MAPÚA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AT LAGUNA

ECE101L A22 2T 2023-2024

F2F #4: Diode Activity #4

Group 3

Amil, John Louis B.

Mojica, Jonathan L.

Narciso, Dean Danielz

Tayamora, Jerome Fredrich M.

Yapsangco, Julius Vincent S.

Instructor: Jonathan Oracion

 Abstract

The fundamentals and uses of zener regulation and diode waveshaping in electronic

circuits are examined in this abstract. Diode waveshaping is consciously modifying electrical

waveforms with the use of diodes to produce the desired output characteristics. When it

comes to limiting, rectifying, or clipping signals, the diode’s non-linear behavior is essential.

Zener regulation focuses on utilizing the zener diodes for voltage regulation purposes.

Zener diodes operate in the breakdown region, maintaining a nearly constant voltage across

their terminals, making them ideal for voltage regulation in electronic circuits.

The study investigates the various uses of rectifier diodes, which can be used to

control amplitude by altering the diode configuration and to convert sine waves into square

waves. The diode direction determines the output waveform polarity, which affects the limits

on both positive and negative changes.

Through an RC linked circuit, the limiter can be changed from a limiter to a clamper,

changing the reference level of the output waveform. The zener diode also exhibits efficient

voltage regulation, keeping the output voltage almost constant despite changes in the source

voltage and load current. The zener diode has a minimal current requirement for operation in

the conduction state. It enters the open state, which results in almost negligible current.

Introduction

Diode clipper is a wave shaping circuit that takes an input waveform and clips or cuts

off either top, bottom, or both halves. The circuit consists of a diode and resistive load.

Sometimes, the circuit also consists of a reference voltage, either positive or negative bias.

This produces an output waveform that resembles a flattened version of the input waveform.

With this, a half-wave rectifier is one of the examples of a diode clipper since it eliminates all

voltages below zero (Electronics Tutorials, n.d.).

 There are various types of diode clippers but are simplified into these categories.

These are either series or parallel (shunt), positive or negative, and biased. Series clipper

contains a diode in series with a load, mostly a resistor, connected at the end of the circuit.

Parallel or shunt clippers, on the other hand, contain a diode in parallel with a resistive load.

Each of the types of diode clipper have different output waveforms. For positive series

clipper, the positive half cycle of the waveform is clipped, and for negative series clipper, the

negative half cycle is clipped, hence the name. In a parallel clipper, it also acts the same with

a series clipper but the difference is that in parallel, the peak voltage, either positive or

negative, decreases. For biased clippers, either positive or negative clippers, the waveform

moves either up or down, depending on the reference voltage bias.

Diode clamper is a circuit that changes the DC level of a signal to the desired level

without changing the shape of the applied signal. In this, the waveform either moves up or

down to set either positive or negative peak of the signal, depending on the desired level or

the input voltage (Shaik, n.d.). This circuit contains a diode, capacitor, and a resistive load.

This circuit is different from the clippers, hence the definition in which a clipper clips or cuts

a portion of the waveform while a clamper only moves the waveform into the desired peak.

There are three types of diode clampers, which are positive, negative, and biased

clampers. In a positive clamper, the waveform moves up which makes the negative peak

voltage to zero. In negative clamper, it is the opposite of positive clamper as the waveform

moves down which makes the positive peak voltage to zero. For a biased clamper, the peak

voltage, either positive or negative depending on the orientation of a clamper, did not reach to

zero, unlike normal positive or negative clampers.

Aside from regular diodes, there is a special type of diode that is used mostly in

semiconductors. Zener diode is a special type of rectifying diode that can handle breakdown
due to reverse breakdown voltage without failing completely (Kuphaldt, 2022). When

forward biased, a Zener diode performs similarly to a regular diode. On the other hand, a tiny

leakage current passes through the diode in reverse-biased mode. Current starts to flow

through the diode as the reverse voltage rises and reaches the preset breakdown voltage (V­z).

This current stabilizes and stays constant over a broad range of applied voltages after

reaching a maximum level set by the series resistor (Byju’s, 2023).

Experimental Method

An oscilloscope and multimeter was used for voltage output measuring for every part

of the experiment. There are 2 topics that will be experimented on which are Diode

Waveshaping and Zener Diode Voltage Regulation.

A. Diode Waveshaping

A Diode Limiter (Diode Waveshaping) is a circuit that modifies an input waveform by

selectively removing or restricting either the top half, bottom half, or both halves

simultaneously. The process of diode clipping the input signal results in an output waveform

that closely resembles a flattened version of the original input.The following circuit diagrams

is what was used for the first part of the experiment with different set conditions in every part

of the experiment.

Parallel Positive and Negative Clipper with Positive and Negative Biases:
 Positive and Negative Clamper with Positive and Negative Biases

Take note that the reason for the “open/disconnected” parts is because there are

certain conditions/instructions and that will be the basis of discussion and get output from it.

As you can see for clamper circuits, the DC voltage source is adjustable for experimental

purposes which will be explained later in the discussions.

With this, we can analyze the effects of a dc biased diode with an AC signal

waveform. In the context of this discussion, the objective of dc positive/negative biased is to

be utilized in clipping and clamping circuits in order to modify the shape of the waveform it

produces.

Clipping circuits are characterized by the use of a diode that is biased in such a way

that it allows just a certain piece of the input waveform to pass through, therefore "clipping"

the waveform. Through the utilization of a positive bias in clamping circuits, it is possible to

shift the entire waveform to a different DC level (DC level). On the other hand, a clamper

circuit, sometimes referred to as a clamping circuit or clamper, is an electrical circuit that

stabilizes either the positive or negative peak values of a signal to a predetermined value by

adjusting the signal's DC value. Clamper circuits do not impose any limitations on the

peak-to-peak values of the signal. Instead, it shifts the whole signal vertically to align the

peaks with the appropriate reference level.

Here are some expected output behavior for certain circuit setting:

Clipper Circuits Sets

Clamper Circuits Sets
(NOTE: The values used in the simulator are not the same so expect different output values,

however, it will still show the same waveform behaviour output.)

The reasons for why the output waveforms are read by an oscilloscope like that will

be explained in Results/Discussions.

B. Zener Diode Voltage Regulation

A Zener diode is a diode that functions like a regular diode when it is forward biased,

but it also allows current to pass through when it is reverse biased, as long as the voltage

exceeds the Zener voltage. Once its Zener voltage threshold is exceeded, it consistently

maintains a steady reference voltage. However, if the input voltage is below the zener voltage

threshold, the zener diode fails to show conduction. The output voltage of an "off-state" zener

diode will be equivalent to either the input voltage or the voltage drop across a component,

depending on whether the diode is connected in parallel.. A voltage regulator is a device or

circuit designed to generate a precise voltage while reducing output fluctuations caused by

changes in input, temperature, and load demands. In this particular phase of the experiment,

we are employing a Zener diode as a voltage regulator.

The purpose of this is to observe and measure regulation properties using a zener

diode shunt voltage regulator. The image below is the circuit diagram that will be used.

Multimeter is the main instrument that will be used since an oscilloscope and function

generator are not used for this part. R4 has an adjustable resistance value, which is important

to note for the discussions of following results for different R4 resistances.

 To have a clear and better observation of the zener diode, we will be using the

following table. Being able to see the different output values in varying source voltage will

help us to see changes precisely. Additionally, we will make a graph (Source Voltage vs.

Load Voltage) to have a representation for the changes that occur in different settings.

For this table, this will be used to record output values in varying R4 resistance. With

a fixed voltage source, we will be able to observe here the output changes in different R4

resistance which undoubtedly will affect the whole circuit.

 We will make a conclusion on at what level the zener diode is good at output voltage

regulation based on the zener current (𝐼𝑅3) that will be recorded at the table above.

Additionally, the following formulas will be used to get the percent regulations of the circuit.

(NOTE before the discussion: there are instructions for circuit set-ups, some is not shown in

here but you can see it in the Discussion part of the report.)

Results/Discussion

A. Diode Waveshaping

Using the first circuit in methodology, first, we set the function generator to produce

20 Vpk-pk with 1000 Hz sine wave. To ensure the inputs are correct, CH 1’s probe is

connected in the input terminals of the function generator. The image below proves that it is

correct.
 After that, we connected CH 2 in R2 to check the output waveshape, we found that it

produces the same waveshape as the input but different Vpk-pk values due to voltage drop in

R1. Before we began this part, we first set the variable dc sources into 0 volts, this makes

them equivalent to a shorted connection component.

After that, to test if the positive parallel clipper works, we connected the CR1 diode to

the circuit using a two-post connector. CH2 is still connected in the output terminals of R2,

meaning in parallel connection to CR1. Observing its output in an oscilloscope, we found that

the positive pulsation in reading is chopped/limited and only in negative alternation where

pulsation is more seen. This means that the diode is conducting in positive alternation where

1.2 V (CH2 Vmax = 1.2V) is read. In other words, an ideal diode is not used in this

experiment. Then, it is nonconducting in negative alternation so voltage drop is read on R2.

 After that, we moved the two-post connector from CR1 connector to CR2,

disconnecting CR1 and connecting CR2 in the circuit. This made the circuit a parallel

negative clipper. We then observed its output and we can tell that the output changed. We

found that the negative pulsation in reading is chopped/limited and only in positive

alternation where pulsation is more seen. This means that the diode is conducting in negative

alternation where 1.2 volts (CH2 Vmin=1.2 V) is read. Then, it is nonconducting in positive

alternation so voltage drop is read on R2. (Picture in circuit board not taken, but here is the

equivalent connection from NI Multism.)

Then we connected the CR1 as well, making both CR1 and CR2 connected in the

circuit. Observing its output, it became like an almost square-wave output waveform. The

reason is because each diode restricts the input waveform in its corresponding direction.

These two diodes effectively restrict both the positive and negative movements of the input

waveform. Consequently, the resulting waveform takes on a square shape, mimicking a

square wave. The square wave shape is a result of the diodes swiftly limiting the input signal,

leading to a sudden transition of the waveform between its positive and negative peaks.

For the next part, we set the V1 dc source to 5 Volts. The connections are still the

same where both CR1 and CR2 are connected. This is important to see the difference in

output waveform compared to previous outputs.

This changed the output waveform where we can see that the positive alternation’s

limitation is now limited in 6 V (not exactly, it is 6 to 6.4 V) which is an increased value

compared to previous situation due to the positive 5V bias source.

 Following it up with turning on and setting V2 to -5V bias which changes the output

waveform. Now it's not just in positive alternation where limitation is increased, but in

negative alternation as well. We can see that now it has a Vpk (Vmin) of -6V in negative

alternation due to negative bias.

From the image above, we can say that the output voltage waveform (CH2) is now

limited to nearly 12V Vpk-pk. From here as well we can say that the output signal dc level is

shifted with respect to the input signal. Additionally, the circuit functions as a DC restorer by

ensuring that the output signal maintains the intended DC level (6V, as a result of biases)

while leaving the AC components (represented by the input waveform) unaffected.

 For the next part, we now set the input waveform values to 10 Vpk-pk with 1000 Hz

Square Wave and removed the CR2 in the circuit, leaving only CR1. R1 is also disconnected

and exchanged with C1 that has 0.1 capacitance. The waveform output can be seen below.

After making sure of input values and waveforms, we adjusted V1 back to 0 volts and

observed the output waveform via channel 2 (CH2).

 Based on the image above, we can tell that there is no pulsation observed in positive

alternation. However, in negative alternation, the whole 10V (almost 10V since Vmin =

-9.6V) was seen. We can conclude from this that the capacitor was charged by 5V in positive

alternation and got discharged in negative alternation which resulted in -10V output.

Additionally, in this circuit configuration, the input waveform (CH1) was not affected and

only in the output waveform (CH2) is where changes happened.

Next to it, we disconnected CR1 and reconnected CR2 with V2 in 0 volt as well.

Observing its output waveform, we can tell that there is no pulsation observed in negative

alternation. However, in positive alternation, the whole 10V as an output was seen. We can

conclude from this that the capacitor was charged by 5V in negative alternation and got

discharged in positive alternation which resulted in 10V output. Additionally, CH2 Vmax was

not seen in the “measure” tab of oscilloscope, however, we can tell that it is a 10V output by

the prior condition. The only difference is the polarity and in which alternation the output was

observed. In this situation as well, the input waveform (CH1) was not affected and only in the

output waveform (CH2) is where changes happened because of the charging and discharging

of the capacitor.
 For the last part in this experiment, we set CM switch 14 in ON position while CR2 is

connected and CR1 disconnected. Based on the image below, the circuit discharge time was

neither too long nor too short, only at the right time. This is because the output waveform is

still in phase with the input waveform. Additionally, based on previous conditions, the

clamping is complete and no distortion was found.

B. Zener Diode Voltage Regulation

For this part of the experiment, only powered on F.A.C.E.T. Circuit board and

multimeter were mainly. A DC type circuit was used in this for observing how a zener diode

regulates voltage.

First we are instructed to measure the load resistance with the variable resistor (R4) at

max level for maximum load resistance value and the other resistor labeled as R3 in the

ZENER DIODE REGULATOR circuit block.

 After verifying the values of resistors, we then powered up the circuit board and

adjusted the variable dc source to 10V. At this point, we can say that the CR1, which is the

zener diode, “forward biased” since there is enough voltage from the voltage source to power

it up.

We then verified the voltage drops on each element to see if the voltage distribution is

right. From R2, we got a voltage drop of 2.83V so we can expect that the voltage across the

load (where the zener diode is connected in parallel) should be around 7.2 V. After

measuring, we got the expected voltage drop value of 7.24.

 To observe the behavior of the zener diode in this circuit, we filled up this table to see

the voltage and current outputs in varying source voltage levels. This table also helped us to

see at what voltage source level will the zener diode be “OFF” state or nonconducting.

Source Voltage Load Voltage Zener Current

(V) (V) VR3 (V) Load Current (A) (A)

10 7.24 3.96E-01 0.00658182 0.03957

9 7.04 2.61E-01 0.0064 0.02614

8 6.84 1.32E-01 0.00621818 0.01318

7.8 6.79 1.04E-01 0.00617273 0.01043

7.6 6.75 8.02E-02 0.00613636 0.00802

7.4 6.71 5.14E-02 0.0061 0.00514

7.2 6.67 2.72E-02 0.00606364 0.00272

7 6.62 8.00E-04 0.00601818 0.00008

6.8 6.45 1.00E-04 0.00586364 0.00001

6.6 6.25 0 0.00568182 0

6.4 6.06 0 0.00550909 0

6.2 5.88 0 0.00534545 0

6 5.7 0 0.00518182 0

5 4.74 0 0.00430909 0
 4 3.81 0 0.00346364 0

As seen above the table, we can tell that the zener diode used in this experiment only

conducts when the dc source is at 10V to 6.8V. On the other hand, from 6.6V to 4V, the zener

diode is now “off” state or non-conducting at this point, behaving as an “open” circuit

equivalent which then disconnects R3 in the circuit. We can tell because there are no more

voltage drops being read on R3 where the zener diode is connected. In short, the minimum

voltage required for the zener diode to conduct or “ON” is at 6.8V source.

The line graph below represents the Load Voltage (Y-axis) and Source Voltage (X-axis) from

the table before:

Based on the graph above, the zener regulator circuit provided a good line-to-load

regulation. This is because the output voltage was maintained at 6V-7V range when the dc

source is changing and has enough voltage to “ON” the zener diode. This is tested as well up

to 15V (Not recorded since not required) and the Voltage output across the load did not

exceed 8 Volts. Additionally, as the value of zener current decreases, the zener operating
point moves away from its knee (from 6.6V to 4V) since it is no longer at “ON” state and no

more current flows.

The images below shows how the voltage output for Load resistors and R3 are got:

(NOTE: these are the outputs for 10V DC source)

 For the next part, we changed back the DC source to 10V and set R4 to maximum

CCW position (Highest R4 resistance level). We then measured the voltage drop at R5 and

determined the load current. This output measurement is repeated for varying load resistor R4

(from maximum resistance level to minimum resistance level) for current 𝐼𝑅5 (from R5)

ranging from the minimum load current to 50 mA. Unfortunately, we are only able to get the

maximum load current (R4 max CW) which is 36.8 mA due to equipment’s error/limitation.

The outputs are recorded in the following table for observations:

IR5 (A) VOUT (V) VR5 (V) VR3 (V) IR3 (A)

R4 max 6.33E-03 7.22 0.633 3.84E-01 3.84E-02

CCW
1.00E-02 7.17 1.024 3.51E-01 3.51E-02
to
2.00E-02 7.06 1.978 2.70E-01 0.02695
R4 max CW
3.00E-02 6.94 2.85 1.98E-01 0.01979

3.68E-02 6.85 3.68 1.31E+01 1.313

Based on the data recorded, the output voltage regulation is better at higher levels of

zener current. This is because if the current flowing through the zener diode decreases below

the specified value IZ, the output voltage will decrease and the level of regulation will be
insufficient. Hence, the output voltage regulation is better when the zener current is high

level, and not on low to zero level.

Based on the table and plotted data, the zener and load current increases together in a

decreasing load resistor (due to R4).

The images below is how the output was obtained:

 For the last part of the experiment, we adjusted R4 again until the zener current

flowing became 20mA. The voltage output of R3 will be 0.20V as well. At the same time, we

made sure that the source voltage is at 10 Vdc.

 Using the recorded values, we now used the formula to calculate the percentage of

load voltage regulation of the circuit for this part. The negative percentage implies that the

output voltage rises with the load current. This happened because the zener diode is operating

in the forward direction and the input voltage might be too low.

6.85−6.94
% 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑) = 6.94
× 100 = − 1. 3%

Now we adjusted the voltage source to 9 Vdc and recorded the load voltage output.
 Using the value from Table and the new value recorded (6.78V), we then calculated

for the combined effect of load and line change on the circuit output voltage regulation.

Based on the calculation, the combined effect of line and load regulation is worse than the

load regulation alone because the line regulation worsens the change in the output voltage

caused by alterations in the input voltage.

6.85−6.78
% 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑) = 6.78
× 100 = 1. 03%

Conclusion

Rectifier diodes can convert a sine wave into a square wave. Diodes can be used to

limit the amplitude of the squarewave when they are configured as limiters. These limit

points can be determined depending on the value of the DC bias voltage to the diode.

Similarly to clippers and clampers, the output waveform polarity depends on the direction in

which the diode was connected in the circuit. Moreover, both alternations of the input

waveform can be limited by two diodes that function as limiters to the negative and positive

alterations. With the use of a simple RC coupled circuit, the limiter converts into a clamper
that shifts the reference level of the output waveform. Furthermore, the direction of the diode

determines the clamping point of the input alternation. As observed, the charging and

discharging time of the capacitor affects the shape of the output waveform but is still in phase

with the input waveform.

The zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator as observed in the experiment.

Results show that the output voltage of the circuit remained nearly constant when both the

source voltage and load current were modified. The zener diode required a minimum current

of 6 mA to remain in its conduction state. However, when the current drops below the

minimum current, the zener diode operates in an open state, resulting in almost zero current.

Based on the recorded data, the combined effects of line and load changes show a 1.03%

regulation.
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