ASSIGNMENT 02 Due date: 25 June 2021

Unique number: 887901

NB: You are encouraged to use your own words and reference in answering these
questions. Answers copied from sources are viewed as plagiarism and marks will be
deducted for such.

QUESTION 1: MONITORING [25]

1.1 Through environmental monitoring, we know that most surface soils, bodies of waters,
contain trace and ultra-trace levels of synthetic chemicals (e.g., dioxins) and nuclear-fallout
components (e.g., radioactive cesium). We also know that many surface waters, including
rivers and lakes, contain trace concentrations of pesticides because of the results of
agricultural runoff and rainfall tainted with atmospheric pollutants. Expand this statement
by:

1.1.1 Describing what Environmental Monitoring is, (5)

Environmental monitoring is the observation and study of the environment. Environmental

monitoring is the continuous, automated observation of changes in the environment. It is
the systematic measurement of key environmental indicators over time within a particular
geographic area It is Systematic evaluation of the implementation of mitigation measures.
Monitoring – Long term, standardized measurement, observation, evaluation and reporting
of the environment in order to define status and trends.

1.1.2 Explain the role and significance of monitoring in environmental science. (10)

Environmental monitoring refers to the repetitive and continued observation, measurement,

and evaluation of environmental or technical data to track changes over a period of time
(Porteous, 2000). Environmental science deals with the scientific understanding of the
different components of the Earth (air, water, biosphere, and geosphere), interactions
between them, scale and tempo of the processes, and how anthropogenic influences have
altered them. Invariably, many environmental issues involve a question of magnitude. The
process (environmental monitoring) is aimed at describing environmental conditions, such
as air quality, water quality, noise pollution and hazardous chemical contamination or land
cover changes associated with desertification. The measurement of natural phenomena is
important for any type of environmental monitoring, from the practical day-to-day
management of rivers, biomes, agriculture and weather forecasting, through to longer
assessment of climate change and glacial retreat (Strangeways, 2003). Measurements
relating to the natural environment may be required for metereological, hydrological,
oceanographic, ecotoxicological, geological studies or for any activity that impacts upon
the natural environment. Vandecasteele (2004:19) has this to say about the scope of
environmental monitoring and its relevance to environmental monitoring:

“Environmental monitoring primarily aims through sampling, treatment & analyses or by

the use of direct detection equipment to quantify the levels of polluting substances and
ionizing radiation resulting from human activities and natural sources in the different
compartment of the environment. Its objectives are very practical, often driven by legal
obligations and international commitments. They include:
 • Identifying and quantifying the current environmental sources of polluting
substances (whether planned or unplanned releases as well as natural sources) in
order to assess their impact on the environment and human health,
• Verifying the compliance of industrial, research and medical nuclear activities with
regulatory requirements and permit limits stated by their specific licence,
• Evaluating the effectiveness of environmental protection programmes,
• Ensuring that remediation strategies applied in an environment contaminated as a
result of past operations were performing as designed and,
• Documenting the existing polluting conditions prior to the beginning of industrial
installations or to allow for the quantification of contamination impacts in the
future.”

In addition, the design of effective environmental policies in areas as diverse as air quality,
climate change, ozone depletion, water quality, land use and environmental health all
depend on sound environmental monitoring and research to set emission limits, establish
safe levels of exposure, evaluate the fate and pathways of pollutants in the ecosystem, and
determine what land needs preservation (Engel-Cox & Hoff, 2005).

1.2 Natural scientists are known to produce high quality results through the process of
monitoring with a high level of confidence that can be legally defended using standardized
scientific methods. Comment on the meaning and importance of the quality assurance (QA)
and quality control (QC) processes that govern the standardized scientific methods of
monitoring. (10)

QA:
• refers to well defined, documented & strictly followed set of principles / methods.
• It allows the accuracy of result of analyses to be stated with a high level of confidence &
will be legally defensible.
• Include: documentation on sampling procedures, receiving of samples by the lab. & roles of
respective individuals at each stage of the analysis process.
• all steps are recorded on chain of custody forms with dates, times, names of individuals
responsible to perform specific tasks at various stages.

QC:
Involves:
• periodic determination of method detection levels for the analytes.
• preparation of standard calibration curves
• daily / fresh checks of calibration standards by user
• analysis of blank solution
• instrument performance check
• reliability: closeness of replicate results of measurement
• validity: check against known value (CRM, % Rec.)
• determine % error

QUESTION 2: WATER QUALITY [25]

2.1 Comment on point and non-point pollution sources that would affect a typical water system.
In your answer clearly outline pollution sources, pathways and associated environmental
impacts. (10)

Point and Non-Point Sources of Pollution regarding Water Bodies

Water pollution is the introduction into fresh or ocean waters of chemical, physical or
biological material that degrades the quality of water and affects the organisms living in it.
Surface runoff has been identified as one of the prominent nonpoint sources of coastal areas
and water bodies such as surface water.

The application of fertilizers and pesticides has increased the nitrogen and phosphorus content
of the water bodies through the actions of run offs. These nutrient pollutions in the water bodies
can set off explosive growth of algae and aquatic plants. As the overpopulated plants and algae
die off, the bacteria deplete oxygen from the water as they decompose the dead plants. Lack of
oxygen in the water bodies (rivers, lakes, ocean and sea) eventually kills fish and other aquatic
animals.

Non-point sources pollution seems to flow from many different sources and cannot be traced
to specific origins of starting point. Non-point pollution normally occurs when water washes
over the land and picks up an array of contaminants including oil and sand from roadways,
agricultural chemicals from farmland, and nutrients and toxic materials from urban and
suburban areas. This runoff finds its way into our rivers and lakes.

Groundwater

Some of the most persistent point-source pollutants in groundwater are volatile organic
compounds, which include manufactured and refined toxic substances such as solvents, oils,
paint, and fuel products. In general, it takes only a small amount of these chemicals to raise
health concerns. For example, approximately 4 liters (about one gallon) of pure
trichloroethylene, a common solvent, will contaminate over 1 billion liters (300 million
gallons) of water. Once groundwater is contaminated, it is difficult, costly, and sometimes even
impossible to clean up.

Point Sources

Point-source pollutants in surface water and groundwater are usually found in a plume that has
the highest concentrations of the pollutant nearest the source (such as the end of a pipe or an
underground injection system) and diminishing concentrations farther away from the source.
The various types of point-source pollutants found in waters are as varied as the types of
business, industry, agricultural, and urban sources that produce them.

Commercial and industrial businesses use hazardous materials in manufacturing or

maintenance, and then discharge various wastes from their operations. The raw materials and
wastes may include pollutants such as solvents, petroleum products (such as oil and gasoline),
or heavy metals. Point sources of pollution from agriculture may include animal feeding
operations, animal waste treatment lagoons, or storage, handling, mixing, and cleaning areas
for pesticides, fertilizers, and petroleum. Municipal point sources might include wastewater
treatment plants, landfills, utility stations, motor pools, and fleet maintenance facilities.

For all of these activities, hazardous materials may be included in the raw materials used in the
process as well as in the waste stream for the facility. If the facility or operator does not handle,
store, and dispose of the raw materials and wastes properly, these pollutants could end up in
the water supply. This may occur through discharges at the end of a pipe to surface water,
discharges on the ground that move through the ground with infiltrating rainwater, or direct
discharges beneath the ground surface.
Nonpoint Sources

Nonpoint-source pollution occurs as water moves across the land or through the ground and
picks up natural and human-made pollutants, which can then be deposited in lakes, rivers,
wetlands, coastal waters, and even groundwater. The water that carries nonpoint-source
pollution may originate from natural processes such as rainfall or snowmelt, or from human
activities such as crop irrigation or lawn maintenance.

Nonpoint-source pollution is usually found spread out throughout a large area. It is often
difficult to trace the exact origin of these pollutants because they result from a wide variety of
human activities on the land as well as natural characteristics of the soil, climate, and
topography. The most common nonpoint-source pollutants are sediment, nutrients,
microorganisms and toxics. Sediment can degrade water quality by contaminating drinking
water supplies or silting in spawning grounds for fish and other aquatic species. Nutrients,
microorganisms, and other toxic substances can be hazardous to human health and aquatic life.

Marinas and boating activities

Chemicals used for boat maintenance, like paint, solvents, and oils find their way into water
through runoff. Additionally, spilling fuels or leaking fuels directly into the water from boats
contribute to nonpoint source pollution. Nutrient and bacteria levels are increased by poorly
maintained sanitary waste receptacles on the boat and pump-out stations.

2.2 What is the contribution of SANS 241 (2006), Blue Drop Certification to water quality in
South Africa. (15)

SANS 241, BLUE

DROP CERTIFICATION

QUESTION 2: AIR QUALITY [50]

3.1 Governments, scientists, policy makers, industrialists and NGO’s interested in air quality
have formed networks at local, regional and global levels to co-ordinate their activities. Now
explain the meaning of the following acronyms: NACA, APINA and IUAPPA (3)
NACA: National Association of Clean Air
APINA: Air Pollution Information Network for Africa
IUAPPA: International Union of Air Pollution Prevention and Environmental Protection
Associations
3.2 Use appropriate examples to explain the differences between primary particle and
secondary particles. (4)

-- Primary particles: emitted directly into the air: fly ash

Secondary particles: formed in the atmosphere through chemical and physical reactions
– involving sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides reacting with NH3 to give respective acid
particulates.

3.3 Explain the differences between “coarse” particles (>2.5 μm diameter) and “fine” particles
(<2.5 μm diameter) in terms of:

3.3.1 Source origins (2)

PM2.5: Formed from combination of smaller particles or condensation of vapours onto
particles that then grow
PM10: Formed from mechanical processes such as weathering, volcanic activities, windblown
soil, sea salt spray, pollen, grinding operations (mining).

3.3.2 Transformation (2)

PM2.5: Greatest surface area and most of mass concentration spread like a gas; are very hard
to remove from the atmosphere, settle latter within days / weeks / months / years
PM10: settle out readily under gravity; within seconds / minutes / hours / days.

3.3.3 Removal mechanisms from the atmosphere (4)

PM2.5: removed in air through enrichment / g-p conversion / coagulation processes.
PM10: Given their heavy mass, they usually settle out of the air settle out readily under gravity
within a few hours to days

3.3.4 Chemical compositions (4)

PM2.5: mostly secondary pollutants (Eg: nitrate & phosphates particulates) formed in air from
gases such as SO2 and NOx
PM10: mostly crustal minerals: SiO2 ; Fe2O3; Al2O3; (Na, K, Ca) AI2Si2O8; SiO4; AI2Si2O8 ;
Ca(OH)2

3.3.5 Optical properties (2)

PM2.5 & PM10: both have diameters in microns (µm) and reflect sunrays when they overlap
with micron range of UV light from the sun and cause intense light scattering which leads to
visibility degradation in air for the observer. But, PM2.5 reflects more light & are highly visible
than PM10 because have it has smaller particles which have large surface areas.
3.4 Carbon monoxide (CO) is one of the air pollutants of concern which is emitted from coal
burning, particularly in an enclosed that has limited ventilation. Comment on:
3.4.1 It’s colour, odour and taste. (3)
It’s colourless, odourless and tasteless
3.4.2 CO uptake in the human body. (4)
- When inhaled, CO binds to haemoglobin in blood, displacing O2, forming carboxy-
haemoglobin [COHb].
- High levels of carboxy-haemoglobin [COHb] cause poor oxygenation of cells / tissues around
the body.
- CO-haemoglobin affinity / binding is stronger than that of O2-haemoglobin

3.5 What is the meaning of photochemical pollution (2)

An air pollution process taking place within the Troposphere and it involves reaction of NO2,
hv from sun, O2, Acetaldehyde and VOCs giving rise to O3, PAN

3.6 Use 5 – step chemical reaction pathways to demonstrate how CO and CH4 contribute to the
formation of ozone (O3) within the troposphere. (5)
O3 production from CO:
 CO + HO. → CO2 + H.
H. + O2 → HO2
HO2 + NO. → NO2 + OH
NO2 + hv → NO. + O.
O. + O2 → O3
O3 production from CH4
CH4 + HO. → CH3. + H2O
CH3. + O2 → CH3O2.
CH3O2. + NO. → NO2 + CH3O
NO2 + hv → NO. + O.
O. + O2 → O3
3.7 List components of radiello diffusion gas sampler and explain how it works. (5)

- Components: a specific gas cartridge adsorbent, triangular support plate, colour coded
diffusion body, vertical adapter for personal sampling
- Operation: the diffusive sampler is a closed box, usually cylindrical. Of its two opposite sides,
one is “transparent” to gaseous molecules which cross it, and are adsorbed onto the second
side. The former side is named diffusive surface, the latter is the adsorbing surface.

3.8 State the typical residence times of the following gas pollutants in air: CH4; CO2; CO; O3
and NO2. (5)
CH4: 9 years; CO2: 4 years; CO: 60 days; O3: 40 days; NO2: 2 days
3.9 Explain how air quality act 39 (AQA, 2004) has impacted on the generation of local air
pollutant guidelines in South Africa. (5)
- Shift AQ Man. responsibilities from national to provincial and local government; focused on
receiving environment; involves the identification of priority areas, pollutants and sources; all
point sources are addressed & not only scheduled / listed ones; encourages public participation;
easy access to information.
- Under AQA, South African National Standards (SANS-1929) were published by South
African Bureau of Standards (SABS) Standards Division which specifies limit values for
common air pollutants (SANS-1929, 2011; DEAT, 2005).

TOTAL MARKs: 100