115221510 2nd Term Biology Note for Ss2

OUR LADY OF PERPETUAL HELP COLLEGE ORBA
BIOLOGY LESSON NOTES TERM: 2nd CLASS: SS2

Compiled by: Ukwuma, M. C. Jnr.
SCHEME OF WORK
A. TISSUES AND SUPPORTING SYSTEMS:
1. SKELETON AND SUPPORTING SYSTEMS IN ANIMALS: biological
significance and forms
2. TYPES OF SKELETON: Exo-skeleton, Endo-skeleton
3. BONES OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
4. DIFFERENT TYPES OF SUPPORTING TISSUES IN PLANTS: Location and
arrangement of structural components, main features of supporting tissues.
5. MECHANISMS OF SUPPORT: harden and rigidity, flexibility and resilience
6. USES OF FIBRES FOR THE PLANT
7. FUNCTION OF SKELETON IN ANIMAL: protection, support, locomotion,
respiratory movements
8. FUNCTIONS OF SUPPORTING TISSUES IN PLANTS: strength, rigidity,
resistance against the forces of wind and water
B. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
1. ALIMENTARY TRACTS: types, parts of alimentary canal – description and
functions
2. FEEDING HABITS: categories and mechanism, modification in organisms to reflect
feeding habits, filter feeding, fluid feeding, feeding adaptation in insects, saprophytic
and parasitic feeding.
3. FEEDING IN PROTOZOA, HYDRA, MAMMALS
C. TRANSPORT SYSTEM
1. NEED FOR TRANSPORTATION (REVIEW OF OSMOSIS AND DIFFUSION
2. TRANSPORT SYSTEM NECESSARY IN LARGE ORGANISMS
3. MATERIALS FOR TRANSPORTATION: EXCRETORY PRODUCTS, GASES,
DIGESTED FOOD, OTHER NUTRIENTS
4. MATERIALS TRANSPORTED WITHIN ORGANISMS: GLUCOSE, AMINO
ACIDS, LIQUIDS, OXYGEN, CARBON DIOXIDE, ETC
5. STRUCTURE OF ARTERIES, VEIN, CAPILLARIES
6. MEDIA OF TRANSPORTATION
7. MECHANISM OF TRANSPORTATION IN: UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS,
MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS, HIGHER ANIMALS, HIGHER PLANTS
D. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
1. TYPES OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS: BODY SURFACE, GILLS, TRACHEAL
SYSTEM, LUNGS
2. MECHANISMS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM IN: HIGHER AND LOWER
ANIMALS, PLANTS
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WEEKS 1-2: TISSUES AND SUPPORTING SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION TO THE SKELETON AND SUPPORTING

TISSSUES IN ANIMALS Time: 40 minutes
OBJECTIVES: The students should be able to:
I. Define skeleton and identify the types.
II. List and explain the forms of skeletons.
III. State the biological importance of skeletons.
Living things need

the support of tissues
and bones. These will
enable them to
maintain shape and
perform some other
functions such as
movement and
respiration.
SKELETON AND
SUPPORTING
SYSTEMS IN
ANIMALS.
The skeleton is the
bony framework of
the body. In fact, the
term skeleton comes
from a Greek word
meaning
“dried up.” Living
bone, however, is not
inert material; it is
dynamic and
adaptable.
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TYPES OF SKELETON
There are 3 main types of skeleton: namely; endoskeleton, exoskeleton and
Hydrostatic skeleton.
 Exoskeletons are found external to the rest of the body and the tissues
and organs are attached to it from inside. In arthropods, exoskeleton is
made up of chitin.
 Endoskeleton is found within the body of the organism and it is made up
of cartilages and bones.
 Hydrostatic skeleton are found in organisms that have soft bodies such as
earthworms. It is made up of fluid that keeps the body turgid and
maintains characteristic shape of that animal.
BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE
1. The skeleton and supporting tissues help the animal in going about
fending for themselves.
2. It is a measure of advancement and development as well as
evolutionary position of a given organism. For instance; man stands
upright with a more sophisticated skeletal build-up than a cockroach;
which has an external support only.
FORMS OF SKELETON
There are 3 major forms of skeleton and these depend on: the level of
development of the organism, ecological niche and habitat of the
organism. The forms of skeleton are:
o Cuticles
o Bones and
o Cartilages.
a. CUTICLES: they contain waxy substance called chitin which is located

externally.
b. BONES: they are rigid tissues found in the skeletons of higher animals
and are the hardest tissues in vertebrates. A bone consists of compact and
spongy components and a system of canals (Harversian canal) that
allows neuromuscular bundles to reach all the parts of the bone. Bone cell
are known as osteocytes which are scattered and are surrounded by bony
materials.
c. CARTILAGE: they are found in the skeleton of complex vertebrates.
They consist of living cells called chondrocytes, carbohydrates and
protein fibers. It is tough and flexible and has great tensile strength.
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Cartilages forms the skeleton in all vertebrate embryos could ossify to

form bones. Cartilages are commonly referred to as “biscuit bone”.
EVALUATION:
I. What is a skeleton?
II. Differentiate between bone and cartilage?
III. Using examples, discuss the different types of skeletons.
TOPIC: FUNCTIONS OF A SKELETON Time: 40 minutes
OBJECTIVES: The student should be able to:

I. Discuss the principal functions of the skeletal system
II. Identify the body systems served by these functions.
The bones of the skeleton perform the mechanical functions of support,

protection, and leverage for body movement and the metabolic functions of
hemopoiesis and storage of fat and minerals.
The strength of bone comes from its inorganic components, of such durability
that they resist decomposition even after death. It performs many body
functions, including support, protection, leverage for body movement,
hemopoiesis in the red bone marrow, fat storage in the medullary cavity, and
mineral storage.
1. Support. The skeleton forms a rigid framework to which the softer

tissues and organs of the body are attached. It is of interest that the
skeleton’s 206 bones support a mass of muscles and organs that may
weigh 5 times as much as the bones themselves.
2. Protection. The skull and vertebral column enclose the brain and spinal
cord; the rib cage protects the heart, lungs, great vessels, liver, and spleen;
and the pelvic girdle supports and protects the pelvic viscera. Even the
sites where blood cells are produced are protected within the spongy bone
tissue of certain bones.
3. Body movement. Bones serve as anchoring attachments for most skeletal
muscles. In this capacity, the bones act as levers (with the joints
functioning as pivots) when muscles contract and cause body movement.
One of the most important types of body movements includes the
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respiratory movements. These will permit mammals to breathe efficiently

by the action of the Diaphragm, intercostals muscles and the rib cage.
4. Hemopoiesis. The process of blood cell formation is called hemopoiesis
(hem''o˘-poi-e'sis). It takes place in tissue called red bone marrow located
internally in some bones. It is estimated that an average of 2.5 million red
blood cells are produced every second by the red bone marrow to replace
those that are worn out and destroyed by the liver.
5. Fat storage. Lipid is stored in the adipose tissue within the medullary
cavity of certain bones. The adipose tissue and its lipid content are
known as yellow bone marrow.
6. Mineral storage. The inorganic matrix of bone is composed primarily of
the minerals calcium and phosphorus. These minerals which account for
approximately two-thirds of the weight of bone, give bone its firmness
and strength. About 95% of the calcium and 90% of the phosphorus
within the body are deposited in the bones and teeth. Although the
concentration of these inorganic salts within the blood is kept within
narrow limits, both are essential for other body functions. Calcium is
necessary for muscle contraction, blood clotting, and the movement of
ions and nutrients across cell membranes. Phosphorus is required for the
activities of the nucleic acids DNA and RNA, as well as for ATP
utilization. If mineral salts are not present in the diet in sufficient
amounts, they may be withdrawn from the bones until they are
replenished through proper nutrition. In addition to calcium and
phosphorus, lesser amounts of magnesium, sodium, fluorine, and
strontium are stored in bone tissue.
EVALUATION:
I. State some characteristics of bones?
II. What are the functions of the skeletal system?
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MAMMALIAN SKELETON Time: 40 minutes (x 3)

OBJECTIVES: The students should be able to:
I. Identify the bones of the vertebral column.
II. State the distinguishing features between the bones of the vertebral
column.
The mammalian skeleton is composed of the skull (cranium), vertebral

column (backbone), ribs and sternum (breast bone) forming the Axial
skeleton, while limb girdles (pectoral and pelvic) form the Appendicular
skeleton.
BONES OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

A bone of the vertebral column is called a vertebra (plural, vertebrae).
There are 33 vertebrae in the human skeleton all attached to themselves;
end to end. They are bound by strong
ligaments that keep them straight.
Between 2 adjoining vertebrae is a
cartilaginous intervertebral disc that
allows slight movements and acts as a
shock absorber. The vertebral column
forms a hollow tube through which the
spinal cord passes. The vertebral column
is divided into 5 regions. They are Figure 1: intervetebral discs and articulations
of vertebrae
cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and
caudal.
STRUCTURE OF A TYPICAL VERTEBRA

All the vertebrae have peculiar features, but basically they have the
following features in common:
a. Centrum/Body which is a solid piece of bone below the neural canal.
b. Neural Arch carried by the Centrum
c. Neural canal surrounded by both the
Centrum and the arch
d. Neural spine which projects upwards
dorsally/Spinous process
e. 2 transverse processes which are
sideways projections from each
vertebra
f. Facets for the articulation with other Figure 2: a typical vertebra
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parts of the skeleton. They are known as zygaphoses.

g. Vertebrarterial canal/Transverse foramen
CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
In man, there are 7 of them. The first is the atlas while the second
is the axis. The others are nominal cervical bones.
FEATURES OF THE ATLAS

 Has large neural canal
 Has a flat transverse process
 The neural spine is very short or absent
 The Centrum is absent
 It has a Vertebrarterial canal for the passage of blood vessels
Functions: it allows the head to nod on it and fits into the occipital condyles of
the skull.
FEATURES OF THE AXIS
 Has a broad and flat Centrum

 Articulates with the atlas through the Odontoid process
 Has a large flattened neural spine
 The transverse process is reduced to a pin-like structure
 It has a Vertebrarterial canal.
Function: it allows the head to be turned easily.
THORACIC VERTEBRAE
These are found in the chest region. In man
there are 12 of them.
FEATURES OF THORACIC VERTEBRAE
 It has long and prominent neural spine Figure 3: side view of a typical thoracic vertebra
which projects upwards and backwards
 A pair of short transverse process
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 There is presence of demi-facets and articular

surfaces for attachment of ribs
 A large neural canal
 Large Centrum is also present
Functions:
1. It aids in the attachment of ribs
2. Muscles of the shoulder and back are attached
to neural spines
3. It assists in breathing alongside the ribs Figure 4: front view of a typical thoracic
vertebra
LUMBER VERTEBRAE
These are found in the upper abdominal region. In man there are 5 of them.
FEATURES OF THE LUMBER VERTEBRAE
 It has long flattened transverse process

 It has a broad and flat neural spine
 It has large and thick Centrum
 Projections of anapophyses and metapophyses
 There is well developed prezygaphyses and post zygapophyses
Functions:
1. It provides attachment to abdominal muscles
2. They bear considerable weight of the body
SACRAL VERTEBRAE
This is found in the lower abdominal region. In man, they are 5 in number
and fuse together to form a sacrum.
FEATURES OF SACRAL VERTEBRAE

 Has narrow neural canal
 Has a spine which is reduced to a small notch
 It has a large Centrum
Function:
They give rigid support to the abdominal cavity.
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SUMMARY OF DIFFERENT SKELETONS AND THEIR

NUMBERS
Type of vertebra Region of the Number
body Man Rabbit Rat
Cervical Neck 7 7 7
Thoracic Chest 12 12-13 13
Lumber Waist 5 6-7 6
Sacral Loin 5 3-4 4
Caudal Tail 4 16 27-30
TOTAL 33 44-47 57-60
EVALUATION:
I. What are the features of the thoracic vertebrae.
II. How many vertebrae are there in the vertebral column of a rabbit?
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SUPPORTING TISSUES IN PLANTS

Time: 40 minutes
OBJECTIVES: Students should be able to:
I. Define supporting tissues.
II. Explain the characteristics and functions of the different types of
supporting tissues
Simple tissues: they include those supporting tissues with only one type of cell.
They include: parenchyma, collenchymas and sclerenchyma.
1. Complex tissues: these have 2 or more types of cells. They include:
xylem, phloem and epidermis.
PARENCHYMA: parenchyma cells are large, thin-walled and contain air
spaces. They are found in the cortex of stems, leaf mesophylls and fresh fruits.
They take part in photosynthesis and storage of food. The cells give support
and rigidity when they are fully turgid. They are called packing or ground
tissues.
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COLLENCHYMA: collenchymas tissue commonly occurs beneath the

epidermis in stems and petioles and around veins in dicot leaves. Their
thickness is about 3-4 cells. They are small, tightly packed cells and are
thickened at the corners. This gives the stem strength, but is readily flexible
during elongation of plants. They photosynthesize since they contain
chloroplast.
SCLERENCHYMA: is made up of dead cells whose walls are uniformly
thickened. The walls often contain hard substances like Lignin. They are found
in seed coats, shells of nuts and the flesh of some fruits.
XYLEM: they are made up of dead cells which lie within the cambium and
consist of xylem vessels, tracheids, wood fibers and wood parenchyma. It
provides support and strength to the plant.
PHLOEM: this tissue lies externally in each vascular bundle (xylem and
phloem) and is made up of 3 types of cells: sieve tubes, companion cells and
phloem parenchyma.
CORTEX: the vascular bundles of the roots and stems of young plants are
surrounded by tissues of parenchyma cells known as cortex. In the stems, the
cortex is differentiated into an outer collenchymas and inner endodermis. The
turgidity of cortex parenchyma, thickening of the walls of cortex collenchymas
and sclerenchyma give support and strength to the plant.
EPIDERMIS: this is the outermost layer of cells of plants. It forms protective
skin of the stem, leaves, flowers and fruits. It is made up of a single layer of
cells. Some epidermal cells secrete waxy substances called cutin which forms a
layer known as cuticle. This prevents excess water loss and mechanical damage
to the plant body. In the roots, the epidermal cells form root hairs for
absorption of water and mineral salts.
The turgidity of epidermal cells gives support and helps to maintain the shape
of plant organs like stem, leaves, flowers, fruits, etc.
USES OF FIBRES FOR THE PLANT

1. All fiber gives strength and support to plants
2. They serve mechanical functions when they grow older such as
rigidity, flexibility and elasticity
3. They protect the fragile parts of the plant
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4. They are sclerenchymatous in nature

5. When they are associated with wood or xylem, they are known as
wood fibers.
FUNCTIONS OF SUPPORTING TISSUES IN PLANTS

1. Strength
2. Rigidity
3. Resistance against the forces of wind and water (protection)
4. Xylem conducts water and mineral salts
5. Flexibility
6. Sometimes they photosynthesize
EVALUATION:
I. List the different supporting tissues in plants.
II. What are the functions of supporting tissues in plants.
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WEEK 3: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

ALIMENTARY TRACT Time: 40 minutes (x 3)
OBJECTIVES: The students should be able to
I. Identify the different types of alimentary tracts.
II. Explain the parts and functions of the mammalian digestive tract.
Alimentary canal, also called digestive tract, is
a pathway by which food enters the body and
solid wastes are expelled. The alimentary canal
includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and
anus.
TYPES OF FEEDING AND
ALIMENTARY TRACTS:
Here, let us consider the digestive tracts of
round worms (earthworms), arthropods
(cockroach), aves (bird) and mammals
(rabbit).
ROUND WORMS (EARTHWORM) (Lumbricus spp)

The digestive tract which begins with the mouth and ends in the anus is
divided into specialized compartments. Food mixed with soil is sucked into the
mouth, passes through a short passage way into the pharynx and then through
the esophagus into the thin-walled crop that functions as a storage chamber.
Then it enters the gizzard where the food is churned and ground. The
pulverized food suspended in water, passes into the long intestine where
enzymatic digestion and absorption occur.
COCKROACH
The food is softened by a digestive juice secreted by the salivary glands. Then it
passes through the esophagus into the crop and the gizzard which has thick
walls. The food is ground in the gizzard into which the caecum secretes
digestive enzymes. The digested food is passed into the mesenteron (mid-gut)
where absorption takes place. The mid-gut is followed by the colon, end of
which forms the rectum.
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BIRD
Although birds do not have teeth, they have the mechanism for grinding up the
food swallowed before it is digested. The food is stored in the crop and later
passed on to the gizzard through the glandular proventiculus. The strong wall
of the gizzard and the small stone often swallowed by the bird help in grinding
up the food. Pancreatic ducts in the pancreas and bile ducts from the liver open
into the loop shaped duodenum. This leads to the ileum and colon. At the
posterior end of the rectum are the cloaca and the anus.
RABBIT
The small intestine in rabbit is very long and coiled due to the difficulty of
digesting plant materials because of the presence of the cellulose cell wall. The
long intestine enables the herbivore to extract the maximum amount of
nutrients from the food. The wall of the large intestine forms numerous folds.
The caecum is long. This creates more surface area for the slow action of
bacteria which converts cellulose to sugars. The rectum is long and contain
solid pellets of feces.
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The processes of digestion in man is complicated and is summarized in the

table below:
SN PART OF DESCRIPTION PHYSICAL ACTION CHEMICAL ACTION
SYSTEM
1 Mouth Consists of lips, Food is broken down to Saliva makes food
teeth, tongue, pieces by teeth, alkaline. Ptyalin
salivary glands. lubricated by saliva, converts cooked starch
tongue rolls food into to maltose.
bolus for easy
swallowing.
2 Esophagus Muscular tube Passes food from mouth Action of ptyalin
connecting to stomach by peristalsis continues.
mouth to the
stomach
3 Stomach Single chamber Food is stored, churned Saliva is neutralized by
(monogastric), and mixed with gastric HCL; which kills
muscular, juice becoming a paste bacteria and provides
having cardiac (chyme). medium for pepsin.
and pyloric Rennin curdles milk,
sphincters pepsin changes proteins
to peptides.
4 Duodenum First part of the Food is churned with Bile emulsifies fats and
small intestine further digestive more neutralizes acidity of
digestive enzymes. food. Carbohydrates,
Region of active proteins and lipids
digestion. More changed to simple
peristalsis. sugars, amino acids,
fatty acids and glycerol
respectively.
5 Ileum Second part of Food turned to semi- Absorption of simple
small intestines fluid. More peristalsis sugars, amino acids,
lined with villi and mixing of food. fatty acids and glycerol.
6 Large No villi but has Water absorbed from
intestines mucous glands unabsorbed residue and
passes into rectum as
feces
7 Anus Muscular Expels faeces.
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EVALUATION:
I. Give a detailed account of the activities happening in the duodenum.
II. Differentiate between the alimentary canal of a herbivore, carnivore
and omnivore.
WEEK 4: MAMMALIAN DENTITION Time: 40 minutes

OBJECTIVES: students should be able to:
I. Explain what dentition means.
II. Identify dentition in line with mode of nutrition.
While carnivores do not need to chew their food as herbivores because animal
cells do not have non-digestible parts and can be acted upon directly by
digestive enzymes. A dog for instance, gulps its food while a horse will spend
more time chewing food. Omnivores have teeth that are structurally and
functionally intermediate between those of the herbivores and carnivores.
TYPES OF MAMMALIAN TEETH
1. Incisors: the front teeth used for biting off small pieces of food. Chisel-
shaped.
2. Canine: used for tearing off food. E.g. flesh from bone. Usually long and
pointed.
3. Premolars: flat topped with broad surfaces for grinding food.
4. Molars: like premolars. They are absent in the milk teeth of young
mammals. They also have broad surfaces and are used for crushing food.
Dentition of a herbivore:
Dental formula: I 2/1, c 0/0, pm 3/2, m 3/3
Adaptations:
 Incisors are sharp for cutting grass.

 Canines absent leaving a space (diastema).
 Diastema allows for mixing of food.
 Molars and premolars have transverse ridges for grinding food.
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Dentition of a carnivore:
Dental formula: I 3/3, c1/1, pm 4/4, m 2/3
Adaptation:
 Sharp incisors for catching and holding prey.

 Long pointed and curved canines for attacking and holding prey.
 Molars and premolars have pointed cusps for crushing bones.
The dentition of an omnivore:
Dental formula: I 2/2, c 1/1, pm 2/2, m 3/3
Adaptation:
 Sharp incisors for cutting food.

 Premolar and molars have broad surfaces for grinding food.
Note that human teeth are not all that specialized as they are used for various
plant and animal food materials.
EVALUATION:
I. Give the dental formula for man
II. What are the features of canine, incisors, molars and premolars?
FEEDING HABITS Time: 40 minutes (x 2)

OBJECTIVES: Student should be able to know:
I. The different feeding habits of the different life forms.
II. The structural adaptations of different life forms to these feeding
habits.
FEEDING IN PROTOZOA
Protozoan show a holozoic mode of nutrition. They prey on ciliates by
engulfing along with water after which enzymes are secreted to digest the
ciliate. On digestion, it diffuses into the cytoplasm.
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FEEDING IN COELENTRATES
Coelenterates like jelly fish sting preys using their tentacles before ingestion.
Others like hydra possess hollow sac, some of which have linings with flagella
that mix the content in the enteron. The digestion is extracellular, it has no
anus.
FILTER FEEDING
Clams, prawn, ducks, mosquito larva and whales are examples of filter feeders.
This feeding method occurs mainly in aquatic organisms. The feed by mere
filtration or sifting of smaller diatoms inside the aquatic environment into their
mouth. In mosquito larva, 2 small hairy brushes near the mouth beat in a
circular motion thus setting up water currents near the mouth. The water and
food particles pass through the mouth into the pharynx where the water is
eliminated while filtering out food particles. Mosquito larva eats bacteria and
other small particles of organic matter.
FLUID FEEDING
Most insects feed on fluids like nectar
from flowers, plant juice or blood. They
make use of special mouth parts called
proboscis. Examples are insects like
bees, mosquitoes, tsetse flies, butterflies,
etc. the mouth parts of the anopheles are
modified for piercing and sucking blood
and nectar. As soon as the stylets pierce
the skin of the victim, blood is sucked up
through the tubular proboscis.
INSECTS FEEDING ON SOLIDS

Insects that feed on solid food have cutting and chewing mouth parts. The
cockroach for example, has chewing mouth parts, consisting of a pair of lips and
2 pairs of jaws all arranged around the mouth. While the food is held in position
by the lips, the jaws are used to cut off pieces of the food.
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CARNIVOROUS PLANTS
These plants have special devices for
attracting and trapping insects. The
devices usually have bright colors,
scents and sugary liquids. Once an
insect is trapped, the plant secretes
enzyme rich digestive juices o kill
and digest it. The soluble
nitrogenous compounds are
assimilated by the plants. In the
pitcher plant for instance, the leaf is
modified into a pitcher containing
digestive fluid. The rim of the
pitcher is colorful and smooth, and nectar is secreted near it. Insects are
attracted to the nectar, and while they get at it, they slip and fall into the
digestive fluid in the pitcher. Similar mechanisms are employed by the other
carnivorous plants.
HOME WORK: using your SS1 notes, revise the parasitic and saprophytic
modes of nutrition and the adaptations of the saprophytes and parasites (endo-
and ecto- parasites).
Week 5: Revision
Week 6: Mid-Term Test
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WEEK 7: TRANSPORT SYSTEM

TOPIC: NEED FOR TRANSPORTATION Time: 40 minutes
OBJECTIVES:
I. Understand the need for transportation in living systems.
II. Understand the role of osmosis and diffusion in the transport of
materials in living organisms
III. Identify the materials for transport in living systems.
Diffusion involves the movement of solute particles from a region of higher

concentration to a region of lower concentration while osmosis involves the
movement of water molecules through a semi-permeable membrane (such as
the cell membrane) from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration. In application, materials are constantly carried from parts of the
body where they are produced (regions of higher concentration) to other parts
of the body where they are used or removed (regions of lower concentration).
The movement of substances from one part of the body of an organism to the
other parts is called transportation.
Small (single-celled) organisms with a large surface area to volume ratio will
employ simple diffusion and cytoplasmic streaming for the movement of materials
in and out of them. As the organisms increase in size, the need for more
sophisticated channels of transport arises, hence simple diffusion will no longer
be efficient. Note that in multicellular organisms, the nutrient requirements are
high and wastes have to be transported over long distances within the body,
depending on the size of the organism. Thus, the surface area to volume ratio
will determine the type of transport that will take place in an organism. While
it is great in unicellular organisms, it reduces or diminishes in multicellular
organisms with increase in size.
MATERIALS FOR TRANSPORTATION: these include

 EXCRETORY PRODUCTS like oxygen, carbon (IV) oxide,
nitrogenous wastes, water, mineral salts
 GASES such as oxygen, carbon (IV) oxide,
 DIGESTED FOOD like glucose, amino acids, glycerol, fatty acids,
OTHER NUTRIENTS/SUBSTANCES. Examples include: vitamins, antitoxins, hormones
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Assignment: study the diagram below and in a page, explain what you can deduce from it.
EVALUATION:
I. What determines the type of transport that will take place in complex
organisms?
II. What are the materials for transport?
III. Distinguish between osmosis and diffusion.
MEDIA OF TRANSPORTATION Time: 40 minutes

OBJECTIVES:
I. Understand what kind of media is required for effective material
transport.
II. Understand the concept of blood and its components
Materials are always supplied in liquid media. Unicellular organisms transport

substances through their protoplasm; plants through cell sap, while higher
animals transport through the blood and the lymphatic systems. Note that in
vertebrates, blood and lymph are transported through special vessels known
blood vessels or vascular bundles. They include: arteries, veins and capillaries.
BLOOD
The mammalian blood consists of plasma and formed particles or blood cells
(red blood cells or erythrocytes, white blood cells or leukocytes and platelets).
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PLASMA: is a pale yellow liquid which is largely made-up of water and many
dissolved substances like proteins, waste materials, digested food, gases,
hormones and salts. It transports these substances.
RED BLOOD CELL: are bi-concave, flat and circular cells without a nucleus in
the mature cells. The cells contain oxygen-carrying, red pigment hemoglobin
which is responsible for the color of the cells. They are formed in the bone
marrow of adults. FUNCTION: they transport oxygen from the lungs to the
body cells.
WHITE BLOOD CELLS: are larger than red blood cells and are nucleated.
They are formed in lymph nodes and bone marrow. They are lymphocytes and
phagocytes. FUNCTION: they defend the body against diseases by getting rid
of foreign bodies.
PLATELETS: these are irregular, non-nucleated and tiny cell fragments formed
in large bone marrow cells. FUNCTION: they prevent excessive loss of blood
by the formation of the blood clot when there is a cut. This is known as
clotting.
EVALUATION:
I. What are the compositions of the blood?
II. State the functions of all the components identified above.
FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD: Time: 40 minutes

I. Understand the different functions of blood.
1. It transports oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the body where they
are used.
2. It transports carbon (IV) oxide to the lungs where it is removed.
3. Urea is transported from the liver t the kidney in the plasma.
4. Hormones are transported from the endocrine glands to the target organs.
5. Transport of digested foods.
6. Regulation of body temperature by distributing heat uniformly to various
body parts and getting rid of excess heat through the skin.
7. Antibody production: lymphocytes produce antibodies which destroy
intruding micro-organisms
21 | P a g e
8. Phagocytic action: phagocytes get rid of foreign bodies by ingesting them.

9. Clotting: which is a mechanism that prevents excessive blood loss when a
capillary is broken.
EVALUATION:
I. Describe the main functions of the blood.
II. At what level of organization is the blood?
WEEK 8: STRUCTURE OF ARTERIES, VEIN, CAPILLARIES

Time: 40 minutes
I. Describe the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries.
II. Discuss their functions.
SN ARTERIES VEINS
1 They have a thick, They have a fairly thick
muscular and elastic wall and slightly elastic wall
2 They do not contain They contain valves
valves (except semi-
lunar valves in the aorta
and pulmonary artery)
3 Transport blood away Transport blood to the
from the heart heart
4 Contain blood with high Contain blood with low
pressure pressure
5 Blood moves faster in Blood movement in
them them is slow
6 Always contain Always contain
oxygenated blood deoxygenated blood
(except pulmonary (except pulmonary vein)
artery)
7 The lumen is narrower The lumen is wider
than the vein
22 | P a g e
CAPILLARIES: Arteries branch to form arterioles while veins branch into

venules. In the organs, the arterioles connect with the venules by a network of
blood vessels known as the capillaries. The walls of capillaries are a cell thick
and they make available a large surface area for the exchange of materials
between the blood and the body of cells. Note that the oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood does not mix and hereby forms a concept known as the
double circulation.
HOME WORK: draw the mammalian heart and discuss:
a. The features of the heart.
b. Functions of the heart.
TOPIC: MECHANISM OF TRANSPORTATION IN ANIMALS

Time: 40 minutes
I. Describe the circulatory system.
II. Differentiate between systemic and pulmonary circulations.
A transport system consists of a circulating fluid or the media, a pumping
device otherwise known as the heart and a network of tubes or vessels. These
23 | P a g e
comprise what is also known as the circulatory system. In animals there are 2
types of circulatory systems.
A. Open circulatory system: this can be found in some animals like insects
and mollusks. Blood is pumped into blood vessels which open into spaces
in the body cavity known as haemoceols. The internal organs which are
immersed in the blood, exchange materials freely with the blood. Blood
moves slowly and in a single direction. It transports only food and wastes
but does not transport oxygen. Consequently, the blood is colorless as it
does not contain hemoglobin.
B. Closed circulatory system: in higher animals, blood is contained in the
blood vessels and it moves round the body in these vessels. Arteries carry
blood away from the heart and veins return deoxygenated blood to the
heart. Exchange of materials occurs in capillaries. There are 2 types of
closed circulatory systems: single circulation and double circulation.
When the blood passes through the heart once every time it makes one
complete circuit and is found in fishes. This is called the single
circulation while double circulation involves blood passing through the
heart twice for a complete circulation. This is mainly because the fishes
have a 2-chambered heart while vertebrates have a 4-chambered heart. In
double circulation, blood is pumped to and fro the heart. This is the
pulmonary circulation. The blood is also sent to and fro other body
tissues for the nourishment of the cells. This is known as the systemic
circulation.
EVALUATION:
I. Differentiate between the following:
o Open and closed circulatory systems
o Systemic and pulmonary circulations.
TOPIC: MECHANISM OF TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS

Time: 40 minutes
I. Compare transport in animals and in plants
II. Understand translocation and transpiration.
III. Describe the importance of transpiration.
24 | P a g e
While the unicellular plants are able to exchange materials with their
environment by simple diffusion, the more complex plants will also require a
more sophisticated system for transport. The system is composed of conducting
tissues known as vascular tissues. Vascular tissues are found in both flowering
and non-flowering plants. The materials for transport in plants include: oxygen,
carbon (IV) oxide, water, mineral salts, food substances, pigments and
hormones.
These materials are transported mainly in the plant and cell sap. The plant sap
is the fluid found in the vascular tissues which contain 97.6% water and
dissolved organic and inorganic solutes. The cell sap is the watery fluid
contained in the vacuoles of plant cells.
TRANSLOCATION
This is the movement of substances (food and water) to the various parts of the
plants. This is brought about by the vascular tissues which are in bundles of
characteristic patterns in roots, stems and leaves. The 2 types of vascular tissues
are: xylem and phloem.
Xylem: transports water and dissolved solutes (mineral salts) upwardly from
the roots to the other parts of the plant. It is made up of tracheids ad vessels.
Phloem: transports manufactured food downwardly from the leaves to other
parts of the plant. It is made up of the sieve tubes and companion cells.
Plants are able to take up nutrients and water by applying simple diffusion and
osmosis. Note that the root hairs present a selectively permeable membrane.
The transport of solutes through the xylem also involves active transport.
TRANSPIRATION
Transpiration is the loss of water by evaporation to the atmosphere though the
stomata of the leaf. Transpiration stream is the continuous flow of water from
the roots to the leaves which results from:
 Water loss in leaves by evaporation.

 Increase in osmotic concentration of the cells of the leaves and stem.
 Movement of water from the xylem tissues to the cells of laves and stem.
25 | P a g e
 Movement of water from the root cells to the xylem tissues and more
water is absorbed by the root hairs.
IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPIRATION INCLUDES:
1) It helps to cool the plant as water evaporates from the leaf surface.
2) It provides water for physiological functions of the plant cells.
3) It moves mineral salts to all parts of the plants.
EVALUATION:
I. What is transpiration?
II. What is the importance of transpiration to plants?
III. What are the conditions that affect the rate of transpiration?
26 | P a g e
WEEK 9: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

TOPIC: TYPES OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS Time: 40
minutes (x 2)
OBJECTIVES: students should be able to understand:
I. What a respiratory system is.
II. The types of respiratory systems.
III. The differences between inspiration and expiration.
Last term, we defined respiration as the breakdown of food substances to
provide the energy required for carrying out life processes. It is important to
note that respiration could be said to be internal or external. Internal respiration
deals with those activities taking place at the cellular level such as the glycolytic
breakdown of glucose to pyruvate in the cytoplasm of cells and the subsequent
conversion of pyruvate to ATP in the mitochondria through
h the process known as the Kreb`s cycle.
External respiration referred to as breathing involves: inspiration, expiration
and gaseous exchange.
 During inspiration: the diaphragm contracts and pulls downwards and

the intercostals muscles contract to raise the ribs. These movements
increases the volume of the lungs and reduces the pressure within the
lungs (intra-pleural pressure) below the atmospheric pressure, thus, air
from atmosphere will flow into the lungs.
 During expiration: the diaphragm and intercostals muscles relax
In the animal kingdom several breathing systems exist. In mammals

lungs are the organs of gas exchange.
Respiration is the whole process of oxidation of the metabolites in the body to
produce energy. Therefore it actually encompasses all organs and tissues.
Breathing is the cyclic, automatic and centrally controlled function to bring
oxygen in and take carbon dioxide out of the body. Circulation transports the
respiratory gases to the different organs and structures of the body. Tissue
metabolism uses oxygen and returns carbon dioxide to be exhaled and
excreted. All the different parts of the process are intertwined and
must proceed at a certain pace
27 | P a g e
Life in the Earth´s atmosphere is bound with respiration. The oxidative

processes within cells are called internal respiration. The various processes
helping the cells to maintain appropriate inflow of oxygen and outflow of
carbon dioxide are called external respiration. Different organisms have
developed a multitude of ways to deal with the environment and to regulate
their internal milieu. Breathing is usually thought of as a bellows function of
inhaling and exhaling gases, but in fact there are many processes working in
smooth succession and simultaneously. The first process takes place between
the organism and the surrounding medium which is either air or water.
The Four Types of Surfaces for Gas Exchange includes: body surface, gills,
tracheal system, lungs.
TOPIC: BODY SURFACES Time: 40 minutes

In some small animals exchange can occur directly between all cells of the
body. Gas exchange across the body surface can also occur in some larger
animals such as amphibians and earthworms, but they require a circulatory
system to distribute the gases throughout the entire body. Air pouches can
provide an internal surface for the exchange of respiratory gases. Frogs
can “breath” through their skin and also with primitive lungs, as shown
in the Figure 1
Figure 1. Gas exchange through skin and primitive lungs.
28 | P a g e
Gills
In aquatic animals such as the sea star, most molluscs, arthropods, and fish,
gills provide a large surface area for the exchange of gas from the water which
flows through them. Gills are rich in blood vessels so the gas exchanged can be
circulated through the entire body. Fresh water flows in countercurrent fashion
past the blood vessel flow as shown in Figure 2.
WEEK 10
TOPIC: TRACHEAL SYSTEM Time: 40 minutes
The respiratory system of an insect contains branched tubes. They deliver air
directly to the body cells. The system does not distribute dissolved oxygen--it
distributes air. The gas diffuses into cells that are in contact with the tracheal
system (Figure 3). This type of gas exchange limits the size of insects, because
they do not have a circulatory system to move dissolved oxygen through a large
body.
Figure 3. Insect tracheal breathing system.
29 | P a g e
LUNGS
Lungs are gas exchange surfaces that are restricted to one location in an animal
body. They are found in many animals including amphibians, reptiles, birds,
and mammals. Birds have specialized air sacs that assist with gas exchange
(Figure 4). In mammals no air sacs exist (Figure 5).
Figure 4. Bird lungs.
EVALUATION:
I. List and explain the various types of respiratory systems.
II. Distinguish between cellular respiration and breathing
III. What are the features that make the gills of bony fish efficient gaseous
exchange structures?
30 | P a g e
TOPIC: MECHANISMS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM IN HIGHER

ANIMALS Time: 40 minutes
I. Understand the parts of the respiratory tract and their roles in gaseous
exchange.
II. Discuss the set of physical activities that accompany breathing.
The respiratory system in mammals in made up of the external nares (nose),

nasal passages, pharynx, trachea, lungs, diaphragm and the thoracic cavity.
Inhaled air is moistened and warmed as it passes along the nasal passages
through the nose. The nasal passage opens into the pharynx which opens into
trachea or wind pipe. The trachea branches into two. Each one enters a lung and
in turn branches to form a network of smaller tubes called bronchioles. The
bronchioles end in millions of tiny sacs called alveoli. The surface of each
alveolus is richly supplied with blood capillaries.
The lungs are situated in the thoracic cavity. The floor of the thorax is made up
of a sheet of muscle called diaphragm. The sides of the thorax consist of 12 pairs
of rib bones connected to one another by the intercostals muscles. Each rib is
attached to the vertebral column posteriorly and to the sternum anteriorly;
thereby forming a bony cage.
Breathing is brought about by the regular movements of the diaphragm and the
intercostals muscles which alternately increase and decrease the volume of the
chest cavity. The lungs are inflated by the air drawn into them. They are
deflated when air is squeezed out of them. During inspiration: the diaphragm
contracts and pulls downwards and the intercostals muscles contract to raise the
31 | P a g e
ribs. These movements increases the volume of the lungs and reduces the
pressure within the lungs (intra-pleural pressure) below the atmospheric
pressure, thus, air from atmosphere will flow into the lungs. During expiration:
the diaphragm and intercostals muscles relax.
In the lungs, oxygen contained in the inhaled air diffuses into the blood in the
capillaries surrounding the alveoli. The oxygen combines with the hemoglobin,
producing oxyhemoglobin which gives bright red color to oxygen rich blood.
Blood containing oxyhemoglobin is known as oxygenated blood while that in
which oxygen has been used up is known as deoxygenated blood. At the same
time, carbon dioxide resulting from metabolic activities/processes within the
cell diffuses into the blood in form of bicarbonate ions (HCO 3)-. The
bicarbonate ions then decompose into carbon dioxide in the lungs where it
diffuses into air sacs.
EVALUATION:
I. Discuss the set of physical activities that accompany breathing.
II. State the functions of the diaphragm in respiration.
TOPIC: RESPIRATION IN PLANTS Time: 40

minutes
I. Understand the difference between respiration and photosynthesis

II. Explain how gaseous exchange occurs in plants.
Plants use carbon dioxide gas in the process of photosynthesis, and exhale
oxygen gas as waste. The chemical equation of photosynthesis is 6 CO 2 (carbon
dioxide) and 6 H2O (water) and that makes 6 O 2 (oxygen) and C6H12O6
(glucose). What is not expressed in the chemical equation is the capture of
energy from sunlight which occurs. Photosynthesis uses electrons on the carbon
atoms as the repository for that energy. Respiration is the opposite of
photosynthesis. It reclaims the energy to power chemical reactions in cells. In
so doing the carbon atoms and their electrons are combined with oxygen
forming a gas which is easily removed from both the cells and the organism.
Plants use both processes, photosynthesis to capture the energy and respiration
to use it.
32 | P a g e
Plant respiration is limited by the process of diffusion. Plants take in carbon

dioxide through holes on the undersides of their leaves known as stoma or pores
or through the lenticels. NOTE that the opening and the closing of the stomata
depends on the guard cells flanking them. When the guard cells are turgid, the
cells remain open, but when they become flaccid, the pores close up. When the
stomata opens, oxygen diffuses through the intercellular spaces of the leaf into
the mesophylls cells to be used for the oxidation of carbohydrates. The
carbohydrates are broken down into carbon dioxide and water. The carbon
dioxide diffuses from the mesophyll cells into the intercellular spaces and
finally escapes through the stomata into the surrounding air while the water
gets mixed up with the water content of the cell.
However, most plants are not involved in highly aerobic activities, and only
take in oxygen (to give out carbon dioxide) when the plant is not
photosynthesizing.
EVALUATION:
I. Differentiate between respiration and photosynthesis.
II. Discuss the events leading to the opening and closing of the stomata.
WEEK 11: REVISION

WEEK 12: EXAMINATION
Sources/Further readings:
1. Modern Biology for senior secondary schools
2. Comprehensive Biology for senior secondary schools by C. O J. Nweze
3. Exam focus: Biology for WASSCE & SSCE by Egunyomi et al
4. Encarta Encyclopedia
5. Human Anatomy by Van der Graaf
6. Medical Physiology by Guyton and Hall
33 | P a g e

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OUR LADY OF PERPETUAL HELP COLLEGE ORBA

BIOLOGY LESSON NOTES TERM: 2nd CLASS: SS2

WEEKS 1-2: TISSUES AND SUPPORTING SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION TO THE SKELETON AND SUPPORTING

Living things need

a. CUTICLES: they contain waxy substance called chitin which is located

Cartilages forms the skeleton in all vertebrate embryos could ossify to

TOPIC: FUNCTIONS OF A SKELETON Time: 40 minutes

OBJECTIVES: The student should be able to:

The bones of the skeleton perform the mechanical functions of support,

1. Support. The skeleton forms a rigid framework to which the softer

respiratory movements. These will permit mammals to breathe efficiently

MAMMALIAN SKELETON Time: 40 minutes (x 3)

The mammalian skeleton is composed of the skull (cranium), vertebral

BONES OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

STRUCTURE OF A TYPICAL VERTEBRA

parts of the skeleton. They are known as zygaphoses.

FEATURES OF THE ATLAS

FEATURES OF THE AXIS

 Has a broad and flat Centrum

 There is presence of demi-facets and articular

 It has long flattened transverse process

FEATURES OF SACRAL VERTEBRAE

SUMMARY OF DIFFERENT SKELETONS AND THEIR

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SUPPORTING TISSUES IN PLANTS

COLLENCHYMA: collenchymas tissue commonly occurs beneath the

USES OF FIBRES FOR THE PLANT

4. They are sclerenchymatous in nature

FUNCTIONS OF SUPPORTING TISSUES IN PLANTS

WEEK 3: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

ROUND WORMS (EARTHWORM) (Lumbricus spp)

The processes of digestion in man is complicated and is summarized in the

WEEK 4: MAMMALIAN DENTITION Time: 40 minutes

 Incisors are sharp for cutting grass.

 Sharp incisors for catching and holding prey.

 Sharp incisors for cutting food.

FEEDING HABITS Time: 40 minutes (x 2)

INSECTS FEEDING ON SOLIDS

WEEK 7: TRANSPORT SYSTEM

Diffusion involves the movement of solute particles from a region of higher

MATERIALS FOR TRANSPORTATION: these include

MEDIA OF TRANSPORTATION Time: 40 minutes

Materials are always supplied in liquid media. Unicellular organisms transport

FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD: Time: 40 minutes

8. Phagocytic action: phagocytes get rid of foreign bodies by ingesting them.

WEEK 8: STRUCTURE OF ARTERIES, VEIN, CAPILLARIES

CAPILLARIES: Arteries branch to form arterioles while veins branch into

TOPIC: MECHANISM OF TRANSPORTATION IN ANIMALS

TOPIC: MECHANISM OF TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS

 Water loss in leaves by evaporation.

WEEK 9: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 During inspiration: the diaphragm contracts and pulls downwards and

In the animal kingdom several breathing systems exist. In mammals

Life in the Earth´s atmosphere is bound with respiration. The oxidative

TOPIC: BODY SURFACES Time: 40 minutes

Figure 1. Gas exchange through skin and primitive lungs.

Figure 3. Insect tracheal breathing system.

TOPIC: MECHANISMS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM IN HIGHER

The respiratory system in mammals in made up of the external nares (nose),

TOPIC: RESPIRATION IN PLANTS Time: 40

I. Understand the difference between respiration and photosynthesis

Plant respiration is limited by the process of diffusion. Plants take in carbon

WEEK 11: REVISION

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