CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION:
Embedded Systems:
An embedded system is a specialized computer system designed for a specific purpose
within a larger mechanical or electronic system. It combines hardware (such as microcontrollers or
microprocessors) with software to perform dedicated tasks. These systems are tightly constrained,
often operating in real time and reacting to changes in their environment. Key characteristics include
single functionality, memory (both RAM and ROM), and connectivity. Embedded systems play a
crucial role in various domains, from household appliances to industrial machinery, and their design
involves balancing safety, performance, and efficiency.

Components of Embedded Systems:

 Microcontroller or Microprocessor: The heart of an embedded system, responsible

for executing instructions and controlling other components.
 Memory: Embedded systems have both primary memory (RAM) for temporary
storage and secondary memory (ROM or Flash) for program storage.
 Input/Output Interfaces: These allow communication with external devices, such as
sensors, switches, and displays.
 Timers and Counters: Used for scheduling tasks, measuring time intervals, and
generating precise delays.
 Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADC): Convert analog signals (e.g., from sensors)
into digital data for processing.
 Digital-to-Analog Converters (DAC): Convert digital data back to analog signals
(e.g., for audio output).
 Communication Interfaces: Examples include UART, SPI, I2C, and Ethernet for
data exchange with other devices.
 Real-Time Clock (RTC): Provides accurate timekeeping for time-sensitive
applications.
 Power Supply and Voltage Regulators: Ensures stable power for reliable operation.

characteristics of an embedded system:

 Single-Functioned: Embedded systems typically perform a specialized operation

repeatedly. For example, a pager always functions as a pager.
 Tightly Constrained: All computing systems have design constraints, but those
designed for real-time operating systems (RTOS) are especially constrained. Safety
and performance metrics are critical considerations.
 Reactive and Real-Time: Many embedded systems must continually react to changes
in the system’s environment and compute certain results in real time without any
delays.
 Microprocessor Based: An embedded system is usually microcontroller or
microprocessor based.
  Memory: It must have memory, including primary memory (RAM) and secondary
memory (ROM).
 Connected: Embedded systems may be network-connected appliances that send data
across networks.
 Hardware-Software Systems: Hardware-software systems meet all these criteria,
including real-time constraints.

Basic Structure of an Embedded system

Fig 1.1 Embedded Block Diagram

 Sensor:
1. A sensor is a device that detects and responds to changes in its environment
by converting the physical change into an electrical signal.
2. Sensors are used in various applications, from touch-sensitive elevator buttons
to industrial machinery.
3. They can measure temperature, pressure, light, sound, motion, and other
physical phenomena.
4. Sensitivity, accuracy, and response time are essential characteristics of
sensors.
 A-D Converters (ADC):
1. An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) converts an analog signal (e.g., sound
or light) into a digital signal.
2. It quantizes the input, introducing a small amount of quantization error.
3. ADCs are essential for digitizing real-world signals for processing by
computers or microcontrollers.
 4. They come in various architectures and resolutions, typically implemented as
integrated circuits (ICs).
 Processors & ASICs:
1. Processors (such as CPUs) execute instructions and control other components
in a computer system.
2. ASICs (application-specific integrated circuits) are customized IC chips
designed for specific uses (e.g., video codecs or voice recorders).
3. ASICs are more specialized than general-purpose ICs and can include entire
microprocessors or memory blocks.
 D-A Converters (DAC):
1. A digital-to-analog converter (DAC) converts digital data into an analog
signal (voltage or current).
2. DACs are used in various applications, including audio systems, industrial
automation, and data acquisition.
3. They come in different resolutions (bits) and provide accurate and reliable
conversion.
 Actuator:
1. An actuator produces force, torque, or displacement in a controlled way when
supplied with electrical, pneumatic, or hydraulic input.
2. It converts input signals (low energy) into mechanical energy (motion).
3. Actuators can be linear (e.g., hydraulic cylinders) or rotary (e.g., motors).
4. They play a crucial role in automation and control systems
CHAPTER 4

BASICS OF IoT, SENDING DATA OVER SERVER, VARIOUS SENSORS

Arduino

Fig 4.1 Arduino UNO

 Arduino boards can read inputs from various sources (like sensors, buttons, or even
Twitter messages) and convert them into outputs (such as activating a motor, turning on
an LED, or publishing something online).
 You communicate with the microcontroller on the Arduino board by sending a set of
instructions.
 The Arduino programming language (based on Wiring) and the Arduino Software (IDE)
(based on Processing) help you write and compile code for your projects.
 Arduino has been the brain behind thousands of projects, from everyday objects to
complex scientific instruments.
 A global community of makers, students, artists, and professionals contributes to this
open-source platform, making it a valuable resource for both beginners and experts.
Arduino IDE

Fig 4.2 Arduino Fig 4.3 Arduino IDE interface

 The Arduino IDE (Integrated Development Environment) is where you write, compile,
and upload code to Arduino boards
 It’s an official software introduced by Arduino.cc.
 Used for writing, compiling, and uploading code to almost all Arduino modules/boards.
 Available for Windows, macOS, and Linux.
 Runs on the Java Platform and provides essential functions for debugging, editing, and
compiling code.
 Supports both C and C++ languages.

ESP8266 Microcontroller

Fig 4.1 ESP8266 microcontroller

The ESP8266 is a versatile Wi-Fi microcontroller produced by Espressif Systems. It gained

popularity in the maker community due to its low cost and adaptability with embedded
devices. The ESP8266 features a 32-bit processor running at either 80 MHz or 160 MHz,
along with 32 KB of instruction RAM, 32 KB of cache RAM, and 80 KB of user data RAM.
It supports IEEE 802.11 b/g/n Wi-Fi standards and provides 16 general-purpose input/output
pins for interfacing with other components. Whether used as a standalone MCU or in
conjunction with external host MCUs, the ESP8266 plays a crucial role in IoT applications,
enabling seamless wireless connectivity for various projects.

Key features of the ESP8266 microcontroller:

 Powerful Processor: Equipped with a Tensilica Xtensa 32-bit LX106 RISC

microprocessor running at adjustable clock frequencies of 80 to 160 MHz.
 Ultra-Low Power Consumption: Designed for efficient operation in battery-
powered devices.
 Memory and Storage: Includes 4 MB Flash memory for program storage and 128
KB RAM for data storage.
 Wi-Fi Connectivity: Integrated Wi-Fi SoC supporting IEEE 802.11 b/g/n standards.
 GPIO Pins: Provides 16 general-purpose input/output pins for interfacing with
other components.
 Interfaces: Supports UART, SPI, and I2C interfaces for communication.
 Compact Size: Small form factor ideal for IoT projects.

MQTT Box

MQTT is a lightweight, publish-subscribe-based messaging protocol designed for resource-

constrained devices and low-bandwidth, high-latency, or unreliable networks. It is widely
used in Internet of Things (IoT) applications, facilitating efficient communication between
sensors, actuators, and other devices. MQTT operates as a publish and subscribe system,
where devices publish messages on specific topics, and all subscribed devices receive those
messages. One of its key advantages is its efficiency. MQTT messages can be as small as 2
bytes, unlike HTTP requests that require larger headers. Additionally, when a server receives
information from one client, it automatically distributes it to all interested clients.