In 1683, Portuguese militia tried to take control of the gold trade in the interior

of Africa by invading the Rozvi empire. However, the Rozvi, armed with their
traditional spears and shields, repelled these attacks and maintained control of
the gold mines, until their empire collapsed. The Rozvi were led by Changamire
Dombo, and his son Kambgun Dombo[4] whose power was based in Butua in the what is
today southwestern Zimbabwe. The Rozvi were formed from several Shona states that
dominated the plateau of present-day Zimbabwe. They drove the Portuguese off the
central plateau, and the Europeans retained only a nominal presence at one of the
fair-towns in the eastern highlands.

Changamire brought the whole of old -day Zimbabwe under his control, forming a
polity that became known as the Rozvi Empire. This powerful kingdom of warriors was
to be known as the Rozvi or baLozwi people.[3] They established their capital at
Danangombe, also known as Dhlo-Dhlo (in the Northern Ndebele language)

The administrative power of the Mutapa began to fail to control the whole empire,
and tributaries began to exert more independence.[citation needed]

A leader of the people of Guruuswa, given the title Changamire and known as Dombo,
became independent from the Mutapa. When the Portuguese tried to colonize them,
Changamire Dombo led rebellions against their rule. The area of the Rozvi Empire
fluctuated. Its influence extended over much of present-day Zimbabwe, westward into
Botswana, and southward into northeastern South Africa. The Rozvi leader Changamire
Dombo was originally a herdsman in the Mutapa state, yet managed to drive away the
Portuguese, earning himself support and followers, thereby enabling him to break
away from the legendary Mutapa empire. Changamire Dombo, according to oral
tradition, is believed to have possessed supernatural powers. He was said to be
able to turn a white cow into a red one, and more. His magical ability made him
feared by people and earned him respect and even more followers. The name
Changamire became the honour name of all the kings who followed after him.

The Rozvi's political system was hierarchical. Kingship followed a male line and
the king was the highest political, religious, military, economic, judicial and
social authority, as well as the main distributor of land. The King was helped to
rule by an advisory council made of state officials appointed by him; this
consisted of his most senior wives, the crown prince, the tumbare (regent),
religious leaders, military commanders and vassal chiefs. The Rozvi Empire
eventually became the most powerful empire in present-day Zimbabwe.[citation
needed]

Many tales identify Dombo ('Rock') as Chikura Wadyembeu. Modern scholars agree that
this is confusion with another leader of a different people.[citation needed]
Rulers of Rozvi State included Chirisa Mhuru and Chikuyo Chisamarenga.

Invasions and demise

In the late 1700s and early 1800s, the Rozvi Empire faced several challenges. Like
the Mwenemutapa Empire, it was federal in nature, and political tensions between
allied kingdoms and the ruling dynasty resulted in some kingdoms (e.g. Manyika) and
chieftainships breaking away from the Empire. Internal palace revolutions and
constant attacks from the BaMangwato placed increased political pressure on the
empire. Two major droughts, 1795 to 1800 and 1824 to 1829, contributed to political
instability.[5] Long-standing trading partners like the Portuguese shifted their
attention to slaves, thus decreasing demand for gold; thus the Shona tradition of
gold mining and trade, which had lasted almost a millennium, declined and so the
power of central governments like the Rozvi started to weaken.[5] On top of all the
challenges, the 1830s were a time of multiple invasions and wars that the Rozvi
Empire never recovered completely from.

In the area of modern-day South Africa, several events resulted in a mass exodus.
Drought, invading Dutch settlers and the catastrophic aftermath of the Mfecane
resulted in waves of Nguni tribes moving north. Successive attacks on the Empire by
the Mpanga, Ngwana, Maseko and Zwangendaba were repelled, but did much damage.
Another wave of attacks followed from the group led by the Swazi Queen Nyamazanana,
resulting in the capture of the capital Manyanga and the murder of the Rozvi Mambo
Chirisamhuru. Contrary to the established narrative, this was not the end of the
Rozvi Empire. Chirisamhuru's son, Tohwechipi escaped and went into exile in the
Buhera area. With the support of the Mutinhima and other Noble Rozvi Houses,
Tohwechipi effectively became the Rozvi Mambo.[6]

Mzilikazi realized that although some of the Rozvi nobility had accepted him as
King, most of the Shona did not accept him, limiting the geographic area of his
Kingdom. Taking a diplomatic approach, he sent word to Tohwechipi asking him to
return home and submit to him, crowning him King of the Shona. Tohwechipi did not
accept Mzilikazi's offer and instead, consolidated his power and spent the next 30
years in a series of back-and-forth raids and counter-raids with Mzilikazi and
eventually Lobengula, earning the nickname Chibhamubhamu because of his army of
raiders armed with rifles. Tohwechipi was defeated in battle, and surrendered in
1866[7] and curiously, Mzilikazi let him go. He died around 1873[6] in the Nyashanu
area in Buhera and was buried there in Mavangwe Hills. Tohwechipi's grave is a
protected national monument.[8]

Technology and economy

The economic power of the Rozvi empire was based on cattle herding, farming, and
gold mining. Crops included sorghum and millet, and the state depended heavily on
subsistence farming. Livestock was important; they kept sheep, goats, cattle and
chickens; men who owned much livestock had high social status. Mining was a major
branch and was done by men. Internal and external trade were important, especially
with Arab traders, exchanging ivory, copper and gold for guns, salt, beads and sea
shells.[citation needed]

Rozvi kings revived the tradition of stone building and constructed impressive
cities, now known as 'zimbabwes', throughout the southwest. Polychrome pottery was
also emblematic. Warriors were armed with spears, shields, bows and arrows.
Portuguese records show that the Rozvi were sophisticated military strategists.
They were noted for using the cow-horn formation years before the great Zulu leader
Shaka adopted it in the 19th century. Armed with spears, shields, bows and arrows,
the aggressive Rozvi took over the Zimbabwe plateau.[3]

List of rulers
Names and dates taken from John Stewart's African States and Rulers (1989).[9]

Changamire I (c. 1480–1494)

Changamire II (1494–1530)
Changamire Tumbare (1530–c. 1660)
Changamire Dombo 1695–1720)
Changamire Zharare (c. 1695 – c. 1700)
Changamire Negamo (c. 1700–1710)
Chirisamuru (c. 1712–1788)
Changamire Dhafa(c. 1790–1824)
Changamire Baswi (c. 1825)
Changamire Chirisamuru II (c. 1828–1836)
Changamire Tohwechipi Zharare (1838–1866)
See also
Dhlo-Dhlo, an archelogical site
References
Innocent Pikirayi et Joseph O. Vogel, The Zimbabwe Culture: Origins and Decline of
Southern Zambezian States, Rowman & Littlefield - Altamira Press, 2001
Cornell, James (1978). Lost Lands and Forgotten People. Sterling Publishing
Company. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-8069-3926-1. Zimbabwe continued to grow, reaching the
height of its power in 1700, under the rule of the Rozwi people. When the first
Europeans arrived on the African coast, they heard tales of a great stone city, the
capital of a vast empire. The tales were true, for the Rozwi controlled 240,000
square miles [...] More than one million Africans lived under Rozwi rule.
"Rozvi". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 9 May 2007.
Isichei, Elizabeth Allo, A History of African Societies to 1870 Cambridge
University Press, 1997, ISBN 978-0521455992 page 435
Shillington, Kevin, ed. (4 July 2013). Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume
Set. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203483862. ISBN 978-0-203-48386-2.
Beach, D. N. (October 1974). "Ndebele raiders and Shona power". The Journal of
African History. 15 (4): 633–651. doi:10.1017/s0021853700013918. ISSN 0021-8537.
S2C