HES 4802 EXAM PREP

Exam date: 16 February 2018

Questions and answers for the Jan/Feb 2017 past paper

Question 1 define the following terms or phrases

1.1.1 reagent blank

Reagent blank is used in order to cancel out or zero the absorbence of all the other
components in the sample except the component whose absorbance is to be measured.
The blank is prepared by adding the reagent to DI water in the sample cell. A zero
measurement is taken on the DI water only and the read measurement is taken on the
DI water plus reagents. The value obtained from the read measurement is then
subtracted from each sample analysis until the reagent number is changed. It is only
necessary to perform a reagent blank once per reagent lot number.

1.1.2 sample matrix

Sample matrix, matrix refers to the components of a sample other than the analyte of
interest. Matrix can have an effect on how analysis is conducted as well as the quality of
the results obtained.

1.1.3 expiration date of a chemical reagent

The expiration date of a reagent is defined as the amount of time that it should remain
in use after being opened. Human factors can contaminate reagents affecting their
expiration dates.

1.1.4 Analytic noise

Analytic noise may be:

-Thermal noise: resulting from the motion of change carriers in an electrical circuit
generated by their thermal motion;
- shot noise: occurs when the finite number of particles is small enough to give rise to
statistical fluctuations in a signal;
- flicker noise;
- environmental noise; and
- noise reduction.

1.1.5 standardization process

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 Standardization process: standard soln (e.g. Pb: calibration, prepare series of standards
solns from concentrated or from primary standard (RM), intermediate standard soln,
optimization, problems linked to dilution.

1.2 comment on the human factor when a reagent bottle is opened

Once a bottle is opened, the human factor can cause:

- contamination of standards from pipet tips;
- loosely screwed caps allow head space to vent;
- contamination from dust and air;
- soln can be poured back into the wrong container;
- soln can accidently be spilled; and
- contamination by the “wrong” packaging container.
1.3 explain why a calibration curve deviates away from linearity towards higher
concentrations

The deviation may be caused by the measuring instrument not adhering to Beer Lambert’s
law. If there is a change in the absorption coefficient alpha this may cause a deviation.

1.4 discuss common sample preservation methods or storage conditions that would ensure
sample stability during transport and in the laboratory

Samples should be stored separate from standards and reagents;

Samples should be kept in the cooler until analysis; and
Samples should be properly labelled and cealed.

Question 2

2.1 Define spectroscopy

- Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction of various types of radiation with

matter;
- Spectroscopic methods are based on measuring the amount of radiation
produced/ emitted or absorbed by atomic or molecular species of interest or the
analyte;
- Historically it involved only light or EMR;
- But now includes other forms of energy like UV, X-rays etc.; and
- These methods are classified according to the region of electromagnetic
spectrum involved in the measurement.

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 2.2 explain the particle theory
Particle theory says that all matter consists of many, very small particles which are constantly
moving or in a continual state of motion. The degree to which the particles move is determined
by the amount of energy they have and their relationship to other particles.

2.3 calculate the energy of photons from monochromatic radiation for which the wavelength
is 234.5nm

ℎ𝑐
𝜖=
𝜆

h= 6.63 x 10−34
λ= 234.5 × 10−9
c= 3 × 108

there for 234,5 nm needs to be converted to metres

234,5 x 10−9 m

6.63 ×10−34 𝑗.𝑠×3×108 𝑚/𝑠

𝜀= = 8.471 x 10−19 𝐽
234.5×10−9 𝑚

2.4 A 2.35 x 10−5 M soln of KMnO4 has a transmittance of 63.51% when

measured in a 2.10 cm cell at a wavelength of 530nm. Calculate the
absorbance for the soln and the molar absorptivity of KMnO4

A= -log T T= Transmittance
A= -log .6351= 0.1999
Molar absorptivity of KMnO4
𝐴
𝜀 = 𝑏𝑐

.1999
Therefor 2.1 ×2.35×10−5 = 4.051 x 103 mol/cm (could be wrong)

2.5 difference between nebulization and atomization

Atomization: in flame spectroscopy is the conversion of a volatized sample into free

atoms.

Nebulization: process of converting a liquid into a fine mist.

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 2.6 use a labelled diagram of flame atomic absorption spectrometer (FAAS) to
explain how it works

Question: 3

3.1 use an appropriate example to explain how separation and

identification of organic compounds in mixtures can be achieved with a
thin layer chromatography technique thin layer plate not plastic

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 Sample & std solutions are spotted near the base of TLC plate;
TLC plate is called the stationary phase (SP);
SP is supported on a flat plate or in the pores of a paper ;
Plate inserted in development chamber that contains mobile phase (MP);
Chamber is cover with the lid to ensure saturation ;
MP moves through the SP by the capillary action or under the influence of gravity;
Components of sample and std mixture are then separated as they move or are
transported over the SP by MP; and
By using a calculation, the distance moved by MP is compared with that which has
been moved by separated components to ID the components of sample against the
results std solution.

3.2 A 0.1 m long GC column operated at 108 degrees Celsius during the
analysis of PAHs with naphthalene (tR= 6.514) and acenaphthylene (tR=
7.180) as compounds of interest the base widths of the bands were 0.4
(naphthalene) and 0.5 (acenaphthylene) calculate

3.2.1 Resolution

𝑇𝑅2−𝑇𝑅1
Rs= 1
(𝑊1+𝑊2)
2

TR1 = 6.514
TR2 = 7.180
W1 = 0.4
W2 = 0.5
Put those values into the equation and the answer should be Rs= 1.48

3.2.2 average number of theoretical plates

𝑡2
N= 16 ( )
𝑤
6.514
N for naphthalene = 16 ( ) to the power of two = 4243
.4
7.180
N for acenaphthylene = 16 ( ) to the power of two = 3299
0.5

N average = (4243+3299) ÷ 2 = 3771

3.3 define

3.3.1 mobile phase

Mobile phase: is a liquid in HPLC or gaseous phase in GC which moves or transport
the sample within the stationary phase during chromatographic separation.

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 3. 3.2 elution process
Elution is when one material is extracted from another by washing with a solvent, as in
washing of loaded ion-exchange resins to remove captured ions. Predicting and
controlling the order of elution is a key aspect of column chromatographic methods.

3.3.3 standardization process

Refer to Q 1.1.5

Question: 4

4.1 critically discuss the extent of environmental change, land

degradation and soil erosion in Southern Africa

Environmental change has become an increasing concern in Southern Africa due to

population increases and the increased demand for fossil fuels. As populations increase
so does their need for land this has resulted in an increased rate of land degradation and
soil erosion.

Environmental change in Southern Africa may be attributed to global warming. As

temperatures increase so to does the threat on the environment. Global warming may
result in less frequent rainfall in certain areas of Southern Africa which may cause a
change in the species composition. Environmental change may also result in due to the
introduction of invasive species which threaten and displace native species, causing a
change in the overall functioning of the environment. Land degradation is and
desertification is also a serious problem in Southern Africa.

In Southern Africa people rather than climate change have been thought to be the main
reasons for land degradation. One of the root causes of land degradation in Southern
Africa is thought to be from agriculture. Poor farming practices such as monoculture
and overgrazing have led to a major increase in land degradation. Another source of
land degradation is when people cut down large amounts of trees for fire wood or to
build homes. Another major problem within Southern Africa is soil erosion. As
mentioned earlier poor farming practices can lead to land degradation which can lead
to soil erosion. By removing vegetation soil is vulnerable to heavy rains washing away
valuable nutrients and topsoil, a lack of roots from vegetation to hold the soil together
may lead to increased soil erosion. Another major source of soil erosion may result
from soil compaction. Soil compaction may be caused by driving heavy vehicles over
the ground or may occur where cattle walk. Soil compaction prevents plants roots from
penetrating the ground thus causing increased run-off during rain storms. Humans in
Southern Africa have also led to increased soil erosion by adding chemicals to the
ground affecting the delicate nutrient balance found within the ground.

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 Southern Africa’s land degradation is ever increasing as a result of human population
increase and global warming.

4.2 discuss relevant threats faced by the grassland biome in South Africa

Grasslands cover six of South Africa’s provinces, grasslands are critical ecosystem
service providers that support major economic and agricultural benefits to the country.
Major threats to grasslands come from:
- Mining;
- Agriculture;
- Urban expansion;
- Overgrazing from livestock; and
- Alien invasive species to name but a few.
Mining has formed the basis of South Africa’s economy. Mining presents a serious problem to
grassland biomes as it leads to the removal of vegetation, pollutes water and reduces air quality.
Areas which have been mined cannot ever fully provide ecosystem services as they once did
before mining had commenced. Another major threat to grasslands comes from urban
expansion. Due to human population increases the need for urban spaces have also increased.
The grassland region covers nearly 1/3 of SA and thus makes it unavoidable for human
settlements to have an impact on grasslands. Another major threat to grasslands is overgrazing.
Grasslands provide a rich source of food for grazing animals such as sheep, goats and cattle.
Overgrazing is however a major threat to grasslands. It is important that herders or farmers
rotate where their cattle graze. Another major threat to grasslands comes from agriculture and
invasive species.
Agriculture is a major threat to grasslands. Grasslands are sought for their fertile alluvial soils
which are a rich source of nutrients. Agriculture removes valuable sources of nutrients and also
threatens grassland species. Poor agricultural practices such as monoculture and not performing
contour ploughing are thought to be a major threat to grasslands. The final threat to grasslands
comes from alien invasive species. Invasive plant species are able to outcompete native
grassland species for food and light thus leading to the degradation of grasslands.
Grasslands provide vital ecosystem services, and are becoming increasingly threatened due to
human population increases and invasive species to name but a few. It is important for us as
humans to try and preserve these biomes by making use of sustainable development and by
educating people about the importance of these biomes.

Question: 5
5.1 pollution of water and soil systems outline clearly pollution sources,
pathways , and associated environmental impacts
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that causes adverse
change. Pollution of water may either come from point sources and non-point sources. Soil
pollution can result from agriculture, industrial waste and urban activities.

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Water pollution is a serious problem all around the world and can have far reaching
consequences on an ecosystem. Water pollution may either come from point or non-point
sources as mentioned earlier. A point source of water pollution is a single, identifiable source
of pollution, such as a pipe or drain. Industrial waste and sometimes untreated sewage are
discharged in this way. Non-point sources cannot be traced to a single point this is for example
run-off etc. Non-point sources are usually associated with certain land use practices e.g.
agriculture which can result in fertiliser run-off into rivers and dams thus polluting them. The
consequences and environmental impacts from water pollution may be numerous. Water
pollution can cause the death of aquatic animals, water pollution can also disrupt food chains.
Water pollution like fertiliser run-off can lead to eutrophication in an aquatic environment.
Water pollution can also increase the incidence of disease within aquatic environments.
Another area which is being polluted is soil.
Soil pollution as mentioned earlier may result from agriculture, industries and urban activities.
Agriculture can pollute soils in a variety of ways either by adding excess nutrients to soils, or
by adding chemicals to soils, or by oil spills or diesel spills from agricultural machinery.
Industries can release harmful chemicals into soils, or when toxic fumes get mixed into rain
water which subsequently finds its way into soils. Urban activities like improper waste disposal
and improper sanitary systems in urban areas are all sources of soil pollution. The effects of
soil pollution may be reduced soil fertility and thus reduced plant life. There may also be an
imbalance of fauna and flora in the soil this may affect food chains. As a result of soil pollution
there may also be soil erosion and thus an alteration in the soil structure which can lead to the
death of organisms in the soil.
Soil and water pollution are a major problem the effects of each may be far reaching and can
ultimately disrupt ecosystem services. It is thus important to try and prevent these types of
pollutions from happening.

5.2 highlight the strengths and limitations of any 5 different bio-indicators that can be used
for the detection of environmental pollutants on contaminated sites
Memo answer:
Introduction A wide variety of organisms may be used as bio-indicators for the detection of
environmental pollution in contaminated sites. This includes the use of soil microorganisms,
lichens, diatoms, mosses, fish, insects such as foraminifera and ostracods, Tradescantia
micronucleus, and human-hair. However, their use has advantages as well as disadvantages.

Evaluating the use of soil micro-organisms Several bioindicators of soil health and quality have
been developed and reviewed (Trasar-Cepeda et al., 2000; Van Bruggen and Semenov, 2000;
Nielsen et al., 2002; Anderson, 2003). Among them, microorganisms, due to their capability to
respond quickly to environmental changes, are expected to be efficient bioindicators. Microbial
indicator has been defined as ‘‘a microbial parameter that represents properties of the
environment or impacts to the environment, which can be interpreted beyond the information
that the measured or observed parameter represents itself’’ (Nielsen et al., 2002). Microbial
bioindicators could be based on functional and structural diversity of the bacterial community.

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Functional diversity can be defined as the number, type, activity and rate at which a set of
substrate is utilized by a bacterial community (Zak et al., 1994). Among the functional diversity
indicators, the carbon utilization pattern and the measurement of enzymatic activities expressed
by the whole bacterial community have been suggested as useful tool to evaluate the soil status
(Nielsen et al., 2002). Since enzymatic activities in soil are mainly of microbial and fungal
origin, the characterization of soil enzyme pattern could improve our knowledge on microflora
activity, soil productivity and impact of pollutants (Pankhurst et al., 1995).
Several indices such as the species richness, diversity and evenness are used to describe the
structural diversity of a community and to monitor changes in microbial diversity due to
environmental fluctuations, land management practices and pollution (Øvrea°s, 2000). The
structural diversity of a bacterial community has been found to be very sensitive to
environmental changes reacting by shift in its composition (Kandeler et al., 1999). In several
cases, variation in microbial population and activity could also function as a predictor of change
in soil health (Nielsen et al., 2002). (From: Avidano et al., 2005). Benthic foraminifera can be
used as environmental bioindicators, especially in polluted environments where their
sensitivity to pollutants may be expressed by a modification in the assemblage. Benthic
foraminifera are increasingly used as environmental bioindicators especially in polluted
environments where their sensitivity to pollutants may be expressed by a modification of their
test structure or by a change in the composition of the assemblage (Bergin et al., 2005).
Organisms that are sensitive to anthropogenic influences and thrive only within a narrow range
of environmental conditions could also act as indicator species. For example, Rhizobium and
nitrifying bacteria could be used as indicators in this respect because of their high sensitivity
to agrochemical (Domsch et al., 1983). Members of the soil fauna such as earthworms,
nematodes, collembola or predatory mites have also been suggested as potential indicators for
soil health (Lee, 1994; Pankhurst et al., 1995; Lau et al., 1997), while soil algae, bacteria-
feeding or predacious nematodes, or basidiomycete fungi could function as indicators of
industrial pollution of soil (Shtina, 1981; Wondratschek and Roeder, 1993; Korthals et al.,
1996; Lau et al., 1997). From: Bruggena and Semenov, 2005). Bacterial and nematode may
also be used as the bioindicotor of soil health. Ellis et al 2002 A number of soil microbiological
parameters, notably microbial biomass carbon and basal respiration (Doran and Parkin, 1994;
Sparling, 1997), have been suggested as possible indicators of soil environmental quality, and
have been employed in national and international monitoring programs (Yao et al., 2000). Soil
microbial biomass, which plays an important role in nutrient cycling and ecosystem
sustainability, has been found to be sensitive to increased heavy metal concentrations in soils
(Giller et al., 1998; Huang and Khan, 1998). From: Yao et al., 2003 Researchers have also
indicated that the earthworm can be used as a bio-monitor for soil contaminants, because it
plays an important role in the soil macro-fauna biomass. The theory of using earthworms as
bio-indicator for soil contaminated with heavy metal is based on its analyzed capability of
absorbing and accumulating heavy metal from the soil which is exposed to, resulting in increase
in 8-oxo-guanine which is a major premutagenic form of oxidative DNA damage. The species
Eisenia fetida is most commonly use in eco-toxicology as a bio-monitor for soil contaminants
(Brulle et al., 2006). Estimate pollution levels in water Aquatic invertebrates and fish have
commonly been surveyed as indicators of water quality and the health of aquatic ecosystems.
If a site has populations of the so called sewage worms or tubificids, for example, this almost
always suggests that water quality has been degraded by inputs of sewage or other oxygen
consuming organic matter. Tubificid worms can tolerate virtually anoxic water, in contrast with

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most of the animals of unpolluted environments, such as mayflies and stoneflies, which require
welloxygenated conditions (http://science.jrank.org/pages/3553/Indicator-Species.html
Foraminifera are unicellular protozoans found mostly in marine and brackish water habitats.
They construct shells of one and many chambers. They are particularly sensitive to pollutants
and this is detected from their test structure or by a change in the composition of the population
assemblage. Foraminifera respond sensitively to manmade environmental changes.
Consequently their distribution patterns can indicate different kinds of pollution: foraminifer’s
assemblages respond uniquely to sewage outfalls; pollutants from paper mills and pulp mills
also have impacts on their test structure. Ostracods are microscopic crustaceans found mostly
in aquatic environments – hot spring, caves, fresh, brackish and marine waters. Their
distribution is sensitive to changes in the hydrological, biological and sedimentological features
of their habitats. Ostracods useful for the bio-zonation of marine strata on a local or regional
scale, to determine water depth, salinity, sedimentation, temperature and other paleo-ecological
factors. Quantitative distributions of deformed foraminifera are used as indicators of heavy
metal pollution from anthropogenic sources. Detailed studies have been performed in various
stations in the Gulf of Izmir – that is bordering densely populated residential areas. Pollution
impacts at different areas of the Gulf. Pollution sources are streams of small domestic discharge
outlets, which flow to the gulf. Coliform bacteria (Escherichia coli), its presence in water
bodies indicates the possible pollution of water resulting from introduction of faecal
contaminants. The coliform bacteria are present in the digestive tract and faeces of all warm-
blooded animals, including humans, poultry, livestock, and wild animals species (DWAF,
2002)

Plankton community, Zooplankton (Acartia tonsa and Acartia clausi) can be used as indicator
for water quality. The theory of using this species as indicator is based on the analyzed fact that
A tonsa is generally found in large numbers in eutrophic waters and when the physical-
chemical conditions of the water show costal features, abundances of A. tonsa decreases, and
the conger A.clausi, which has greater affinity for these water, occupy the area of distribution
(Bianchi et al., 2003). The study by Biachi et al (2003) further indicate that although the
industrial effluent might have substances that lead to eutrophication, the A. tonsa is scarce as
indicator probably because of depression of its life-cycle induced by different polluting
substances. This fact limits the use of A.tonsa as indicator of water quality where industrial
discharge is present. Estimation air pollution Lichens were recognized as potential indicators
of air pollution as early as the 1860's in Britain and Europe (Hawksworth and Rose, 1976).
Since then, lichens have played prominent roles in air pollution studies throughout the world
because of their sensitivity to different gaseous pollutants, particularly sulfur dioxide. They
have also been found to act as accumulators of elements, such as trace metals, sulfur, and
radioactive elements. Lichens and mosses are valuable plants for monitoring the environment
since they accumulate elements by trapping particulates (tiny dust particles) and by an
extracellular ion-exchange process. Because these plants lack well-developed root systems,
the uptake from the substrate is minimal in most species compared with the uptake from wet
or dry deposition. In various parts of the world mosses and lichens have been used to monitor
the levels of more than twenty-five different elements in investigations of the environmental
quality around smelters, manufacturing plants, power plants and urban centres. In addition,

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reindeer lichens have been employed successfully to assess the global deposition of
radionuclides derived from aerial nuclear weapons testing and the
atmospheric re-entry of nuclear powered satellites. Surprisingly, the distribution patterns of
uranium and associated elements in lichens growing in the vicinity of uranium mining/milling
operations have not been studied in detail. It is generally accepted that choice of species is an
important principle in environmental assessment work using lichens and mosses. Species
availability often introduces severe limitations in such studies. It is encouraging that Cladonia
rnitis and C. rangiferina possessed similar metal accumulation abilities. This interchangeability
of species may improve sampling versatility. So far, all the tests have demonstrated statistically
significant differences in U content in the air and lichens sampled from ‘‘clean’’ and
‘‘contaminated’’ sites. As with other methods, there are a few precautions to be noted when
dealing with lichens to examine uranium contamination. Uranium absorption with lichens can
be somewhat affected by meteorological conditions such as the wind direction and velocity.
Humidity also determines the time of particle’s presence in air. All these factors can be
regarded as limitations of the lichen-indication method and generally lichens are good bio-
indicators for investigating a long-term air pollution effect in a given region.

Tradescantia micronucleus Studies have shown that Tradescantia micronucleus respond

sensitively to the genotoxic compounds of car exhaust and urban air pollution in general.
Several studies performed in the urban agglomeration of São Paulo (Brazil) also confirmed the
high sensitivity of some Tradescantia cultivars to urban air pollutants and their potential for
bioindication of genotoxic air pollution in urban areas (Batalha et al., 1999; Guimaraes et al.,
2000). The Tradescantia micronucleus test proved to be a suitable tool for monitoring the
genotoxic potential of urban air pollution. The assay enables local ‘hot spots’ of mutagenic air
pollution to be detected in urban agglomerations, particularly at locations exposed to severe
car traffic emissions. From Klumpp et al., 2006

Tobacco (Nicotiana tobacum), identified as the best-known bioindicator for phytotoxic gas
(ozone) by Quintero and Ramirez (1990) as it is much sensitive to the presence of gas (IUFRO,
2000). Ozone (O3) is a secondary pollutant arising from interactions between nitrogen oxides
(nitric oxides and nitrogen dioxide), reactive hydrocarbons and sunlight. It is formed from
decomposition of NO2 to form NO which then reacts with hydrocarbon in the presence of
sunlight (IUFRO, 2000). It can also be formed from the pollutants released by biomass burning.
Ozone is considered the biggest pollution problem associated with diffuse source. The study
by Quintero & Ramirez as cited in IUFO (2000) further indicate that tobacco plants in Cuba
have been recorded with the typical symptom of Ozone injury and that the symptoms have been
reproduced experimentally during ozone treatments. Hair as the bioindicator of pollution
Recently, hair has been identified as a suitable matrix to assess the human exposure to persistent
organic pollutants (POPs) (Covaci et al., 2002). Hair has several advantages compared to the
common matrices (e.g. blood, milk or tissues) used for biological monitoring of POPs. Blood
is not always available in sufficient amounts for a reliable analysis, whereas tissues need to be
obtained by invasive procedures or during surgery. Contrarily, the collection of hair is simple,
inexpensive and non-invasive, involves minimal stress to individuals and therefore, the subject
compliance is high (Schramm,

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1997). Hair analyses can be performed for any population group, unlike human milk which is
restricted to women of lactating period or adipose tissue available only during surgery. It also
allows the repetitive sampling of the same individual. Because of the sebaceous glands which
secrete a waxy lipid material, the retention of lipophilic compounds is favored. Therefore, the
relatively high lipid content (between 2 and 4%) makes hair a suitable matrix for the analysis
of persistent organohalogenated contaminants in humans (Covaci and Schepens, 2001a; Covaci
et al., 2002; Altshul et al., 2004) and in animals (Schramm, 1997; D’Havé et al., 2005, 2006).
From: Covaci et al.

Answer from assignment:

Bio-indicators are a great tool which can be used for the detection of environmental pollutants.
Bio-indicators may be used to detect pollution in different mediums e.g. air, soil and water.
One such indicator which is used for the detection of air pollution is lichens. The advantages
and disadvantages of using lichens as bio-indicators are highlighted in (Table 2).

Table 2: Advantages and disadvantages of using lichens as bio-indicators.

Advantages Disadvantages
“Evaluation of metal concentration in lichen It is difficult to ascertain whether emissions
tissue can yield valuable information about were intermittent or sporadic of
the presence or absence of metals in the contaminants (Conti and Ceccheti 2000:
environment and identify areas of low and 485).
high concentration” (Blett, Geiser and Porter
2003: 10).
Lichens are widely dispersed making them Biological tolerance limits may not be taken
easy to access. into account (Conti et al 2000: 485).
Tissue data from lichens can be used to map Data from lichens can rarely standalone due
relative differences in air quality over time in to air quality standards being based off of
an area of interest. ambient air concentrations (Blett et al 2003:
10).

From the table it is clear to see that although lichens are widely dispersed they do have some
drawbacks. When monitoring soil pollution one may make use of soil invertebrates. The
advantages and disadvantages of using soil-invertebrates are given in (Table 3).

Table 3: Advantages and disadvantages of using soil invertebrates as bio-indicators.

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 Advantages Disadvantages
The advantages of using some invertebrates The main properties studied to characterize
like Diptera as bio-indicators is that its larvae invertebrates are abundance and species
form an important part of the edaphon in diversity, these two community properties
various ecosystems, and this may represent are exhaustive to explain the effects of
the most abundant part of the soil micro- pollution ( Santorufo, Van Gestal, Rocco and
fauna ( Frouz 1999:167). Maisto 2011: 57)
The invertebrates play various roles in soil A disadvantage can be seen with Diptera use
making them good candidates. as to come to a conclusion just using their
larvae may be difficult (Frouz 1999: 168).
Invertebrates are abundant and easily
sampled.

Soil invertebrates are not the only bio-indicators which can be used for soil pollution. Another
bio-indicator which can be used within soils is that of microbes. Microbial communities have
been found to be good bio-indicators when there is contamination from mercury (Muller,
Wastergaard, Christensen, and Sorensen 2001). The advantages and disadvantages of using
microbial communities as bio-indicators are given in (Table 4).

Table 4: Advantages and disadvantages of using microbial communities as bio-indicators is

soils.
Advantages Disadvantages
Microbial communities are widespread and May require a laboratory and in-depth
easily accessible. studies of soil samples which may become
costly.

Bio-indicators are also used to test water samples to see whether or not they contain pollutants.
One such indicator is the nematode. Another indicator which is also used when testing water
samples is E-coli. The advantages and disadvantages of each indicator are given in (Table 5).

Table 5: The advantages and disadvantages of using both Nematodes and E-coli as bio-
indicators in water.
Advantages disadvantages
The advantage of using nematodes is that As nematodes are found in aquatic
they are found in all environments that environments within a thin film layer close to

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 provide a source of organic carbon (Bonger the bottom of the water table, disturbances to
and Ferris 1999:225). this layer may make it difficult to collect
samples.
The advantage of using bacteria like E.Coli The drawbacks of using bacteria like E.Coli
is that allot of studies have been done using is that the cost and reliability of E.Coli
them as bio-indicators. It is also easy to enumeration making use of the Colilert 18
discern whether there is sewage in a water system is a concern (Luyt, Tandlich, Muller
way or not by simply looking for E.Coli and Wilhelmi 2012).
bacteria.

The use of bio-indicators is invaluable as they provide an effective way of determining whether
or not pollutants are present or not in various mediums. All bio-indicators have both strengths
and weaknesses. When using a bio-indicator it is important to ensure that the strengths
outweigh the weaknesses.

Question: 6 comment of the evolution of air quality legislation in South Africa

by paying special attention to their main objectives
The purpose and objectives of the State of the Environment Reporting Programme are to:
Provide objective, accurate and scientifically credible information about the condition and
prospects of the South African environment; P
Increase public understanding of these issues; I
Accelerate the development of national environmental indicators; A
Provide an early warning of potential environmental problems; P
Report on the effectiveness of policies and programs designed to respond to environmental
change; R
including progress toward achieving environmental standards and targets; and I
Making recommendations for strengthening policies and programmes. M
Consequently, environmental legislation is tightening up, almost every year, forcing potentially
polluting industries to accept the financial responsibility of specifying permitted amounts of
pollutants they release into the natural environment. In this way the government and regulatory
institutions are aiming to promote environmental quality and environmental sustainability by
regulating potentially polluting human activities. Consistent monitoring and modeling of
environmental systems which play a role in pollution is indispensable in the design of pollution
control strategies. Air pollution control in South Africa has undergone a shift from the best
practicable means to an Air Quality Management approach. Previous legislation was out-dated
and did not achieve acceptable air quality. Further, policy and legislative developments

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necessitated a change, in accordance with overarching environmental legislation. The National
Environment Management: Air Quality Act (AQA) heralded a new era, introducing
international best practice, including the devolution of responsibility to local government and
effects-based management. However, South African municipalities, as the incumbent local
authorities, face several challenges in implementing AQA. Pollution control falls within the
context of competing priorities for basic service provision and economic development in local
government. Further challenges include the lack of political will, consultation and
communication, the limited use of planning tools, and a non-strategic approach to Air Quality
Management. The publication of a strategy document, the National Framework for Air Quality,
provides guidance to all levels of government on implementation. Other developments include
the publication of national ambient air quality standards, and listed activities and emission
standards, development of an Air Quality Management Planning manual, and processes to issue
atmospheric emission licenses.

The end !!!!

Questions from May/June 2016 exam

Question: 1 sample and data handling

1.1.1 comment on what “human factor” can lead to once a reagent or soln bottle or
container is opened?

Once a bottle is opened, the human factor can cause:

- contamination of standards from pipet tips;
- loosely screwed caps allow head space to vent;
- contamination from dust and air;
- soln can be poured back into the wrong container;
- soln can accidently be spilled; and
- contamination by the “wrong” packaging container.
1.1.2 explain why a calibration curve deviates from linearity towards higher concentrations

The deviation may be caused by the measuring instrument not adhering to Beer
Lambert’s law. If there is a change in the absorption coefficient alpha this may cause
a deviation

1.1.3 discuss common sample preservation methods or storage conditions that would ensure
sample stability during transport and in the laboratory
- samples should be stored separate from standards and reagents;
- samples should be stored in a cool place; and
- samples should be properly labelled and cealed.

1.1.4 reagent blank

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 Reagent blank is used in order to cancel out or zero the absorbence of all the other
components in the sample except the component whose absorbance is to be measured.
The blank is prepared by adding the reagent to DI water in the sample cell. A zero
measurement is taken on the DI water only and the read measurement is taken on the
DI water plus reagents. The value obtained from the read measurement is then
subtracted from each sample analysis until the reagent number is changed. It is only
necessary to perform a reagent blank once per reagent lot number.

1.1.5 sample matrix

Sample matrix, matrix refers to the components of a sample other than the analyte of
interest. Matrix can have an effect on how analysis is conducted as well as the quality
of the results obtained.

1.1.6 expiry date of a chemical

The expiration date of a reagent is defined as the amount of time that it should remain
in use after being opened. Human factors can contaminate reagents affecting their
expiration dates.

1.1.7 analytical noise

Analytic noise may be:
-Thermal noise: resulting from the motion of change carriers in an electrical circuit
generated by their thermal motion;
- shot noise: occurs when the finite number of particles is small enough to give rise to
statistical fluctuations in a signal;
- flicker noise;
- environmental noise; and
- noise reduction.

1.1.8 standardization process

Standardization process: standard soln (e.g. Pb: calibration, prepare series of
standards solns from concentrated or from primary standard (RM), intermediate
standard soln, optimization, problems linked to dilution.

Q 1.2

1.2.1 describe the meaning of spectroscopy

- Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction of various types of radiation with
matter;
- Spectroscopic methods are based on measuring the amount of radiation
produced/ emitted or absorbed by atomic or molecular species of interest or
the analyte;
- Historically it involved only light or EMR;
- But now includes other forms of energy like UV, X-rays etc.; and

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 - These methods are classified according to the region of electromagnetic
spectrum involved in the measurement

1.2.2 explain the particle theory

Particle theory says that all matter consists of many, very small particles which are
constantly moving or in a continual state of motion. The degree to which the particles
move is determined by the amount of energy they have and their relationship to other
particles.

1.2.3 calculate the energy of photons from monochromatic radiation for which the
wavelength is 234.5nm
ℎ𝑐
𝜖=
𝜆

h= 6.63 x 10−34
λ= 234.5 × 10−9
c= 3 × 108

there for 234,5 nm needs to be converted to metres

234,5 x 10−9 m

6.63 ×10−34 𝑗.𝑠×3×108 𝑚/𝑠

𝜀= = 8.471 x 10−19 𝐽
234.5×10−9 𝑚

1.2.4 same as Q2.4 from jan/feb paper

A= -log T T= Transmittance
A= -log .6351= 0.1999
Molar absorptivity of KMnO4
𝐴
𝜀 = 𝑏𝑐

.1999
Therefor 2.1 ×2.35×10−5 = 4.051 x 103 mol/cm (could be wrong)

1.2.5 differentiate between nebulization and atonomization

Atomization: in flame spectroscopy is the conversion of a volatized sample into free
atoms.

Nebulization: process of converting a liquid into a fine mist.

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 1.2.6 use a labelled drawing to explain how flame atomic spectrometer works (FAAS)

Question: 1.3

1.3.1 Use an appropriate example to explain how separation and identification of organic compounds
in mixtures can be achieved with thin layer chromatography thin layer plate not plastic

Sample & std solutions are spotted near the base of TLC plate;
TLC plate is called the stationary phase (SP);

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 SP is supported is supported on a flat plate or in the pores of a paper ;
Plate inserted in development chamber that contains mobile phase (MP);
Chamber is cover with the lid to ensure saturation ;
MP moves through the SP by the capillary action or under the influence of gravity;
Components of sample and std mixture are then separated as they move or are transported
over the SP by MP; and
By using a calculation, the distance moved by MP is compared with that which has been
moved by separated components to ID the components of sample against the results std
solution.
1.3.2 A 0.1m long GC column, operated at 108 degrees Celsius during the analyses of PAHs
with naphthalene (tR= 7180 min) as compounds of interest. The base widths of the bands
were 0 4 for naphthalene and 0 5 for acenaphthylene. Calculate
a) resolution
b) average number of theoretical plates
a)
𝑇𝑅2−𝑇𝑅1
Rs= 1
(𝑊1+𝑊2)
2

TR1 = 6.514
TR2 = 7.180
W1 = 0.4
W2 = 0.5
Put those values into the equation and the answer should be Rs= 1.48
𝑡2
b) N= 16 (𝑤 )
6.514
N for naphthalene = 16 ( ) to the power of two = 4243
.4
7.180
N for acenaphthylene = 16 ( ) to the power of two = 3299
0.5

N average = (4243+3299) ÷ 2 = 3771

1.3.3 mobile phase

Mobile phase: is a liquid in HPLC or gaseous phase in GC which moves or transport the sample
within the stationary phase during chromatographic separation.

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 1.3.4 elution process
Elution is when one material is extracted from another by washing with a solvent, as in washing
of loaded ion-exchange resins to remove captured ions. Predicting and controlling the order of
elution is a key aspect of column chromatographic methods.
Question: 2
2.1 critically discuss the extent of environmental change and land degradation and soil
erosion in Southern Africa
Environmental change has become an increasing concern in Southern Africa due to population
increases and the increased demand for fossil fuels. As populations increase so does their need
for land this has resulted in an increased rate of land degradation and soil erosion.

Environmental change in Southern Africa may be attributed to global warming. As

temperatures increase so to does the threat on the environment. Global warming may result in
less frequent rainfall in certain areas of Southern Africa which may cause a change in the
species composition. Environmental change may also result in due to the introduction of
invasive species which threaten and displace native species, causing a change in the overall
functioning of the environment. Land degradation is and desertification is also a serious
problem in Southern Africa.

In Southern Africa people rather than climate change have been thought to be the main reasons
for land degradation. One of the root causes of land degradation in Southern Africa is thought
to be from agriculture. Poor farming practices such as monoculture and overgrazing have led
to a major increase in land degradation. Another source of land degradation is when people cut
down large amounts of trees for fire wood or to build homes. Another major problem within
Southern Africa is soil erosion. As mentioned earlier poor farming practices can lead to land
degradation which can lead to soil erosion. By removing vegetation soil is vulnerable to heavy
rains washing away valuable nutrients and topsoil, a lack of roots from vegetation to hold the
soil together may lead to increased soil erosion. Another major source of soil erosion may result
from soil compaction. Soil compaction may be caused by driving heavy vehicles over the
ground or may occur where cattle walk. Soil compaction prevents plants roots from penetrating
the ground thus causing increased run-off during rain storms. Humans in Southern Africa have
also led to increased soil erosion by adding chemicals to the ground affecting the delicate
nutrient balance found within the ground.
Southern Africa’s land degradation is ever increasing as a result of human population increase
and global warming.

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2.2 state any 5 different bio-indicators that can be used for the detection of environmental
pollutants on contaminated sites highlight their strengths and weaknesses
Bio-indicators are a great tool which can be used for the detection of environmental pollutants.
Bio-indicators may be used to detect pollution in different mediums e.g. air, soil and water.
One such indicator which is used for the detection of air pollution is lichens. The advantages
and disadvantages of using lichens as bio-indicators are highlighted in (Table 2).
Table 2: Advantages and disadvantages of using lichens as bio-indicators.
Advantages Disadvantages
“Evaluation of metal concentration in lichen It is difficult to ascertain whether emissions
tissue can yield valuable information about were intermittent or sporadic of
the presence or absence of metals in the contaminants (Conti and Ceccheti 2000:
environment and identify areas of low and 485).
high concentration” (Blett, Geiser and Porter
2003: 10).
Lichens are widely dispersed making them Biological tolerance limits may not be taken
easy to access. into account (Conti et al 2000: 485).
Tissue data from lichens can be used to map Data from lichens can rarely standalone due
relative differences in air quality over time in to air quality standards being based off of
an area of interest. ambient air concentrations (Blett et al 2003:
10).

From the table it is clear to see that although lichens are widely dispersed they do have some
drawbacks. When monitoring soil pollution one may make use of soil invertebrates. The
advantages and disadvantages of using soil-invertebrates are given in (Table 3).
Table 3: Advantages and disadvantages of using soil invertebrates as bio-indicators.
Advantages Disadvantages
The advantages of using some invertebrates The main properties studied to characterize
like Diptera as bio-indicators is that its larvae invertebrates are abundance and species
form an important part of the edaphon in diversity, these two community properties
various ecosystems, and this may represent are exhaustive to explain the effects of
the most abundant part of the soil micro- pollution ( Santorufo, Van Gestal, Rocco and
fauna ( Frouz 1999:167). Maisto 2011: 57)
The invertebrates play various roles in soil A disadvantage can be seen with Diptera use
making them good candidates. as to come to a conclusion just using their
larvae may be difficult (Frouz 1999: 168).
Invertebrates are abundant and easily
sampled.

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Soil invertebrates are not the only bio-indicators which can be used for soil pollution. Another
bio-indicator which can be used within soils is that of microbes. Microbial communities have
been found to be good bio-indicators when there is contamination from mercury (Muller,
Wastergaard, Christensen, and Sorensen 2001). The advantages and disadvantages of using
microbial communities as bio-indicators are given in (Table 4).
Table 4: Advantages and disadvantages of using microbial communities as bio-indicators is
soils.
Advantages Disadvantages
Microbial communities are widespread and May require a laboratory and in-depth
easily accessible. studies of soil samples which may become
costly.

Bio-indicators are also used to test water samples to see whether or not they contain pollutants.
One such indicator is the nematode. Another indicator which is also used when testing water
samples is E-coli. The advantages and disadvantages of each indicator are given in (Table 5).
Table 5: The advantages and disadvantages of using both Nematodes and E-coli as bio-
indicators in water.
Advantages disadvantages
The advantage of using nematodes is that As nematodes are found in aquatic
they are found in all environments that environments within a thin film layer close to
provide a source of organic carbon (Bonger the bottom of the water table, disturbances to
and Ferris 1999:225). this layer may make it difficult to collect
samples.
The advantage of using bacteria like E.Coli The drawbacks of using bacteria like E.Coli
is that allot of studies have been done using is that the cost and reliability of E.Coli
them as bio-indicators. It is also easy to enumeration making use of the Colilert 18
discern whether there is sewage in a water system is a concern (Luyt, Tandlich, Muller
way or not by simply looking for E.Coli and Wilhelmi 2012).
bacteria.

The use of bio-indicators is invaluable as they provide an effective way of determining whether
or not pollutants are present or not in various mediums. All bio-indicators have both strengths
and weaknesses. When using a bio-indicator it is important to ensure that the strengths
outweigh the weaknesses.

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Question: 3
3.1 discuss the point and non-point pollution sources affecting water and soil systems in
your answer clearly outline pollution sources, pathways and associated impacts
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that causes adverse
change. Pollution of water may either come from point sources and non-point sources. Soil
pollution can result from agriculture, industrial waste and urban activities.
Water pollution is a serious problem all around the world and can have far reaching
consequences on an ecosystem. Water pollution may either come from point or non-point
sources as mentioned earlier. A point source of water pollution is a single, identifiable source
of pollution, such as a pipe or drain. Industrial waste and sometimes untreated sewage are
discharged in this way. Non-point sources cannot be traced to a single point this is for example
run-off etc. Non-point sources are usually associated with certain land use practices e.g.
agriculture which can result in fertiliser run-off into rivers and dams thus polluting them. The
consequences and environmental impacts from water pollution may be numerous. Water
pollution can cause the death of aquatic animals, water pollution can also disrupt food chains.
Water pollution like fertiliser run-off can lead to eutrophication in an aquatic environment.
Water pollution can also increase the incidence of disease within aquatic environments.
Another area which is being polluted is soil.
Soil pollution as mentioned earlier may result from agriculture, industries and urban activities.
Agriculture can pollute soils in a variety of ways either by adding excess nutrients to soils, or
by adding chemicals to soils, or by oil spills or diesel spills from agricultural machinery.
Industries can release harmful chemicals into soils, or when toxic fumes get mixed into rain
water which subsequently finds its way into soils. Urban activities like improper waste disposal
and improper sanitary systems in urban areas are all sources of soil pollution. The effects of
soil pollution may be reduced soil fertility and thus reduced plant life. There may also be an
imbalance of fauna and flora in the soil this may affect food chains. As a result of soil pollution
there may also be soil erosion and thus an alteration in the soil structure which can lead to the
death of organisms in the soil.
Soil and water pollution are a major problem the effects of each may be far reaching and can
ultimately disrupt ecosystem services. It is thus important to try and prevent these types of
pollutions from happening.
Question: 4
4.1 comment on the evolution of air quality legislation in South Africa, paying special
attention to their main objectives
The purpose and objectives of the State of the Environment Reporting Programme are to:
Provide objective, accurate and scientifically credible information about the condition and
prospects of the South African environment;
Increase public understanding of these issues;
Accelerate the development of national environmental indicators;
Provide an early warning of potential environmental problems;

23 | P a g e
 Report on the effectiveness of policies and programs designed to respond to environmental
change;
including progress toward achieving environmental standards and targets; and
Making recommendations for strengthening policies and programmes.
Consequently, environmental legislation is tightening up, almost every year, forcing potentially
polluting industries to accept the financial responsibility of specifying permitted amounts of
pollutants they release into the natural environment. In this way the government and regulatory
institutions are aiming to promote environmental quality and environmental sustainability by
regulating potentially polluting human activities. Consistent monitoring and modeling of
environmental systems which play a role in pollution is indispensable in the design of pollution
control strategies. Air pollution control in South Africa has undergone a shift from the best
practicable means to an Air Quality Management approach. Previous legislation was out-dated
and did not achieve acceptable air quality. Further, policy and legislative developments
necessitated a change, in accordance with overarching environmental legislation. The National
Environment Management: Air Quality Act (AQA) heralded a new era, introducing
international best practice, including the devolution of responsibility to local government and
effects-based management. However, South African municipalities, as the incumbent local
authorities, face several challenges in implementing AQA. Pollution control falls within the
context of competing priorities for basic service provision and economic development in local
government. Further challenges include the lack of political will, consultation and
communication, the limited use of planning tools, and a non-strategic approach to Air Quality
Management. The publication of a strategy document, the National Framework for Air Quality,
provides guidance to all levels of government on implementation. Other developments include
standards, development of an Air Quality Management Planning manual, and processes to issue
atmospheric emission licenses.
4.2 discuss relevant threats to biodiversity faced by the grassland biome in South Africa
Grasslands cover six of South Africa’s provinces, grasslands are critical ecosystem service
providers that support major economic and agricultural benefits to the country. Major threats
to grasslands come from:
- Mining;
- Agriculture;
- Urban expansion;
- Overgrazing from livestock; and
- Alien invasive species to name but a few.
Mining has formed the basis of South Africa’s economy. Mining presents a serious problem to
grassland biomes as it leads to the removal of vegetation, pollutes water and reduces air quality.
Areas which have been mined cannot ever fully provide ecosystem services as they once did
before mining had commenced. Another major threat to grasslands comes from urban
expansion. Due to human population increases the need for urban spaces have also increased.
The grassland region covers nearly 1/3 of SA and thus makes it unavoidable for human
settlements to have an impact on grasslands. Another major threat to grasslands is overgrazing.
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 Grasslands provide a rich source of food for grazing animals such as sheep, goats and cattle.
Overgrazing is however a major threat to grasslands. It is important that herders or farmers
rotate where their cattle graze. Another major threat to grasslands comes from agriculture and
invasive species.
Agriculture is a major threat to grasslands. Grasslands are sought for their fertile alluvial soils
which are a rich source of nutrients. Agriculture removes valuable sources of nutrients and also
threatens grassland species. Poor agricultural practices such as monoculture and not performing
contour ploughing are thought to be a major threat to grasslands. The final threat to grasslands
comes from alien invasive species. Invasive plant species are able to outcompete native
grassland species for food and light thus leading to the degradation of grasslands.
Grasslands provide vital ecosystem services, and are becoming increasingly threatened due to
human population increases and invasive species to name but a few. It is important for us as
humans to try and preserve these biomes by making use of sustainable development and by
educating people about the importance of these biomes.
The end!!!!!!

Assignment:1 from the memo:

Briefly outline the role and importance of environmental monitoring in environmental
science and environmental management:

Environmental monitoring Environmental science deals

refers to the repetitive with the scientific
and continued understanding of different
observation, components of earth (air,
measurement and Summary of water etc.) interactions
evaluation of answer between them and
environmental or anthropogenic influences have
technical data to track altered them.
changes over a period of
time.

Design of effective environmental policies in

areas as diverse as air quality, climate change,
ozone depletion water quality, land use and
environmental health all depend on sound
environmental monitoring and research to
set emission limits.

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Environmental monitoring refers to the repetitive and continued observation, measurement,
and evaluation of environmental or technical data to track changes over a period of time
(Porteous, 2000). Environmental science deals with the scientific understanding of the different
components of the Earth (air, water, biosphere, and geosphere), interactions between them,
scale and tempo of the processes, and how anthropogenic influences have altered them.
Invariably, many environmental issues involve a question of magnitude. The process
(environmental monitoring) is aimed at describing environmental conditions, such as air
quality, water quality, noise pollution and hazardous chemical contamination or land cover
changes associated with desertification. The measurement of natural phenomena is important
for any type of environmental monitoring, from the practical day-to-day management of rivers,
biomes, agriculture and weather forecasting, through to longer assessment of climate change
and glacial retreat (Strangeways, 2003). Measurements relating to the natural environment may
be required for metereological, hydrological, oceanographic, ecotoxicological, geological
studies or for any activity that impacts upon the natural environment. Vandecasteele (2004:19)
has this to say about the scope of environmental monitoring and its relevance to environmental
monitoring:
“Environmental monitoring primarily aims through sampling, treatment & analyses or by the
use of direct detection equipment to quantify the levels of polluting substances and ionizing
radiation resulting from human activities and natural sources in the different compartment of
the environment. Its objectives are very practical, often driven by legal obligations and
international commitments. They include:
Identifying and quantifying the current environmental sources of polluting substances
(whether planned or unplanned releases as well as natural sources) in order to assess their
impact on the environment and human health, Verifying the compliance of industrial,
research and medical nuclear activities with regulatory requirements and permit limits stated
by their specific licence, Evaluating the effectiveness of environmental protection
programmes, Ensuring that remediation strategies applied in an environment contaminated
as a result of past operations were performing as designed and, Documenting the existing
polluting conditions prior to the beginning of industrial installations or to allow for the
quantification of contamination impacts in the future.”

In addition, the design of effective environmental policies in areas as diverse as air quality,
climate change, ozone depletion, water quality, land use and environmental health all depend
on sound environmental monitoring and research to set emission limits,
establish safe levels of exposure, evaluate the fate and pathways of pollutants in the ecosystem,
and determine what land needs preservation (Engel-Cox & Hoff, 2005).

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Evaluate the new approach to air quality management is South Africa, by paying special
attention to the relevant legislation, the main objectives of the new laws, the role of
municipalities, air quality measures and emission standards also compare international
best practice:
NEMA (107) of 1998:

-Framework for co-operative government;

SA supreme law of the state S24 states
that: everyone has a right to an - Development must be socially,
environment which is not harmful to their economically and environmentally
health or wellbeing responsible

Summary of
answer

New air quality management approach National

environmental management: Air Quality SA Air Quality authorisation regime
Approach, 2004 (Act no.39 of 2004) heralded a atmospheric pollution prevention act
new era. (APPA) 1965 provides 4 mechanisms to
control air pollution sources.
Benefits:
Disadvantages:
- Decentralization municipality has
executive authority for air quality - No cohesion between different
management; departments;
- Learning from international best practice - No linkage between source and
approach. impacts;
- No assessment of ambient air
Municipalities roles: quality; and
- Failure to consider receiving
-
Have executive authority over air
environment.
pollution control;
- Responsibility for air quality management
now given to local authorities;
- Main objective of AQA is to protect the
environment and human health in a
sustainable development framework.

27 | P a g e
South African Constitution Supreme law of the state S24: Everyone has a constitutional right:
• to an environment not harmful to their health & wellbeing • To have their environment
protected: – For present & future generations – Through reasonable legislative & other
measures that: (i) Prevent pollution and ecological degradation (ii) Promote conservation; and
(iii) Secure ecologically sustainable development (iv) Promote use of natural resources (v)
Promote justifiable economic & social development

NEMA (107) 1998 • Framework for co-operative e governance • Affects all forms of
environmental decision-making (IEM) • Defines legal standing to enforce environmental laws
• Development must be: – socially; – economically; – environmentally responsible • EM must
be integrated and adopt BPEO • Specifies that monitoring and performance assessment must
ensure compliance with approval conditions/authorisations • Specifies that pollution &
degradation must be: – Avoided – Minimised and remedied – Those who pollute & degrade
environment must bear costs of rehabilitation – Duty of Care and remediation of environmental
damage

South African Air Quality Authorisation Regime Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act
(APPA) 1965 4 major mechanisms to control air pollution sources (1) Industrial sources:
offensive emissions – Control on Scheduled Processes by National Government – Permits
issued on BPM-Not formalised (2) Requirements for operators of Scheduled Processes –
Issuance of registration certificates by Chief Officer (3) Contents of Registration Certificates
– Spatial extent of plant relating to certificate – Nature of scheduled process – Type & quantity
of raw material used – Type & quantity of products produced – Mitigation measures
(appliances) to reduce emissions (4) Control measures for emissions from: – vehicles,
domestic fuel burning, dust,

Disadvantages of APPA (1965) • Extreme fragmentation of control • No cohesion between

different departments • Key sources not effectively controlled • Point source-based: not
limiting emissions from diffuse sources • Heavily dependent on command & control measures
• No linkage between source and impacts • No assessment of ambient air quality • No public
participation and access to information APPA LIMITATIONS • Largely focused on point-
source emission control that does not fully address the cumulative impacts of air pollution •
Non-conformity with the following legislation: – Constitution of the Republic of South Africa
Act, 1996 – National Environmental Management Act, 1998 – Promotion of Administrative
Justice Act, 2000 – Promotion of Access to Information Act, 2000 • Failure to consider
receiving environment • Registration certificates not legally robust • Inadequate compliance
and enforcement mechanisms to implement The New Air Quality Management Approach
National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act (AQA) 2004 (1) Shift to receiving
environment (air quality objectives) (2) Baseline air quality characterisation (Identify priority
areas, pollutants, sources) (3) Decentralization (shift responsibilities to provincial & local

28 | P a g e
government within an enabling framework) Municipality has executive authority for Air
Quality Management (4) All point sources must be addressed, not only “scheduled/listed”
(source identification and prioritisation) (5) Learning from “International Best Practices”
(USEPA, UK, EU standards: phased-in (progressive) approach (6) Broaden range of emission
reduction measures (command& control, market incentives & disincentives, voluntary
reductions) (7) Uniform standardisation (enhance similarity in compliance, monitoring, QA,
information management) (8) Public participation & access to information

IMPLICATIONS OF AQA (2004) • Reflects a new approach in air quality management •

Brings the system of air pollution control in line with Constitution • Allocates a tiered approach
(function) btw 3 govern spheres • Provides more effective regulatory regime: – Establishment
of national norms and standards – Regulatory instruments for the control of air pollution –
Compliance and enforcement Dealing with transition from APPA to AQUA • Transitional
arrangements (Time frame ~5 years) • 11 September 2009: APPA repealed • What happens
then? • “Grandfather clauses”: s60 – retains everything done in terms of APPA • How? • APPA
Registration Certificates • Provisional Registration Certificate – remains valid for 2 or 4 years
• Certificate are regarded as Atmospheric Emission License and the provisions of AQA applies
to that license

Roles of municipalities In accordance with the Constitution, municipalities have executive

authority over air pollution control. The new National Environmental Management: Air
Quality Act of 2004 shifted the focus away from the centralization of air pollution governance
to the decentralization of power, placing the responsibility for air quality management on the
shoulders of local authorities. This responsibility includes the characterization of baseline air
quality, the management and operation of ambient monitoring networks, the licensing of listed
activities, and the development of emission reduction strategies. To fulfill these
responsibilities, local authorities will be required to develop air quality management plans
(AQMPs) as part of their integrated implementation plans. The main objective of the Air
Quality Act (AQA) is the protection of the environment and human health, in a sustainable
(economic, social and ecological) development framework, through reasonable measures of air
pollution control. Several local authorities have proactively developed air quality management
plans, these includes: City of Johannesburg, Ekurhuleni, Tshwane and etc. Students must give
examples All though South Africa does not have a national air quality problem, a number of
air pollution ‘hot spot’ exist around the country where severe air quality problems occur. The
AQA contains specific provisions to deal with those problem areas the so called priority areas
for example Witbank, Vaal Triangle, Durban South, Secunda, Richards bay and Table View

Air quality guidelines and standards (International best Practice

The following tables provide a comparison of a number of International Air Quality Standards
and Guidelines for some common air pollutants. South Africa has no promulgated ambient air

29 | P a g e
quality standards but the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) has a
comprehensive set of guidelines as reported in the tables. For all pollutants not mentioned in
the tables below, use is made of the threshold limit values (TLV's) as published by the
American Conference of Industrial and Governmental hygienists. The guideline is taken as
1/50th of the TLV for ordinary pollutants and 1/100th of the TLV for carcinogenic or suspected
carcinogens. In South Africa nobody is allowed to carry on a sheduled process in or on any
premises unless they hold a current registration certificate authorising them to carry on that
process on those premises. The
registration certificate indicates the allowable emissions, concentrations, stack heights etc and
these become standards that the operator must comply with.
Assignment: 2
Highlight clearly how the new legislative approach to air quality management has
advanced practice in the field:
According to Naicker et al. (2012) the Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act (APPA) was an
inadequate legislative measure to deal with air pollution. The new act tries to address all the
miss falls within the old act. The AQA has introduced AQM as the control strategy. The new
approach tries to alleviate air pollution hotspots by allocating more responsibility to local
authorities. The new legislation gives a clear indication of the desired level of environmental
quality to be achieved. The new legislation brought with it standards which aid in pollution
control. The new legislation brought with it AQMP this brought with it a provision for
monitoring. The new legislation tries to involve all levels of government, this was lacking
within the old legislation.

Provide a comprehensive definition of biodiversity and ecosystem services:

To understand the services provided by both biodiversity and ecosystems it is important to give
a definition of each. Biodiversity is defined as the variety of species, this may be both floral
and faunal within an ecosystem (Goudie 2006: 306). An ecosystem is a biological community
of interacting organisms as well as their physical environments (Dictionary.com 2017).
Biodiversity is necessary in the attainment ok key functions within the ecosystem, biodiversity
ultimately enhances ecosystem services (FAO 2017). Ecosystem services as defined by the
FAO (2017) may be:

➢ Supporting (e.g. soil formation);

➢ Provisioning (e.g. creating fresh water);
➢ Regulating (e.g. climate regulation); and
➢ Cultural (e.g. spiritual and religious, recreation and ecotourism).

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The functions provided by both the ecosystem and biodiversity are vitally important. These
services support life on earth and we should preserve these services in alignment with
sustainable development.

Explain how each of the factors in HIPPO contributes to the loss of biodiversity in
Southern Africa:

- Habitat destruction greatest threat to

HIPPO (Habitat destruction, Invasive
species;
species, Pollution, human population and
- Invasives outcompete native plants and
over-exploitation are the biggest threats
animals;
to biodiversity
- Pollution is waste: what is waste? Waste
is an undesirable superfluous bi-product
or material from any process or activity
which has been discarded, stored or
accumulated for the purpose of
Summary of answer discharging or processing.
- What are the effects of population
increase e.g. increased urbanisation,
agricultural lands, mines, water usage
need for resources;
- Overexploitation comes with population
increases.
- Southern Africa population
+- 64 million;
- Invasive species e.g. water hyacinth
introduced in 1908;
- Air pollution SA gets 70% energy from
coal;
- Most overexploited resource is fisheries
200miliion africans rely on fisheries for
food.

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Habitat destruction, Invasive species, Pollution, human Population and Overexploitation
(HIPPO) are the biggest threats to biodiversity. This patent provides a powerful and effective
tool which can be used in the preservation of biodiversity (Torrance 2010:1). Habitat
destruction is the greatest threat to species, humans have destroyed and decimated habitats for
both commercial and private use. Humans are also one of the main reasons for the introduction
of invasive species in Southern Africa. Invasive species compete with native species for food
and light and overpower native species due to a lack of natural predators. Pollution is yet
another pressing issue in the fight against biodiversity loss. Pollution from increased
populations as well as fossil fuels may cause global warming and may block water ways to
name but a few. As mentioned earlier the increase in human population has resulted in
increased pollution this is not the only impact however. As human populations increase so does
our need for resources which causes us to exploit the environment. Overexploitation occurs
when the environment is given insufficient time to replenish resources. How do all these factors
relate to Southern Africa?

Southern Africa’s population has recently increased to a staggering 63,741,640 people

(worldometers sa). This increase in population has come with increased habitat destruction. As
mentioned earlier an increase in population forces humans to become more desperate and this
creates a chain reaction of negative consequences. Biodiversity is threatened by human induced
factors people in Southern Africa rely heavily on their livestock for food. Overgrazing is a
major threat to biodiversity and causes habitat destruction. Light grazing has been known to
increase vigour of some plants, however overgrazing may lead to shrub dominance and this
can have unforeseen negativities (Goudie 2006:30-31). The weak ability of regional
governments to regulate environmental impacts increases the risk of biodiversity loss (Biggs,
Van Vuuren, Bakkenes and Alkemade 2008: 297). Invasive species are yet another threat to
biodiversity in Southern Africa.

The introduction of invasive species within Southern Africa poses a multitude of threats
towards biodiversity. Some invasive species such as water hyacinth compete with native
aquatic plants for food and light. Water hyacinth was introduced to Southern Africa in 1908
and since then has rapidly expanded and now threatens macroinvertebrate diversity (Coetzee,
Jones and Hill 2014: 1320). Water hyacinth is only one invasive species amongst many which
pose a serious risk to biodiversity. Other invasive species like black bass and small mouth bass
also pose a serious threat to biodiversity in Southern Africa. With no native predators invasive
species like the ones mentioned above are able to expand without control. These are only a few

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invasive species which threaten biodiversity. Another threat which is ever increasing is that of
pollution.

Air pollution is a major threat to the biodiversity of Southern Africa. Increased use of motor
vehicles has created areas with high concentrations of CO2 and NOx concentrations. The main
sources of air pollution within Southern Africa are from industries (e.g. power stations,
smelters, cement factories and chemical factories) (SADC 2012). South Africa is the highest
consumer of fossil fuels in Southern Africa. ESKOM is the highest producer of emissions
within South Africa producing 224, 70 million tonnes of emissions per year (Reuters 2017).
But air pollution is not the only threat to biodiversity. Chemical pollutants are also a major
threat and may reduce biodiversity within soils and water ways. The inappropriate disposal of
plastic bottles is another cause for concern and may trap animals and block water ways. All
these factors culminate together to produce a real and looming threat for biodiversity. As
populations increase so too does overexploitation of the environment.

The most overexploited resources are fisheries. There are more than 200 million Africans who
rely on fish for food (Bene and Heck 2005:8). Unsustainable fishing practices like trolling with
nets causes a sharp decrease in fish numbers and variety ultimately causing a loss in
biodiversity. It is not only animals which are overexploited, environments are also exploited.
As our populations increase so does our hunger for non-renewable resources. Overexploitation
of resources within Southern Africa has become an incessant problem. Mines overexploit the
land causing a loss in biodiversity. Soil may also be exploited, unsustainable farming practices
strip soils of their valuable resources and this can lead to desertification. It is estimated that
73% of Africa’s agricultural drylands are degraded (DEA 2010). These are just a hand full of
examples of overexploitation in Southern Africa. But what impacts does this have on
ecosystem services?

An ecosystem consists of the interactions between biological communities. A loss in

biodiversity affects the ability of an ecosystem to provide services efficiently. In an ecosystem
every organism plays an integral role and a loss of one species affects another. These losses
affect the workings of an ecosystem ultimately leading to a collapse of services.

In conclusion we as humans need to try and curb biodiversity loss by putting achievable
measures in place. Habitat destruction can be offset by putting mitigation measures in place as
well as by educating people. Education has also been known to reduce birth rates, as it creates
job opportunities leaving little time to look after children. Legislation and laws can be used to

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reduce pollution. Standards should be put in place to control emissions. Carbon taxes may also
be used to make businesses and companies aware of the impact which they have on the
environment. People can also recycle more of their waste reducing the need for landfills. People
need to also be made aware of the different kinds of invasive species which exist within their
areas. People should avoid bringing invasive species into their countries and should make a
conscious effort to remove any invasive species. To curb overexploitation CITES can be used
for the overexploitation of species. It is important to ultimately perform sustainable
development. People from all around the world need to be made aware of the importance of
biodiversity and should try their best to conserve it.

Assignment:3 same as past papers

Assignment: 4

Exercise 1: “Measure the physical parameters of the three samples provided

and write the measurements in the table provided” (original can be found in
(Appendix 2) ).
Table 1: measurements for tap water, pond water and borehole water.
pH DO EC Temp TDS
Sample 1- 7.18 3.22 ppm 197 µS/cm 21.84˚C 98 tds ppm
tap water
Sample 2- 7.3 3.71 ppm 267 µS/cm 21.64˚C 133 tds ppm
pond water
Sample 3- 5.47 1.61 ppm 217 µS/cm 21.78˚C 109 tds ppm
borehole

Questions:
a) In which body of water- Lakes or oceans- would organisms be more threatened by acid
rain?

Organism would be more threatened by acid rain in lakes as it is a smaller body of water
and may act as a sink for acid rain to collect not allowing it to be fully dispersed and
neutralised.

b) Would you expect the DO in a pond to be less than in a rapidly moving stream?

Moving streams will contain more dissolved oxygen than the pond, this may be as a
result of there being more bacteria in the pond to consume the oxygen.

c) How would turbidity affect primary productivity of a pond?

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 Turbidity can affect the clarity of water, the increase in turbidity will affect the amount
of light penetrating the waters surface, this will affect the ability of organisms to
perform photosynthesis within the pond.

d) Name 6 causes of noise pollution and give an example of each.

Noise pollution may occur from human activities such as:

- Mining: blasting and mining vehicles may cause noise pollution;
- Motor vehicles: cars may increase noise pollution especially if they have been
modified;
- Playing music loudly: loud speakers and playing music late at night are a source of
noise pollution;
- Airports: aeroplanes may increase noise pollution;
- Trains: trains blowing their hooters and moving on tracks may be a source of noise
pollution; and
- Construction: construction activities like using heavy machinery can increase noise
pollution.
e) Explain the effects of noise pollution on wildlife.

Noise pollution may increase the risk of death by interrupting animal’s abilities to use
sound as a communication method. It may also affect breeding and hunting patterns of
animals. Noise may lead endangered species on a path of extinction.

Exercise 2: “Measure the following parameters of the three samples provided

and write the measurements in the table provided”. (Original can be found in
(Appendix 2) ).
Table 2:
Test Result
Sulfate test Over range (result was out of the machineries
specified range)
Nitrate test 15.3 mg/L
Chlorine test .30 mg/L
Hardness test 59 mg/L (Ca)

Questions:
a) What is eutrophication and why does it occur?

Eutrophication is when there is excess nutrients in a water body and can cause algal
blooms.

b) Why is it necessary to monitor water sources continuously?

To ensure that they are free of pollution and to maintain specific standards.

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Biological Analysis of water samples:
Exercise 2: “View agar plates with growth” (original can be found in
(Appendix 2)).
a) Explain why samples are plated and analysed.

Samples are plated to isolate colonies and analyse them.

b) What is a bacterial colony and describe the colonies on the plate.

A bacterial colony is a mass of micro-organisms which originate form a mother cell,

all bacteria are clones. The colonies on the plates were seen as small dots and on one
of the plates were beginning to overlap.

c) What is the purpose of placing the spreader in Ethanol.

By placing the spreader in Ethanol it is disinfected or sterilised so as to not
contaminate samples during preparation.

Exercise 3: “View microscope slides with gram stained bacteria” (see (Appendix 2)
for original.

a) What colour did the bacteria stain on each of the slides and what shapes do you
observe?

Gram negative: stained pink and the shapes observed were elongated and oval
(rod).
Gram positive: stained blue or violet and was spherical.

b) Which bacteria is Gram negative or Gram positive and explain why?

Gram negative is pink when stained with gram stain, this pink colour shows that
the bacteria has lost the primary stain when it was washed with the decolorizer
and has retained the colour of the secondary stain. Gram positive when stained
with gram stain will stain purple which means the bacteria has retained the colour
of the primary stain.

c) Name the reagents used for staining and state the purpose of each.
Table 1:
Reagent use Purpose
Mordant Iodine Increases the interaction
between the bacterial
cells and the stains so
that the stain can bind
more tightly with the
cells.

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 Primary stain Crystal violet Stain bacteria
Decolorizer Ethanol Helps remove the stain.
Aids in dehydrating the
peptidoglycan layer
shrinking and tightening
it. Gram positive bacteria
will retain the purple
stain and gram negative
bacteria will be washed
clean of crystal violet
iodine complex and thus
become colourless.
Counterstain safranin The safranin will stain
the colourless gram
negative bacteria pink
but does not have any
effect on the darker
purple coloured gram
positive bacteria.

Exercise 4: “view slides of the organisms displayed on microscope” (original

can be found in (Appendix 2)).
Explain what the presence or absence of these organisms in water mean.
The presence of organisms in water can indicate whether water is polluted or not.
- Amoebae: can show that water is polluted;
- Euglena: presence indicates that water is polluted; and
- Diatoms: can be used as an indicator of various levels and types of pollution in
water such as pH, nutrients, salinity and organic pollution.

Nutrient Analysis of soil samples:

Exercise 1: “Determine the pH of the soil sample provided and write down the results in
the table below” (Can be found in (Appendix 2)).
Table 1:
Sample pH Colour Reaction
Soil 4.5 Light green Very strongly acidic

Exercise 2: “Determine the available Nitrogen in the soil sample provided and write down
the results in the table below” (See (Appendix 2) for original).
Table 2:
Sample pH Reaction

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 Soil L2 50-59 kg/Acre

Exercise 3: “Determine the available phosphorous in soil sample provided and write down
the results in the table below” (see (Appendix 2) for original).
Table 3:
Sample Colour Reaction
Soil H2 715 kg/Acre

Exercise 4: “Determine the available Potassium in the soil sample provided and write down
the results in the table below” (see (Appendix 2) for original).
Table 4:
Sample Colour Reaction
Soil Cloudy white M2 81-120kg/Acre
Leco GC
Gas Chromatography (GC) is used in analytical chemistry to separate and analyse compounds
without decomposing them. GC only deals with organic matter and can be used for both
qualitative and quantitative analysis. GC makes use of a carrier gas such as nitrogen or helium.
GC can be used in food analysis, environmental analysis and forensic analysis to name but a
few. Sample preparation is extremely important in GC.
Samples prepared for CC should have no water residue or droplets on them and should be dried
with the appropriate salt which doesn’t dissolve the solvent. After the samples have been
prepared it will be important to do a system check on the GC machine, this is done to make
sure that there are no leaks. It is important to know which column you are going to use as well
as its chemistry. There is a mobile and a stationary phase in GC. The machine has a detector
which records each compound or component as it exits the machine. Results from GC can be
read on a computer and compared to an online library. It is important to note that in each
instance more than one sample must be prepared.
GC is important as it can tell you what compounds are present in a sample and has an array of
applications. Sample preparation is important in GC as improper sample preparation may
damage the machine.

Leco CN analyser: Argon assisted

The Leco CN analyser is used to detect carbon and nitrogen in a sample. The machine can be
used to see carbon and nitrogen content of food products, feed and materials such as soil.
Sample preparation is also important when using the Leco CN analyser.
Samples should be finely ground and placed in a container labelled with a code (e.g. S36). This
is done so as to protect one’s own scientific work. It is also important to ensure that the sample
is homogenous. The sample should then be placed in a weighing boat by the lab technician
and spread evenly. To ensure that the machine is working properly a reference material can be
used with known carbon and nitrogen concentrations for quality control purposes. After this is
done, the sample should be weighed and then the weight should be recorded on a computer.

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The sample must then be placed in the location specified by the computer. The sample will
then be picked up by the machine and placed in a furnace which is +/- 1300 degree Celsius. It
is important to also have a duplicate sample and the difference between the samples carbon and
nitrogen concentrations should not be more than 5%. An average of the carbon and nitrogen
concentrations should be reported on.
The Leco CN analyser is useful as it tells scientists what the concentrations of carbon and
nitrogen are in a sample. This type of information is useful as it can aid in soil analysis and in
determining whether or not there are nutrient deficiencies in soil samples or other organic
samples.

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