Chapter#2

The Three States of Matter

Gasess, Liquids and Solids
 Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
• The molecules of gases are widely separated from each other that’s
why they are easy to compress.
• The molecules of gases are in continuous motion. They travel in
straight line but in random directions. The average distance
between the molecules is called mean free path.
• The molecules collide with each others as well as the walls of
container. These collisions are perfectly elastic (results in no loss of
energy)
• Gases exert pressure when the molecules collide with the wall of
container.
• In an ideal gas, there are no attractive or repulsive force between
molecules. (faulty postulate)
• The average kinetic energy of gas molecules is directly proportional
to the temperature of the gas.
 Behaviour of Gases
1. Diffusion:
The spreading out of the molecules of gases
from higher concentration to lower
concentration is called diffusion.
Explanation of Diffusion according to KMT:
The molecules of gases are widely separated and
there are large empty spaces due to which they are
free to move. Due to this free movement the
molecules of gases intermingle and spread out easily
through the vessel.

Effusion: Diffusion through a small hole is known as effusion.

 Graham’s Law of Diffusion
Introduction:
Thomas Graham was a Scottish scientist who
derived a relation between the rate of diffusion
of gases which is called Graham’s Law of
diffusion.
Statement:
The rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely
proportional to the square root of its density or
molecular mass.
Mathematically,
1 1
r r
d M
 Numericals of Graham’s Law of
Diffusion
Formulae:
𝑟𝑎 𝑀𝑏 𝑟𝑎 𝑑𝑏
= 𝑂𝑅 =
𝑟𝑏 𝑀𝑎 𝑟𝑏 𝑑𝑎

𝑡𝑎 𝑉𝑏 𝑀𝑎
× =
𝑡𝑏 𝑉𝑎 𝑀𝑏

𝑡𝑎 𝑀𝑎
= (If gases effuse from same vessel)
𝑡𝑏 𝑀𝑏
 Page#48 Problem#2
Q2: Compare the rate of diffusion of Helium and
Sulphur dioxide.
 2010
Q6: At certain temperature and pressure NH3
diffuses 1.48 times more than HCl. If the density
of NH3 is 0.66 g/liters find the density of HCl.
 2010
Q7: Helium takes 5 seconds to effuse from a
hole of 10 dm3 containers. How long would it
take for oxygen to effuse from the same
container at the same temperature and
pressure.
 Difference b/w Real gases & Ideal Gases
Real Gases
There is a force of attraction and
repulsion between the molecules of real
gases.
The volume of real gases can never be
equal to zero.
Real gases doesn’t follow gas laws at high
temperature and low pressure.
All the gases exist in the universe are
examples of real gases.
Ideal Gases
There is no force of attraction and
repulsion between the molecules of real
gases.
The volume of real gas can become equal
to zero.
Ideal gases follow gas laws at all
temperature and pressures.
There is no ideal gas known.
 Gas Laws
• Boyle’s Law
• Charles’ Law
• Avogadro’s Law
 Boyle’s Law
Introduction:
Robert Boyle proposed the relation between the
volume and pressure of a gas.
 Boyle’s Law
Statement:
This law states that,
“The volume of a gas is inversely
proportional to the pressure applied to it
keeping the temperature remains
constant.”
 Boyle’s Law
Mathematical Expression:
Mathematically,
1
V∝
𝑃
𝑘
V=
𝑃
here ‘k’ is constant of proportionality and its value is 1.
K=PV
Hence, according to Boyle’s law at a constant pressure,
the product of pressure and volume of a gas always
remains constant.
 Boyle’s Law
Graph:
 Boyle’s Law
Derivation:
Suppose a gas with initial pressure P1 and initial
volume V1
According to Boyle’s law: P1V1=k -------- (i)
After some time the final pressure becomes P2
and final volume becomes V2
According to Boyle’s law: P2V2=k --------(ii)
Comparing equation#1 and equation#2
P1V1=P2V2
 Boyle’s Law
Limitation:
Boyle’s law is not applied to real gases at very
high pressure because due to this the volume of
a gas becomes zero which is practically not
possible for real gases.
Ideal gases follow gas laws at all pressure
because their volume can become zero.
 Boyle’s Law
Numericals
Page#37
What volume does 400 cm3 sample of a gas at 700 torr
occupy when the pressure is changed to 2 atm?
 Charles’ Law
Introduction:
Charles proposed the relation between the
volume and temperature of a gas.
 Charles’ Law
Statement:
This law states that,
“The volume of a gas is directly
proportional to the temperature applied
to it keeping the pressure remains
constant.”
 Charles’ Law
Mathematical Expression:
Mathematically,
V∝𝑇
V = KT
here ‘k’ is constant of proportionality and its value is 1.
𝑽
𝑲=
𝑻
Hence, according to Charles’ law at a constant
temperature, the ratio of volume and pressure of a gas
always remains constant.
 Charles’ Law
Graph:

Absolute Temperature/Absolute Zero:

The temperature at which the volume of a gas becomes zero and it
vanishes is called absolute temperature. It’s the least possible
temperature. The kelvin scaled starts from this temperature.
Its value is 0 K = -273 °C = -414 °F
 Charles’ Law
Derivation:
Suppose a gas with initial volume V1 and initial Temperature T1
𝑉1
According to Charles’ law: = 𝑘-------- (i)
𝑇1
After some time the final volume becomes V2 and final
Temperature becomes T2
𝑉2
According to Charles’ law: = 𝑘 --------(ii)
𝑇2
Comparing equation#1 and equation#2
𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
 Charles’ Law
Limitation:
Charles’ law is not applied to real gases at very
low temperature because due to this the
volume of a gas becomes zero which is
practically not possible for real gases.
Ideal gases follow gas laws at all temperature
because their volume can become zero.
 Boyle’s Law
Numericals
Page#40 Problem#1
A child’s balloon has a volume of 3.80 dm3 when the
temperature is 35°C. What is the volume, if the balloon
is put into a refrigerator and cooled to 5°C. Assume that
pressure inside the balloon is equal to atmospheric
pressure at all times.
 Avogadro’s Law
Introduction:
Amadeo Avogadro proposed the relation
between the volume and number of moles of
gas.
 Avogadro’s Law
Statement:
This law states that:
“The volume of a gas is directly
proportional to the moles of the gas at
constant temperature and pressure.”
 Avogadro’s Law
Mathematical Expression:
Mathematically,
V∝𝑛
V = Kn
here ‘k’ is constant of proportionality and its value is 1.
𝑽
𝑲=
𝒏
Hence, according to Avogadro’s law at a constant
temperature and pressure, the ratio of volume and
moles of a gas always remains constant.
 Avogadro’s Law
Derivation:
Suppose a gas with initial volume V1 and initial mole n1
𝑉1
According to Avogadro’s law: = 𝑘-------- (i)
𝑛1
After some time the final volume becomes V2 and final mole
becomes n2
𝑉2
According to Avogadro’s law: = 𝑘 --------(ii)
𝑇2
Comparing equation#1 and equation#2
𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑛1 𝑛2
 General Gas Equation
Equation of State
Derivation:
Value of ‘R’ in two Units
 General Gas Equation
Numericals
Page#44 Problem#1
What will be the volume occupied by 14 g of
nitrogen at 20 °C and 740 torr pressure?
 General Gas Equation
Numericals
Page#45 Problem#2
A certain mass of nitrogen gas at 20 °C and at
740 torr pressure occupies 12.345 dm3.
Calculate the volume that it will occupy at S.T.P.
 General Gas Equation
Numericals
Page#71 Q#12
Four containers of equal volume are filled as follows:
(i) 2 g H2 at 0 °C
(ii) 1 g H2 at 273 °C
(iii) 24 g O2 at 0 °C
(iv) 16 g CH4 at 273 °C
Which container
(a) is at the greatest pressure
(b) Is at the lowest pressure
 General Gas Equation
Numericals
Page#72 Q#23
What is the density of methane gas (CH4) at 127 °C and
3.50 atmosphere.
 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
Statement:
“In a non-reacting mixture of gases, the total
pressure of the gases is equal to the sum of
partial pressures of each gas present in the
mixture.”
PT=P1 + P2 + P3 + . . . + Pn
𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠 = × 𝑃𝑇
𝑛𝑇
 Application of Dalton’s Law of Partial
Pressure
• Dalton’s law of partial pressure is used to
calculate the pressure of a dry gas collected
over water.
Pmoist=Pdry+Pwater
Pdry=Pmoist-Pwater
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 Liquid State
Diffusion in Liquids:
Reason: Rate of diffusion of liquids is less than gases.
Liquids diffuser slower than gases because there is less
intermolecular distance between the molecules of liquids hence
the molecules collide with each other during diffusion slowing
the rate of diffusion of liquids.
 Short Note on:
Viscosity (η)
Definition:
The resistance to flow in liquid is called viscosity.
Explanation:
Fluids are the substances which have ability to flow. Liquids and gases
are collectively termed as fluids. When a liquid flows its speed is
affected by the force of friction between the molecules of liquid and
the surface. This resistance is called viscosity.
The liquids which flows slowly are called viscous liquids. For example:
Honey, Lubricants etc.
The liquids which flows fast are called mobile liquids. For example:
Water, petrol etc.
Grading of motor oil is done on the bases of viscosity.
Factors on which viscosity depends:
Viscosity depends upon following two factors.
(i) Intermolecular attraction
Viscosity is directly proportional to intermolecular attraction.
The more the intermolecular attraction between the molecules of liquids greater
will be the viscosity.
The molecules containing hydrogen bonding are more viscous.
Reason: C2H5OH has greater viscosity than C2H5OC2H5
Ethyl Alcohol (C2H5OH) contains hydrogen bonding because according to its
molecular structure hydrogen is directly bonded to an oxygen while in the case of
di ethyl ether (C2H5 – O – C2H5) hydrogen is not attached to oxygen directly hence
it does not contain hydrogen bonding.
That’s why ethyl alcohol is more viscous due to the presence of hydrogen bond.

(ii) Temperature:
Viscosity is inversely proportional to temperature.
At higher temperature the molecules of liquids move farther away so it causes
less friction with surface so the viscosity decreases.
Formula of Viscosity:
Viscosity = Pressure x Time
Units of Viscosity:
SI Unit is N.m-2.s
CGS Unit is g/cm2.s = 1 Poise=100 centipoise=1000 millipoise
 Short Note on
Surface Tension (γ)
Definition:
The tension created on the surface of the liquid is known as surface tension.
Surface tension may be defined as force per unit length OR energy per unit area on the
surface of the liquid.
Explanation:
The molecules below the surface of liquid are surrounded by other molecules from all sides
but the liquid molecules on surface exerts more force on the molecules lying below which
creates a tension on the surface of liquid which is known as surface tension.
Units of Surface Tension:
SI Unit: N/m or J/m2
CGS Unit: dyne/cm or erg/cm2
Factors affecting surface tension:
(i) Intermolecular attraction:
Surface tension is directly proportional to intermolecular attraction.
Due to greater intermolecular attraction the molecules on surface are
greatly attracted towards molecules lying below.
Hence, the liquids containing hydrogen bonding have more surface
tension.
(ii) Temperature:
Surface tension is inversely proportional to temperature.
At higher temperature the molecules of liquids move far away thus
they cannot attract the molecules lying below with greater force.
 Reasons from Surface Tension
• A falling drop of liquid is always spherical.
Surface tension tends to reduce the surface area
of the liquid and sphere occupies least surface
are in all geometrical figures. Hence, a falling
drop of liquid is always spherical.
 Reasons from Surface Tension
• Liquid rises in capillary tube.
The rising of liquid in a capillary tube is called capillary action.
Surface tension tends to reduce the surface are of liquids. Since,
the surface are of capillary tube is lesser than water trough so
liquid rises in the capillary tube to acquire less surface area.
 Reasons from Surface Tension
• A drop of ink spreads over blotting paper.
Blotting paper contains very small pores which behaves like small
capillary tubes having lesser surface area. As we know that
surface tension tends to reduce the surface area of the liquid,
hence ink spreads on the blotting paper to acquire less surface
area.
 Reasons from Surface Tension
• Surface tension of water is greater than that of ethyl alcohol.
The hydrogen bonding in water is stronger than that of ethyl
alcohol so surface tension of water is greater than that of ethyl
alcohol.
 Reasons from Surface Tension
• Water forms concave meniscus while mercury forms convex meniscus.
The force of attraction between two molecules of liquid is called cohesive force and
the force of attraction between a molcules with the wall of container is called
adhesive force.
The liquids whose adhesive force is greater than cohesive force can wet the wall of
container, they rise in capillary tube and they form concave meniscus. Such liquids are
called wetting liquid such as water.
In contrast to it, the liquids whose cohesive force is greater than adhesive force cannot
wet the wall of container, they fall in capillary tube and they form convex meniscus.
Such liquids are called non-wetting liquids such as mercury.
 Evaporation
Definition:
The process in which molecules of liquid having high kinetic energy escapes out from
its surface in gaseous state is called evaporation.
Evaporation exists at all temperatures.
The liquids having higher rate of evaporation are called volatile liquids such as petrol.
The liquids having slower rate of evaporation are called non-volatile liquids such as
honey.
Explanation according to KMT:
The molecules of liquids frequently collide with each other elastically transferring
energy to adjacent molecules until the energy reaches to the molecules on surface
and due to high kinetic energy they escape out from the surface in gaseous state.
Factors Affecting the rate of evaporation:
i) Intermolecular attraction α 1/evaporation
ii) Temperature α evaporation
 Reason:
Evaporation is a cooling process
During evaporation, the escape of high energy
molecules lowers the average kinetic energy of
the remaining molecules, consequently the
temperature of the remaining liquid falls down.
Thus it is said that evaporation is a cooling
process.
 Vapour Pressure
“The pressure exerted by vapours when the rate
of evaporation becomes equal to rate of
condensation is called vapour pressure.”
 Boiling
The process in which the vapour pressure of a
liquid becomes equal to atmospheric pressure is
called boiling.
The temperature at which boiling occurs is
called boiling point.
If the atmospheric pressure is 1 atm then it is
called normal boiling point.
Boiling occurs at high temperature.
 Reason
Pressure cooker is used for rapid cooking.
In pressure cooker, food cook more rapidly
because of the higher boiling temperature of
water. Pressure cooker increases the vapour
pressure of liquid.
 Reason
Glycerine is distilled at reduced pressure
Glycerine boils at 290°C at 760 torr but it
decomposes at this temperature. If it is heated
under reduced pressure (50 torr) it boils at 210
°C and can be distilled without decomposition.
 Reason
Compounds having hydrogen bond generally
have high boiling points.
Boiling point is directly proportional to
intermolecular attraction between the liquid
molecules. Since hydrogen bonding is the
strongest intermolecular bond hence the
compounds having hydrogen bond have high
boiling point. That’s why water has more boiling
point than gasoline.
 Solid State
• Deformity:
Solids are compressed to negligible extent because of
very little intermolecular space between the atoms but
when the solid is subjected to a huge amount of force,
it’s deformed and changed its shape.
• Sublimation:
The process in which a solid directly converts
into gaseous state is called sublimation.
Such solids are called ‘sublime solids’.
For example: Camphor, Iodine, Dry Ice (Solid CO2), Naphthalene etc.
In terms of KMT, the intermolecular force in such solids is less
than ordinary solids hence they are directly converted into solid.
Crystalline Solids
Example: NaCl, Diamond, Iron etc.
The particles of crystalline solids are
uniformly arranged in a fixed pattern.
They are symmetrical.
They have sharp melting point.
Cleavage is the process of breaking
crystals in identical shapes via a fixed
plane called as cleavage plane.
In crystalline solids there is a cleavage
plane.
They are anisotropic.
It means that crystalline solids have
different values of physical properties at
different orientations. Such as, refractive
index, electrical conductivity.
For example: Graphite doesn’t conduct
electricity perpendicular to plane but
parallel to the plane.
Amorphous Solids
Example: Glass, rubber, plastic etc.
The particles are amorphous solids are
randomly arranged.
They are asymmetrical.
They have no sharp melting point.
In amorphous solids there is no cleavage
plane.
They are isotropic.
It means that amorphous solids have
same values of physical properties at all
the orientations.
 Types of Crystals
There are 4 types of crystals:
• Ionic crystals
• Covalent crystals
• Metallic crystals / Atomic crystals
• Molecular crystals
 Ionic Crystals
Ionic crystals consist of cations and anions held
together by ionic bond.
Properties:
i. They have high melting point
ii. Conduction of electricity in aqueous state
and molten form.
iii. They are hard and brittle.
Examples: NaCl, MgCl2, KCl etc
 Covalent Crystals
Covalent crystals consist of atoms held together
by covalent bond.
Properties:
i. They have high melting point.
ii. They are very hard.
iii. They are insulators (except graphite)
Examples: Graphite, diamond, silica (quartz) etc
 Reasons
Diamond is hard and insulator.
In diamond each carbon atom is joined to four other carbon atoms at an
angle of 109.5° in tetrahedral structure. Due to close packing of atoms
diamond is very hard. Since there is no free electron in carbon so diamond is
an insulator.

Graphite is soft and conductor.

In graphite each carbon atom is joined to three other carbon atoms at an
angle of 120 °C, forming layers of hexagons. Adjacent layers are held together
by Vander waal’s forces. Due to space between layers graphite is soft. Grahite
conducts electricity in the plane of layers, as each carbon atom has one free
electron.
 Metallic Crystals/Atomic Crystals
Metallic crystals consist of cations of metals held
together by metallic bond or free electrons.
Properties:
i. They have high melting point.
ii. They are hard, ductile and malleable.
iii. They are conductors.
Examples: Fe, Cu, Ag, Au etc
 Molecular Crystals
Molecular crystals consist of moleculesheld
together by intermolecular bonds.
There are two types of inter-molecular bonds:
(i) Hydrogen bonding
(ii) Weak Vander waal’s forces/Dispersion
forces/London forces
Properties:
i. They have low melting point.
ii. They are insulators.
Examples: I2, CO2, Ice etc.
Isomorphism
When two substances have same crystal
structure, they are said to be
isomorphous and phenomenon is called
isomorphism.
For Example:
NaF and MgO (Cubic)
They have different chemical properties.
Polymorphism
The substance which can exist in ore thn
one crystalline form is called
polymorphous and the phenomenon is
called polymorphism.
For Example:
CaCO3 (Trigonal and Orthorhombic)
They have same chemical properties.
 Unit Cell
The basic structural unit when repeated in three dimensions
generates the crystal structure is called a Unit Cell.
Cell Dimensions/Cell Parameters:
Length of sides of unit cell: a, b, c
Angle between the sides of unit cell: α, β, γ
 Crystal Lattice
If atoms, ions or molecules constituting crystals
are replaced by points and placed at the same
places as in a unit cell, then the three
dimensional array of points is called crystal
lattice or space lattice.
7 Crystal Systems
Crystal System Sides Angles
Cubic a=b=c α=β=γ=90°
Tetragonal a=b≠c α=β=γ=90°
Orthorhombic a≠b≠c α=β=γ=90°
Rhombohedral (Trigonal) a=b=c α=β=γ≠90°
Hexagonal a=b≠c α=β=90°, γ=120°
Monoclinic a≠b≠c α=γ=90°, β≠90°
Triclinic a≠b≠c α≠β≠γ≠90°
 Melting Point
The temperature at which a solid starts converting into
liquid state is called melting point.
Factors Affecting Melting Point:
(i) Impurity: Impurity lowers the melting point. Hence,
melting point is used to determine the purity of
solids.
(ii) Pressure: Those substances which expands on
melting have a rise in the melting point when the
pressure is increased.
Melting point of ice decreases on applying
pressure because ice is the solid whose volume decreases
on melting.
 Latent Heat of Fusion
The energy required to change 1g of solid into
liquid at its melting point.