outbreaks.
• Community Mobilization: Engaging local communities in waste collection efforts and
promoting waste segregation can contribute to faster and more efficient waste management.
• Innovation: Exploring innovative solutions like temporary waste treatment facilities or mobile
recycling units can be crucial in resource-constrained situations.
Dead Body Management in Emergencies

The proper management of dead bodies during emergencies is vital to prevent the spread of disease,
maintain public health, and respect the dignity of the deceased. Here's a breakdown of the appropriate
procedure:

1. Identification and Registration:

Whenever possible, deceased individuals should be identified through personal belongings, medical
records, or witness accounts. This allows for proper notification of families and facilitates burial or
repatriation.

A central registry should be established to record details of the deceased, including location, cause of
death (if possible), and identification information.

2. Safe Storage and Transportation:

Bodies should be stored in cool, clean locations to minimize decomposition. This might involve using
refrigerated containers or morgues.

Proper transportation protocols ensure respectful and sanitary transfer of bodies to designated storage
or burial sites.

3. Disposal Methods:

Mass Burials: In situations with overwhelming numbers of casualties, mass burials might be necessary.
These should be conducted in designated locations, considering cultural sensitivities and
environmental impact.

Individual Burials: Whenever possible, individual burials should be encouraged, respecting cultural
and religious practices

Cremation: Cremation can be an option, depending on resources, cultural acceptance, and the cause
of death.

4. Psychological Considerations:

Training and support for personnel involved in dead body management is crucial to address the
emotional and psychological stress associated with this work.

Communities should be provided with opportunities to grieve and participate in culturally appropriate
mourning rituals.
5. Cultural Sensitivity:

Respecting cultural and religious practices regarding death rituals is crucial throughout the process.
This includes involving religious leaders and community representatives in decision-making and
ensuring culturally appropriate handling of the deceased.

Dead body management in emergencies requires a coordinated effort from various stakeholders,
including government agencies, humanitarian organizations, and religious leaders. By adhering to
these guidelines, we can ensure a dignified approach to managing the dead while protecting public
health and minimizing the emotional trauma for affected communities.