actuators

Article
Ramp Start and Speed Control of Self-Driving Commercial
Vehicles under Ramp and Vehicle Load Uncertainty
Dequan Zeng 1,2,3,4 , Huafu Fang 1,2,3 , Yinquan Yu 1,2,3, *, Yiming Hu 1,2,3 , Peizhi Zhang 4 and Wei Luo 1,2,3

1 School of Mechatronics and Vehicle Engineering, East China Jiaotong University, Nanchang 330013, China;
3340@ecjtu.edu.cn (D.Z.); 2022038080200029@ecjtu.edu.cn (H.F.); 3314@ecjtu.edu.cn (Y.H.);
2022038085500084@ecjtu.edu.cn (W.L.)
2 Institute of Intelligent Manufacturing and Precision Machining, East China Jiaotong University,
Nanchang 330013, China
3 Postdoctoral Research Center of Transportation Engineering, East China Jiaotong University,
Nanchang 330013, China
4 School of Automotive Studies, Tongji University, Shanghai 201804, China; zhangpeizhi@tongji.edu.cn
* Correspondence: yu_yinquan@ecjtu.edu.cn

Abstract: In order to improve the performance of self-driving commercial vehicles for half-hill
starting, a ramp control strategy based on the back-slip speed corresponding to the parking moment
is proposed. Firstly, the longitudinal dynamics model of the vehicle is established, the force of the
vehicle on the ramp is analyzed, and the rear slip speed of the vehicle is matched with the parking
moment, and finally the target speed is tracked based on the sliding-mode controller, and in order to
validate the validity of the method, two comparative algorithms of the pure PI controller and the
proportional gain controller based on the back-sliding speed corresponding to the resting moment
are designed for comparative experiments, and the data results show that the control strategy based
on the resting moment corresponding to the backsliding speed of the sliding mode ramp start control
strategy can stably complete the ramp start under different weights and different slopes, and greatly
reduce the backsliding distance of the vehicle.

Keywords: hill start; residual torque; sliding mode control; rear slip distance
Citation: Zeng, D.; Fang, H.; Yu, Y.;
Hu, Y.; Zhang, P.; Luo, W. Ramp Start
and Speed Control of Self-Driving
Commercial Vehicles under Ramp and
1. Introduction
Vehicle Load Uncertainty. Actuators
2024, 13, 201. https://doi.org/
Among the many working conditions of vehicle driving, hill start belongs to one of
10.3390/act13060201 the working conditions with higher requirements on driver’s maneuvering [1–3], especially
for commercial vehicles, with larger loads, it requires that the driver have superior driving
Academic Editors: Md Abdus
skills in order to make the vehicle start smoothly on the ramp [4,5]. If the driver presses
Samad Kamal and Masakazu Mukai
the gas pedal hard during hill start, it may lead to a dangerous situation of stalling, and
Received: 23 April 2024 if the gas pedal and brake pedal are not well coordinated during hill start, it may lead to
Revised: 16 May 2024 a dangerous situation of vehicle rear skidding [6]. Due to the high requirements of the hill
Accepted: 22 May 2024 start algorithm, the vehicle drive response is required to be faster during hill start, while
Published: 24 May 2024 the distributed drive electric vehicle is installed near the drive wheels due to the electric
motor, which makes the vehicle chassis structure more compact and the power transmission
efficiency high, and the electric motor directly controls the driving and braking of each
wheel with flexible torque distribution and rapid response, which makes it easier to satisfy
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
the quickness of the vehicle control, and thus better realizes the hill assist function [7–10].
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
In order to solve the safety problem of hill starting, researchers and developers have
This article is an open access article
conducted in-depth studies in this field and developed different hill assist systems. Hill
distributed under the terms and
assist is a very practical function, and the main principle is that when starting on a hill,
conditions of the Creative Commons
the driver still has braking force within 3 s after releasing the brake, so that the driver
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
has enough time to switch from the brake pedal to the gas pedal to complete the hill
4.0/).
start [11–14]. With only minimal changes to the mechatronic system, the mechanical system

Actuators 2024, 13, 201. https://doi.org/10.3390/act13060201 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/actuators

 brake system structure to maintain a certain amount of oil pressure in the brak
the moment when the driver releases the brake pedal. Peng [17] et al. propo
layer, large-scale adaptive control framework for commercial vehicles equipp
Actuators 2024, 13, 201 electronic parking brake, using online estimation of the vehicle mass 2 of 17 using
force, braking force, road gradient, and longitudinal acceleration. The vehicle
timated, and the feasibility and robustness of the two-layer mass-adaptive hill
consists of a gearbox-integrated hill-holding system, which can realize the hill-holding and
assist framework are further verified in vehicle experiments. Zhao [18] et al.
automatic parking brake functions by purely mechanical or mechatronic means [15]. For
rampcommercial
heavy assist control method
vehicles, Song [16]thatet al. cooperatively
realized the hill-holdcontrols
functionthe clutch the
by changing and hydr
control
brake unitstructure
system and ensures
to maintaintheastability
certain amount and ofrobustness
oil pressure of thebrake
in the automatic
system athill-star
the moment when the driver releases the brake pedal. Peng
by using the H infinity control theory. However, the above method for comm [17] et al. proposed a two-layer,
large-scale adaptive control framework for commercial vehicles equipped with an electronic
cles requires
parking precise
brake, using onlinecoordinated
estimation of the control
vehicle of
massdriving
using the and braking
tractive forces, which
force, braking
greater
force, roadwear on the
gradient, braking system
and longitudinal during
acceleration. Thestartup.
vehicle mass is estimated, and the
feasibility and robustness of the two-layer
In order to solve the problem of large wear mass-adaptive hill-climb
and tearstart assist
on the framework
braking syste
are further verified in vehicle experiments. Zhao [18] et al. proposed a ramp assist control
mercial vehicle ramp start, and considering that the sliding mode control
method that cooperatively controls the clutch and hydraulic brake control unit and ensures
vantages
the stabilityof andfast response,
robustness of thenoautomatic
need forhill-start
onlinealgorithm
identification
by using ofthetheHsystem,
infinity and i
to parameter changes and perturbations, etc., this paper proposesprecise
control theory. However, the above method for commercial vehicles requires a ramp ass
coordinated
a sliding mode ramp start control method based on the rear skidding the
control of driving and braking forces, which will cause greater wear on speed cor
braking system during startup.
to theIn parking
order to solve torque, by analyzing
the problem of largethe change
wear and tear rule
on ofthethe parking
braking systemtorque
for in d
dients andvehicle
commercial differentrampweights,
start, and the parkingthat
considering torque based
the sliding modeon the change
control has the of the re
advantages of fast response, no need for online identification of
speed is derived, and finally, the vehicle is controlled to follow the target spthe system, and insensitivity
to parameter changes and perturbations, etc., this paper proposes a ramp assist function,
sliding mode variable structure controller. The proposed method is compar
a sliding mode ramp start control method based on the rear skidding speed corresponding
pure
to the PI controller
parking torque, and the proportional
by analyzing the change rule gainoframp start control
the parking torque inmethod
different based
speed corresponding
gradients and different weights,to the standstill
the parking torque moment
based on by using ofMATLAB
the change and TruckS
the rear skidding
speed is derived, and finally, the vehicle is controlled to follow
ulation verification, which takes into account the evaluation indexes such as t the target speed using
a sliding mode variable structure controller. The proposed method is compared with the
of the
pure PI rear slip, and
controller the the
riseproportional
time of the gainvehicle following
ramp start the speed,
control method basedand the slip ra
on rear
fiesspeed
slip the validity
correspondingof the proposed
to the methodbyin
standstill moment theMATLAB
using case ofand different
TruckSim weights
for an
simulation verification, which takes into account the evaluation
slopes, and it can stably and accurately carry out the ramp start and speed con indexes such as the distance
of the rear slip, the rise time of the vehicle following the speed, and the slip rate and verifies
the validity of the proposed method in the case of different weights and different slopes,
2. Vehicle
and Model
it can stably and accurately carry out the ramp start and speed control.
As this paper involves the longitudinal speed control of the vehicle, it is n
2. Vehicle Model
establish the longitudinal dynamics model of the vehicle. When the vehicle ar
As this paper involves the longitudinal speed control of the vehicle, it is necessary
stationary
to state
establish the to maintain
longitudinal the model
dynamics state of
ofthe
motion,
vehicle. there
When must be an
the vehicle external fo
arrives
vehicle traveling process, the driving force and a variety of resistances
from a stationary state to maintain the state of motion, there must be an external force, by betw
the vehicle traveling process, the driving force and a variety of resistances between the
mation of the vehicle’s driving equations [19]. The vehicle force situation is sh
formation of the vehicle’s driving equations [19]. The vehicle force situation is shown in
ure 1.1.
Figure

Figure1. 1.
Figure Vehicle
Vehicle rampramp force conditions.
force conditions.
Actuators 2024, 13, 201 3 of 17

As the vehicle is traveling on a ramp:

Ft = Ff + Fw + Fj + Fi




 Ff = mg f cos

 θ

CD Av2
Fw = 21.15 (1)

 F = δ m dv


 j m dt


Fi = mg sin θ

where Ft for the driving force; Ff for the rolling resistance; Fw for the air resistance; Fj for the
acceleration resistance; Fi for the slope resistance; g for the gravity coefficient; f for the rolling
resistance coefficient; CD for the air resistance coefficient; A for the windward area of the
vehicle; δm for the vehicle rotating mass conversion coefficient; θ for the slope of the road.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Ramp Start Process Analysis
The ramp start process in the starting process is slow and visible as a quasi-static
process. In order to simplify the problem study, the vehicle will be subjected to air resistance,
which is ignored; the vehicle is subjected to the force for the driving force, gravity, as shown
in Figure 1. When the vehicle starts on the ramp, the gravity component is converted into
ramp resistance, so that the vehicle has a tendency to skid back along the ramp [20]. The
traditional driver’s operation will be conducted by stepping on the brakes and, at the same
time, stepping on the gas pedal. The driving force is greater than the braking and braking
forces. Increase the driving force so that the driving force is greater than the ramp resistance
and braking force, and when the driving force is at the critical point of breaking through
greater than the ramp resistance and braking force, the vehicle will shake violently, and
the driver releases the brake pedal, and the vehicle accelerates uphill to complete the ramp
start. The self-driving car cannot accurately feel the shaking of the vehicle and measure the
weight of the vehicle and cannot have strong self-regulation ability, so we propose a ramp
start control method based on the parking moment corresponding to the backward glide
speed, the vehicle matching the parking moment during the ramp start, and the use of the
sliding mode controller to complete the tracking of the specific speed.

3.2. Matching of Hill-Starting Moments during Hill Starts

In order to get the standing slope moment of the vehicle on the ramp, the force
analysis of the vehicle ramp starting conditions, which affects the vehicle rear skidding
larger factors for the ramp resistance, and the main factors affecting the ramp resistance are
the vehicle load and road gradient, thus, the standing slope moment will be established
with the relationship between the vehicle load and road gradient, and at the same time, the
establishment of the road gradient-vehicle load-standing slope moment three-dimensional
diagram, which indicates that in the different road gradient, different
Actuators 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of vehicle
17 loads, the
change rule of the standing slope moment, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Standing moment as a function of load and gradient.

Figure 2. Standing moment as a function of load and gradient.
As can be seen from the above figure, with the increase in road gradient and vehicle
load, the parking moment also increases, the parking moment and these two variables are
linearly related, so consider the 0.5 s within the vehicle rear skidding speed and the park-
ing moment to match, through the vehicle itself on the ramp 0.5 s within the rear skidding
speed and the parking moment to establish a one-to-one correspondence between the re-
lationship, to obtain a vehicle ramp parking torque, the torque–speed relationship. The
 load, the parking moment also increases, the parking moment and t
linearly related, so consider the 0.5 s within the vehicle rear skiddin
Figure 2. Standing
ing moment tomoment
match,asthrough
a functionthe
of load and gradient.
vehicle itself on the ramp 0.5 s wi
Actuators 2024, 13, 201 4 of 17
speed and the parking moment to establish a one-to-one correspon
As can be seen from the above figure, with the increase in road gradient a
lationship,
load, the parkingto obtain
momentaalso vehicle ramp
increases, theparking torque, and
parking moment thethese
torque–sptwo va
As can be seen from the above figure, with the increase in road gradient and vehicle
torque–velocity
linearly
load, the related,
relationship
so consider
parking moment
is shown
the 0.5 the
also increases, s within in
parkingthe
Figure
vehicle
moment
3.
andrear
theseskidding speed and
two variables
ing moment
are linearly to match,
related, through
so consider the 0.5the vehicle
s within the itself
vehicleon the
rear ramp 0.5
skidding s within
speed and the the rea
parking moment to match, through the vehicle itself on the
speed and the parking moment to establish a one-to-one correspondenceramp 0.5 s within the rear betw
skidding speed and the parking moment to establish a one-to-one correspondence between
lationship, to obtain a vehicle ramp parking torque, the torque–speed relatio
the relationship, to obtain a vehicle ramp parking torque, the torque–speed relationship.
torque–velocity
The torque–velocityrelationship is shown
relationship is shown in Figure
in Figure 3. 3.

Figure 3. Relationship between standing moment and backward slipping s

Figure 3.3.Relationship
Figure between standing moment and backward slipping speed. slipping speed.
SetRelationship between
the simulation standing
parameters momentforand backward
matching the standing mom
slipSetspeed as (7000
the simulation kg, 7°),
parameters (6455 kg,
for matching 7°), (5000
the standing moment kg,based
10°), (4700
on the rear kg, 1
Set the
slip speed simulation
as (7000 parameters
kg, 7◦ ), (6455 forkg,
kg, 7◦ ), (5000 matching
10◦ ), (4700the
kg, standing moment
10◦ ), and (4455 kg, 5◦ ),based o
andthe
slip
and the
speed simulation
as (7000
simulation kg,areresults
results 7°), inare
(6455
shown kg,shown
Figure 7°),
4. (5000in Figure
kg, 10°),4.(4700 kg, 10°), and (44
and the simulation results are shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Checking the robustness of the parking torque.

Figure 4. Checking the robustness of the parking torque.
Figure 4. Checking the robustness of the parking torque.
From the above figure, it can be seen that the use of rear slip speed matching of the
parking moment can be adapted to different weights, different gradients of the vehicle
parking slope, and the above method of matching based on the rear slip speed after 0.5 s
and the rapidity of the vehicle to carry out the ramp start, so the simulation effect of the rear
slip speed—parking moment curves of 0.1 s and 0.5 s are compared, as shown in Figure 5.
 parking slope, and the above method of matching based on the rear slip sp
and the rapidity of the vehicle to carry out the ramp start, so the simulatio
rear slip speed—parking moment curves of 0.1 s and 0.5 s are compared
Actuators 2024, 13, 201 5 of 17
Figure 5.

Comparison
Figure 5. 5.
Figure of slip of
Comparison distances after different
slip distances sampling
after times.sampling times.
different
From the Figure 5, it can be seen that the longer the rear slip speed counting time,
From
the larger the slip
its rear Figure 5, itincan
distance, betoseen
order obtainthat theramp
a better longer the effect,
starting rear slip speed coun
this paper
adopts the rear slip speed counting time of 0.1 s, when the vehicle 0.1
larger its rear slip distance, in order to obtain a better ramp starting effe s after the acquisition
of the speed, give the vehicle braking pressure to bring the vehicle to a standstill, and
adopts the rear
then according slip
to the 0.1speed counting
s acquisition of thetime of 0.1
rear slip speed s, to
when
matchthe thevehicle 0.1 s after t
ramp parking
of the speed,
moment, withdraw give
thethe vehicle
braking braking
pressure, give thepressure to bring
vehicle to apply the vehicle
the parking moment, toata stand
this time, the vehicle’s ramp parking moment is exactly equal to the
according to the 0.1 s acquisition of the rear slip speed to match the ramp par sum of the vehicle’s
ramp resistance and rolling resistance, and the vehicle is at a standstill.
withdraw the braking pressure, give the vehicle to apply the parking momen
3.3. Sliding
the Mode ramp
vehicle’s Variable parking
Structure Controller
moment is exactly equal to the sum of the vehi
sistance and rolling resistance, andthethe
There are three main parts to designing sliding modeis
vehicle variable structure controller:
at a standstill.
the simplification of the dynamic part of the vehicle, the determination of the sliding mode
surface, and the derivation of the sliding mode variable structure control law.
3.3. Sliding
The power Mode
part ofVariable Structure
the vehicle Controller
is driven by a distributed motor, and the motor torque
is related to the rotational speed, as can be seen from the previous section, the ramp start
There are three main parts to designing the sliding mode variable stru
is a quasi-static process, the motor rotational speed is approximated to be zero, and the
ler:
motor the
cansimplification
output the maximum of the dynamic
torque, partofof
and the mass thethe vehicle,
vehicle the
does not determination
change in the
mode surface,
transportation andfrom
process thethe
derivation
origin to theof the sliding
destination, mode
and the variable
loading structure
and unloading of con
the goods only in the origin or the destination, which results in a change in the mass of the
The power part of the vehicle is driven by a distributed motor, and the
loaded goods, i.e., within a certain time span, the mass of the vehicle and the slope of the
is related
roadway cantobethe rotational
regarded speed,
as constant, asrolling
so the can be seen from
resistance and ramptheresistance
previous section, t
of the
is a quasi-static process, the motor rotational speed is approximated to be
vehicle are fixed, i.e., the longitudinal dynamics equation of the vehicle is Equation (2):
motor can output the Fmaximum torque, and the . mass of the vehicle does
t − ( Ff + Fw + Fi ) = Fj = mV (2)
the transportation process from the origin to the destination, and the loadin
ing ofBased
theon the above
goods onlyconditions,
in the origin air resistance is neglected and
or the destination, rolling
which resistance
results in a chan
and ramp resistance are fixed values, i.e., the above equation can be transformed into
of the loaded
Equation (3): goods, i.e., within a certain time span, the mass of the vehicle
.
of the roadway can be regarded T − r ( Ff as
+ Fconstant,
i ) = rmV
so the rolling resistance (3)and ra
of theTvehicle
where aretorque
is the motor fixed,andi.e.,
r is the longitudinal
the wheel dynamics
radius, i.e., the equation
motor torque of the vehic
can be reduced
(2):
to a linear function of the speed derivative as in Equation (4).

F − (. F + F + F ) = F = mV
T =t hV f w i j (4)

Based on the above conditions, air resistance is neglected and rolling r

ramp resistance are fixed values, i.e., the above equation can be transformed
(3):
T − r ( F + F ) = rmV f i
 where T is the motor torque and r is the wheel radius, i.e., the motor torque can be reduced
to a linear function of the speed derivative as in Equation (4).
T = hV (4)
Actuators 2024, 13, 201
In order to make the vehicle speed follow the ideal value, the switching 6function
of 17 is
designed as in Equation (5):
s =the
In order to make the vehicle speed follow Vd −ideal
Vx value, the switching function is
(5)
designed as in Equation (5):
Derivation of the switching function
s = Vdgives:
− Vx (5)
 
s = Vd − V x
Derivation of the switching function gives: (6)
. . .
The convergence law for designing
s = Vthe sliding mode variable structure controller
d − Vx (6) is:
s = −ε sgn(s) − ks (7)
The convergence law for designing the sliding mode variable structure controller is:
where ε < 0, k < 0. .
s = −εsgn(s) − ks (7)
1 2
whereDefine < 0.Lyapunov function as V = 2 s . Using the exponential convergence law
ε < 0, kthe
Define
above the Lyapunov function as V = 21 s2 . Using the exponential convergence law
yields:
above yields:
. . V = s  s = s ( −ε sgn( s ) − ks ) = − s ε − ks 2 ≤ 0
V = s·s = s·(−εsgn(s) − ks) = −|s|ε − ks2 ≤ 0 (8) (8)
Can
Canbe
beobtained
obtainedfrom Equation
from (8):(8):
Equation

V ≤ 0V ≤ 0
.
(9) (9)

Therefore,the
Therefore, the system
system cancan
be be stabilized
stabilized in end,
in the the end,
and and the control
the control law
law can becan be obtained
obtained
by substituting
by substituting(4)(4)into
into Equation
Equation (6) (6)
andand associating
associating (7): (7):
T .= h(V + ε sgn( s) + ks)
d (10)
T = h(V d + εsgn (s) + ks) (10)
whereg,g,k,k,and
where andε εare
are sliding
sliding mode
mode control
control parameters.
parameters.

3.4. Sliding
3.4. SlidingMode
ModeControl
Control Based
Based on on Rear
Rear SlipSlip Speed
Speed Matching
Matching the Standing
the Standing Hill Moment
Hill Moment
Using
Usingthe
thesliding
sliding mode
modespeed controller
speed fromfrom
controller Section 3.3, as
Section shown
3.3, in (10),inthe
as shown vehicle
(10), the vehicle
control
controlprocess
processisisasas
shown in Figure
shown 6. 6.
in Figure

Figure6.6.Vehicle
Figure Vehiclecontrol
control process.
process.

The
Thesliding
slidingmode
mode ramp
ramp start control
start method
control methodbased on the
based onbackward skidding
the backward speed speed
skidding
corresponding to the parking moment is shown in the figure above. Firstly,
corresponding to the parking moment is shown in the figure above. Firstly, a constant a constant
torque is given to the vehicle to obtain the vehicle’s backward skidding speed of 0.1 s on
torque is given to the vehicle to obtain the vehicle’s backward skidding speed of 0.1 s on
the ramp, which is correspondingly inputted into the parking moment table to derive the
the ramp, which is correspondingly inputted into the parking moment table to derive the
estimated parking moment of the vehicle at this slope and the vehicle mass. Then the
estimated
vehicle parking
torque moment and
is withdrawn, of the vehicle at this
a sufficiently large slope
brakeand the vehicle
pressure mass.toThen
is applied makethe ve-
hicle torque is withdrawn, and a sufficiently large brake pressure is applied
the vehicle static on the ramp. Finally, the sliding mode controller calculates the torque to make the
vehicle static
required for theon the ramp.
vehicle Finally,
to follow the sliding
the target modeiscontroller
speed, which combinedcalculates the torque re-
with the estimated
quired for
parking thetovehicle
torque becometothe
follow
vehiclethecontrol
targettorque
speed, to which
completeis combined with
the ramp start andthe estimated
speed
tracking; The vehicle control block diagram is shown in Figure 7.
 Actuators 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 17

Actuators 2024, 13, 201 7 of 17

parking torque to become the vehicle control torque to complete the ramp start and speed
tracking; The vehicle control block diagram is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Vehicle control block diagram.

Figure 7. Vehicle control block diagram.
3.5. Proportional Gain Control Based on Rear Slippage Velocity-Matched Standing Moment
3.5. Proportional Gain Control Based on Rear Slippage Velocity-Matched Standing Moment
As commercial vehicles are in the process of transporting materials, the vehicle load
As commercial
will change, the vehiclevehicles
does notare haveinadditional
the process of transporting
sensors materials,
to sense the vehicle load, the
the vehicle load
will change,
traditional PIDthe vehiclecannot
regulation does meet
not have additional
the vehicle sensors
performance to sense the
requirements, the vehicle
PID load, the
traditional PIDregulate
controller cannot regulation cannot
the vehicle meet
speed theon
based vehicle performance
the existing information, requirements,
there will the PID
controller cannot
be a speed error, andregulate
the vehicletheload
vehicle
is toospeed
large inbased onof
the case the
theexisting information,
vehicle, which even there will
causes
be back skidding.
a speed error, andBased
theon the above
vehicle loadproblems, the standing
is too large in thehillcasemoment
of thecalculated
vehicle, which even
causes back skidding. Based on the above problems, the standingthe
by the sliding mode controller in the previous section will be Based on hillabove-men-
moment calculated by
tioned problems, the feed-forward proportional controller is introduced into the feed-for-
the sliding mode controller in the previous section will be Based on the above-mentioned
ward proportional controller to solve the problem of the large distance of the car skidding.
problems, the feed-forward
In order to obtain more accurate speedproportional
control, thecontroller is introduced
gain parameters are matched, into
andthe
dif-feed-forward
proportional controller
ferent gain parameters to solvefor
are matched thetheproblem
calculatedofhill
the large distance
moments of the
to obtain the car skidding. In
optimal
order
controltoeffect.
obtain
Themore accurate
vehicle loading speed control,
is changed withinthe gain parameters
a certain range, and the aregain
matched,
param- and different
eters parameters
gain are matched for arethe four vehicle
matched masses.
for the The vehicle
calculated hill mass
momentsis divided into 4455
to obtain the kg,
optimal control
5455 kg, 6455 kg, and 7455 kg, and the gain parameters are matched for the
effect. The vehicle loading is changed within a certain range, and the gain parameters arefour vehicle
masses, and the time-domain characteristics such as rise time and overshoot are taken into
matched for the four vehicle masses. The vehicle mass is divided into 4455 kg, 5455 kg,
account when choosing the gain, as shown in Figure 8.
6455 kg, and 7455 kg, and the gain parameters are matched for the four vehicle masses,
and the time-domain characteristics such as rise time and overshoot are taken into account
when choosing the gain, as shown in Figure 8.
As can be seen from Figure 8, for the weight of 4455 kg and following speed of 10 km/h,
different PI parameters are tested to analyze the influence law of PI parameters, when
k = 500, i = 0, the vehicle can track the target speed stably, try to increase k to shorten the
rise time, adjust the parameter to k = 1000, i = 0, the vehicle can track the target speed
stably, and the rise time becomes shorter, try to adjust i to reduce the steady state error,
adjust the parameter to k = 1000, i = 5, the vehicle can track the target speed stably, but
the steady state error increases, i.e., try to continue to increase k to shorten the rise time,
keep i = 0, adjust the parameter to k = 1500, i = 0, the vehicle follows the speed rise time is
shortened but the overshooting quantity is increased, so the group of k = 1000, i = 0 is the
optimal PI parameter, namely Select the PI controller parameters as k = 400, i = 0. After
many experiments, the four weights corresponding to the torque–gain coefficient matching
curve are obtained, as shown in Figure 9.
 Actuators 2024,
Actuators 2024, 13,
13, x201
FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17
8 of 17

Figure 8. Vehicle trailing distance.

As can be seen from Figure 8, for the weight of 4455 kg and following speed of 10
km/h, different PI parameters are tested to analyze the influence law of PI parameters,
when k = 500, i = 0, the vehicle can track the target speed stably, try to increase k to shorten
the rise time, adjust the parameter to k = 1000, i = 0, the vehicle can track the target speed
stably, and the rise time becomes shorter, try to adjust i to reduce the steady state error,
adjust the parameter to k = 1000, i = 5, the vehicle can track the target speed stably, but the
steady state error increases, i.e., try to continue to increase k to shorten the rise time, keep
i = 0, adjust the parameter to k = 1500, i = 0, the vehicle follows the speed rise time is
shortened but the overshooting quantity is increased, so the group of k = 1000, i = 0 is the
optimal PI parameter, namely Select the PI controller parameters as k = 400, i = 0. After
many experiments, the four weights corresponding to the torque–gain coefficient match-
ing curveVehicle
Figure are obtained,
Figure8.8.Vehicle trailing as shown in Figure 9.
trailingdistance.
distance.

As can be seen from Figure 8, for the weight of 4455 kg and following speed of 10
km/h, different PI parameters are tested to analyze the influence law of PI parameters,
when k = 500, i = 0, the vehicle can track the target speed stably, try to increase k to shorten
the rise time, adjust the parameter to k = 1000, i = 0, the vehicle can track the target speed
stably, and the rise time becomes shorter, try to adjust i to reduce the steady state error,
adjust the parameter to k = 1000, i = 5, the vehicle can track the target speed stably, but the
steady state error increases, i.e., try to continue to increase k to shorten the rise time, keep
i = 0, adjust the parameter to k = 1500, i = 0, the vehicle follows the speed rise time is
shortened but the overshooting quantity is increased, so the group of k = 1000, i = 0 is the
optimal PI parameter, namely Select the PI controller parameters as k = 400, i = 0. After
many experiments, the four weights corresponding to the torque–gain coefficient match-
ing curve are obtained, as shown in Figure 9.
Figure
Figure 9.
9. Parameter
Parametermatching.
matching.

It
It can bebe seen
seenfrom
fromFigure
Figure9 that
9 that
thethe gain
gain coefficient
coefficient in matching
in matching against
against a single
a single torque
torque
increasesincreases as the matching
as the matching torquetorque increases.
increases.
When
When the the vehicle is following the speed, the speed demand will will be constantly
constantly changing
chang-
ing
Actuators 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW because
because of of
the the environment;
environment; therefore,
therefore, on a on a
certaincertain
ramp, ramp,
this this
paper paper
will will
accuratelyaccurately
follow the 9 of 17
follow
vehiclethe vehicle
speed of 10speed
km/h, of 20
10 km/h,
km/h, 20 km/h,
and and 30
30 km/h, km/h,
and andway,
in this in this
formway,theform
gainthe gain
matching
matching
coefficient coefficient
according toaccording totorque,
the vehicle the vehicle torque,
the speed the
of the speed
joint of the
change, joint change,
as shown in Figureas10.
shown in Figure 10.

Figure 9. Parameter matching.

It can be seen from Figure 9 that the gain coefficient in matching against a single
torque increases as the matching torque increases.
When the vehicle is following the speed, the speed demand will be constantly chang-
ing because of the environment; therefore, on a certain ramp, this paper will accurately
follow the vehicle speed of 10 km/h, 20 km/h, and 30 km/h, and in this way, form the gain
matching coefficient according to the vehicle torque, the speed of the joint change, as
Figure 10.Gain
Figure 10. Gainparameter
parameter matching.
matching.
shown in Figure 10.
From
Fromthe the figure,
figure, itit can be seen
can be seen that
that the
the mapping
mapping relationship
relationship between
betweenthe the gain
gain match-
matching coefficient and the matching torque and following speed is not linearly varying,
ing coefficient and the matching torque and following speed is not linearly varying, and
and the gain matching coefficient tends to be saturated when the vehicle is in the case
the gainmatching
of large matchingtorque
coefficient tends to be saturated
and medium-high speed, duewhen
to thethe vehicle of
limitation is in
thethe case of large
ground
matching torque and
adhesion coefficient andmedium-high speed,
the motor torque, anddue
the to the limitation
vehicle of the
torque is not ground
possible adhesion
to be
coefficient and
infinitely large. the motor torque, and the vehicle torque is not possible to be infinitely
large.

3.6. Pure PI Controller

In the debugging process, it is found that the PI parameters debugged with the max-
 Figure 10. Gain parameter matching.
Actuators 2024, 13, 201 9 of 17
From the figure, it can be seen that the mapping relationship between the gain match-
ing coefficient and the matching torque and following speed is not linearly varying, and
the gain matching coefficient tends to be saturated when the vehicle is in the case of large
3.6. Pure PI Controller
matching torque and medium-high speed, due to the limitation of the ground adhesion
In theand
coefficient debugging
the motor process,
torque,itandis found that the
the vehicle PI parameters
torque debugged
is not possible with the
to be infinitely
maximum
large. load cannot be used for the minimum load vehicle, the torque will be too large,
therefore, the minimum load debugging pure PI controller parameters. In the 5◦ gradient
roadPure
3.6. section, the initial position of the vehicle is set to 50 m, debugging the PI parameters.
PI Controller
After many times of debugging the parameters of the pure PI controller, to obtain k = 500,
In that
i = 20, the debugging process,
is, the overall massitofisthe
found that is
vehicle the4455
PI parameters debugged
kg, the speed with under
of 30 km/h the max- 5◦
imum load cannot be used for the minimum load vehicle, the torque will
gradient, the tracking results of the pure PI controller are shown in the figure below. The be too large,
therefore, the minimum
tracking effect of the pureload debuggingispure
PI controller shownPI in
controller
Figure 11.parameters. In the 5° gradient
road From
section,the above figure, it can be seen that the pure PI debugging
the initial position of the vehicle is set to 50 m, controller isthe PI parameters.
able to go uphill
After many times of debugging the parameters of the pure PI
normally and stably under the current working conditions, tracking the target controller, to obtain
speedk =better,
500,
iand
= 20, that is, the overall mass of the vehicle is 4455 kg, the speed of 30
the vehicle does not have the phenomenon of back-sliding. In order to judge the effect km/h under 5°
gradient, the tracking results of the pure PI controller are shown in the figure
of ramp starting and speed tracking of the self-driving vehicle, three evaluation indexes are below. The
tracking
proposed: effect
rise of thevehicle
time, pure PIback-slip
controllerdistance,
is shownand in Figure 11.
slip rate.

Actuators 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17

Figure 11. Pure

Pure PI controller tracking effect.
effect.

4. Discussion
4. From the above figure, it can be seen that the pure PI controller is able to go uphill
4.1.
4.1. Simulation
Simulation Environment
Environment
normally and stably Setup
Setup
under the current working conditions, tracking the target speed bet-
As
As shown
ter, and the in
inFigure
vehicle
shown does 12,
Figure 12,55have
not degree,
the7phenomenon
degree, 7degree,
degree,and
and10of
degree
10 ramps
back-sliding.
degree ramps were
Inwerebuilt,
order tothe
built, driving
judge
the the
driv-
vehicle
effect ofwas
ramp
ing vehicle changed to and
starting
was changedexternal
tospeedtorque input,
tracking
external and theand
ofinput,
torque masstheofmass
the self-driving the vehicle
vehicle, was
three
of the set to 4455
evaluation
vehicle was kg,
setin-
to
5455
dexes kg,
are 6455 kg, and
proposed: 7455
rise kg,
time, respectively.
vehicle back-slip
4455 kg, 5455 kg, 6455 kg, and 7455 kg, respectively.distance, and slip rate.

Figure 12.
Figure 12. Ramp
Ramp setup.
setup.

4.2. Comparison of Calibration Slope Quality Algorithms

In order to make the speed tracking effect better, the proportional gain coefficient is
the parameter derived from the pre-calibration of the gradient of 5°, 7°, and 10°, and the
mass of 4455 kg, 5455 kg, 6455 kg, and 7455 kg. In this section, the pure PI controller, the
 Figure 12. Ramp setup.

Actuators 2024, 13, 201 4.2. Comparison of Calibration Slope Quality Algorithms 10 of 17

In order to make the speed tracking effect better, the proportional

the parameter
4.2. Comparison derived
of Calibration from
Slope the
Quality pre-calibration of the gradient of 5°, 7°
Algorithms
mass of 4455
In order kg,the
to make 5455
speedkg, 6455effect
tracking kg, better,
and 7455 kg. In this
the proportional gainsection,
coefficient the
is pure
the parameter ◦ ◦ ◦
ramp start derived
variable fromproportional
the pre-calibrationcontrol,
of the gradient of 5 , for
is used 7 , and 10 , and the with
comparison
mass of 4455 kg, 5455 kg, 6455 kg, and 7455 kg. In this section, the pure PI controller, the
ramp start
ramp start control.
variable Setting
proportional the isdifferent
control, vehicle masses
used for comparison as 4455
with the sliding mode kg, 545
7455 kg,control.
ramp start a simulation
Setting the test is carried
different out,asand
vehicle masses 4455the effects
kg, 5455 of kg,
kg, 6455 pure
and PI con
7455 kg, a simulation test is carried out, and the effects of pure PI control, proportional gain
gain control, and sliding mode control are shown in Figure 13.
control, and sliding mode control are shown in Figure 13.

Figure 13. Comparison of three methods regarding 5-degree ramps.

Figure 13. Comparison of three methods regarding 5-degree ramps.
From the above figure, it can be seen that the pure PI control can quickly reach within
the steady-state error after the increase in vehicle mass, with a shorter rise time, and can
From the above figure, it can be seen that the pure PI control can qu
reach 27 km/h within 15 s, and the rear skid distance is less than 0.0001 m. The proportional
the steady-state
gain hill error based
start control method afteronthetheincrease in vehicle
rear skid speed, mass, with
which corresponds to theahill
shorter
stopping torque, can quickly reach within the steady-state error after the increase in vehicle
mass, with a shorter rise time, and can also reach 27 km/h within 15 s, compared with the
pure PI controller, which can rapidly increase the vehicle speed and track the vehicle speed
more accurately. That is, the proportional gain hill start control method based on backward
skidding speed compared with the pure PI controller, the proportional gain controller can
increase the speed quickly, with shorter rise time and more accurate tracking of the speed.
From the point of view of the back-slip distance, the back-slip distance is less than 0.003 m.
Based on the back-slip speed corresponding to the resident slope torque of the sliding mode
ramp start control method in the vehicle mass increase, it can also accurately track the
target speed, but the rise time is longer compared to the two methods of the comparison,
and the back-slip distance is less than 0.003 m. The control method can also be used to
track the target speed accurately, but the rise time is shorter than that of the two methods.
The above simulations were done on 5◦ slopes only with vehicles of different masses;
now the tests are done on 10◦ slopes with vehicles of different masses. This is shown in
Figure 14.
 than that of the two methods.
The above simulations were done on 5° slopes only with vehicles of
now the tests are done on 10° slopes with vehicles of different masses.
Actuators 2024, 13, 201 11 of 17
Figure 14.

Figure 14. Comparison of three methods regarding 10-degree ramps.

Figure 14. Comparison of three methods regarding 10-degree ramps.
As can be seen from the above figure, in the 10◦ ramp, the pure PI controller has been
unableAsto follow
can bethe seen
10 km/h speed
from of stability,
the above and with the
figure, in increase
the 10°inramp,
vehicle mass, the PI co
the pure
vehicle rear skidding distance also increased. The ramp start function cannot be normal
unable
to to other
meet. The followtwo the 10 methods
control km/h speedcan track ofthestability,
target speedand with
better, the the increase
rise time is in
vehicle
shorter, therear skidding
vehicle mass is thedistance
largest, the also
maximum increased. The ramp
rear slip distance start
is less than function
0.01 m, c
Actuators 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
and they can meet the normal ramp start function.
to meet. The other two control methods can track the target speed bette
The slip rates for both the medium proportional gain and sliding mode control
shorter,forthe
methods rampvehicle massspeed
start tracking is the
are largest, the maximum
shown in Figures 15 and 16. rear slip distance is
and they can meet the normal ramp start function.
The slip rates for both the medium proportional gain and sliding m
ods for ramp start tracking speed are shown in Figures 15 and 16.
As shown in Figures 15 and 16, it can be seen that when using the
control method based on the back-slip speed matching torque for the 445
vehicles, the driving force exceeds the adhesion force, the wheels slip, a
more than 90% in the first 5 s, which makes the vehicle driving unstab
using the sliding-mode control method based on the back-slip speed ma
the 4455 kg, 5455 kg, 6455 kg, and 7455 kg vehicles, the driving force of
than the adhesion force and the slip rate is less than 20%, which ensures
the vehicle.

Figure 15. Proportional gain slip rate.

Figure 15. Proportional gain slip rate.
Actuators 2024, 13, 201 12 of 17
Figure 15. Proportional gain slip rate.

Figure 15. Proportional gain slip rate.

Figure 16.Sliding
Figure 16. mode
Sliding slip ratio.
mode slip ratio.
As shown in Figures 15 and 16, it can be seen that when using the proportional gain
Above,
control methodonly
basedthe self-driving
on the commercial
back-slip speed vehicles
matching torque with
for the different
4455 vehicle
kg and 5455 kg mass
10° slope
vehicles, tracking
the the same
driving force exceedsspeed have been
the adhesion force,simulated for comparison,
the wheels slip, now
and the slip rate is the se
Figure
more 16.
than Sliding
90% in mode
the first 5 slip
s, ratio.
which makes the vehicle driving unstable,
ing commercial vehicles with a vehicle mass of 5455 kg on a 10° slope tracking d whereas when
using the sliding-mode control method based on the back-slip speed matching torque for
speeds have been tested, and the tracking effect of the pure PI controller is shown in
the 4455 kg, 5455 kg, 6455 kg, and 7455 kg vehicles, the driving force of the vehicle is less
17. Above, only the self-driving commercial vehicles with different vehicle
than the adhesion force and the slip rate is less than 20%, which ensures stable driving of
10° slope tracking the same speed have been simulated for comparison, now
the vehicle.
ing commercial
Above, only the vehicles
self-drivingwith a vehicle
commercial mass
vehicles of 5455vehicle
with different kg on a 10◦ track
a 10°onslope
masses
slope tracking the same speed have been simulated for comparison, now the self-driving
speeds have been tested, and the tracking effect of the pure PI controller is sho
commercial vehicles with a vehicle mass of 5455 kg on a 10◦ slope tracking different speeds
17.
have been tested, and the tracking effect of the pure PI controller is shown in Figure 17.

Figure 17. Pure PI controller.

Actuators 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Figure 17. Pure PI controller.

Figure 17. Pure PI controller.

Actuators 2024, 13, 201 As shown in Figure 17, it can be seen that the pure PI controller is 13 not able to r
of 17
well to the vehicle speed demand due to the change in gradient and mass and has
As shown in Figure 17, it can be seen that the pure PI controller is not able to r
backward skidding distance.
wellAsto shown
the vehicle speed
in Figure 17, it demand
can be seendue
that to
thethe
purechange in gradient
PI controller and
is not able mass and has
to respond
The control effect of the proportional gain hill start control and the sliding mo
backward skidding
well to the vehicle speeddistance.
demand due to the change in gradient and mass and has a large
trol method
backward based on the rear slip speed corresponding to the dwell moment is sh
The skidding distance.
control effect of the proportional gain hill start control and the sliding mo
FigureThe18.control effect of the proportional gain hill start control and the sliding mode
trol method based on the rear slip speed corresponding to the dwell moment is sh
control method based on the rear slip speed corresponding to the dwell moment is shown
Figure
in Figure18.
18.

Figure 18. Proportional gain controller.

18.Proportional
Figure 18.
Figure gain gain
Proportional controller.
controller.
As shown in Figure 19, it can be seen that the proportional gain method based
As shown
rear slip speedin matching
Figure 19, ittorque
can be seen
canthat the proportional
respond gain method
to the vehicle’s demandbased for
on the
different
Asspeed
rear slip shown in Figure
matching 19,can
torque it can be seen
respond to thethat the proportional
vehicle’s gain method
demand for different speeds based
in a shorterperiod
period of time,inand in the case of 5455 mass,
kg vehicle mass, the rear slip d
rear slip speed matching
in a shorter of time, andtorque canofrespond
the case to the vehicle’s
5455 kg vehicle demand
the rear for different
slip distance is
isless
less than
0.010.01 m,theand the effect of hill start is bettertocompared to the pure PI cont
in athan
shorter m, and
period ofeffect
time,ofand
hill start is better
in the casecompared
of 5455 kgthe pure PImass,
vehicle controller.
the rear slip d
is less than 0.01 m, and the effect of hill start is better compared to the pure PI con

Figure 19.Sliding
Figure 19. Slidingmode controller.
mode controller.

Figure 19. Sliding mode controller.

Comparison of the three control methods from the dimension of different mas
different speeds shows that, in the proportional gain coefficient calibrated to th
Comparison of the three control methods from the dimension of different mas
mass, the proportional gain ramp start control based on the back-slip speed corresp
 stably, and has less wear and tear on the braking system; similarly, the slid
start control based on the back-slip speed corresponding to the parking
more effective, but the wheel skidding will occur with the larger gradien
Actuators 2024, 13, 201
control. Similarly, the sliding mode hill start control method based 14 of 17 on the

corresponding to the standing moment is also more effective, but the p

hill Comparison
start control based
of the on the
three control back-slip
methods speed
from the corresponding
dimension to the
of different masses and standi
different speeds shows that, in the proportional gain coefficient calibrated
have a wheel slip situation for a larger gradient, and the stability is po to the slope
mass, the proportional gain ramp start control based on the back-slip speed corresponding
controller
to the parkingcannot
moment can adaptively adjust
have a smaller thedistance,
back-slip motorcan torque with
track the targetthe
speedchange
mass, and
stably, and has the hill and
less wear starttearcontrol effectsystem;
on the braking is poor. Thetheparameters
similarly, sliding-mode rampin the abo
start control based on the back-slip speed corresponding to the parking moment is also
gain control are pre-calibrated parameters, which have a better tracking
more effective, but the wheel skidding will occur with the larger gradient for ramp start
get speed
control. andthe
Similarly, will be discussed
sliding mode hill startin the next
control methodsection
based onfrom the uncalibrated
the back-slip speed
corresponding to the standing moment is also more effective, but the proportional gain hill
start control based on the back-slip speed corresponding to the standing moment will have
4.3. Comparison of Uncalibrated Slope Quality Algorithms
a wheel slip situation for a larger gradient, and the stability is poor. The pure PI controller
cannotFrom theadjust
adaptively previous section,
the motor the the
torque with proportional gainand
change of gradient control method
mass, and the ba
hill start control effect is poor. The parameters in the above proportional gain control are
slip speed matching torque is calibrated to follow the target speed when t
pre-calibrated parameters, which have a better tracking effect on the target speed and will
and 10° and
be discussed the
in the mass
next isfrom
section 4455thekg, 5455 kg,condition.
uncalibrated 6455 kg, and 7455 kg to ensure
formance of the vehicle, but the control effect of the control method for t
4.3. Comparison of Uncalibrated Slope Quality Algorithms
gradient
From theand mass
previous needs
section, the to be further
proportional gain explored,
control methodand foronthis
based reason, the g
the back-slip
be
speed3°,matching
6°, andtorque
12°, isand the mass
calibrated to the
to follow be target
5000speed
kg, 6000
when kg, and 7000
the gradient is 5◦ kg
and in this
10 ◦ and the mass is 4455 kg, 5455 kg, 6455 kg, and 7455 kg to ensure the control performance
reason, in this section, the slope is set to be 3°, 6°, and 12°, and the mass to
of the vehicle, but the control effect of the control method for the un-calibrated gradient
kg, and needs
and mass 7000 to kg,
be respectively.
further explored,Since
and forthethispure PIthe
reason, cannot
gradientadaptively
is set to be 3◦adjust
, t
◦ ◦
with
6 , andthe
12 ,change of slope
and the mass andkg,
to be 5000 mass,
6000 this section
kg, and 7000 kgwill notsection.
in this discussFor this
this meth
reason, in this section, the slope is set to be 3◦ , 6◦ , and 12◦ , and the mass to be 5000 kg,
conduct a comparative study on the proportional gain control based o
6000 kg, and 7000 kg, respectively. Since the pure PI cannot adaptively adjust the motor
speed matching
torque with the changetorque andmass,
of slope and thethis
sliding
sectionmode
will not control based
discuss this methodon andthe
willback-sl
ing torque. The initial position of the vehicle is set to 50 m, and now the t
only conduct a comparative study on the proportional gain control based on the back-slip
speed matching torque and the sliding mode control based on the back-slip speed matching
used for a 3° ramp with 5000 kg, 6000 kg, and 7000 kg.
torque. The initial position of the vehicle is set to 50 m, and now the two methods are used
for a 3◦Simulation
ramp with 5000 experiments
kg, 6000 kg, andare7000carried
kg. out for different masses of self-d
cial vehicles tracking the target speed (10masses
Simulation experiments are carried out for different km/h)of and
self-driving commercial resu
the simulation
vehicles tracking the target speed (10 km/h) and the simulation results are shown in
Figure
Figure 20.20.

Figure 20. Comparison of two methods regarding 3-degree ramps.

Figure 20. Comparison of two methods regarding 3-degree ramps.

From Figure 20, it can be seen that in the small angle ramp for the un
and mass, the proportional gain control method based on the back-slip
torque and the sliding mode control method based on the back-slip
 Actuators 2024, 13, 201 15 of 17

From Figure 20, it can be seen that in the small angle ramp for the uncalibrated slope
Actuators 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
and mass, the proportional gain control method based on the back-slip speed matching
torque and the sliding mode control method based on the back-slip speed matching torque
are able to complete the tracking of the target speed, and the back-slip distance is less than
0.0005 m, and the slip rate is less than 20%. At this time, the vehicle can obtain a larger
longitudinal
The twoforcemethods
and lateral force.
are simulated for a 6° ramp, 5000 kg, 6000 kg, and 7
The two methods are simulated for a 6◦ ramp, 5000 kg, 6000 kg, and 7000 kg different
mass tracking
mass tracking targettarget speed
speed 10 km/h.10Thekm/h. Theresults
simulation simulation
are shownresults
in Figureare
21. shown in F

Figure 21. Comparison of two methods regarding 6-degree ramps.

Figure 21. Comparison of two methods regarding 6-degree ramps.
As can be seen from Figure 21, in the medium angle ramp for the uncalibrated slope
As can
and mass, be seen
although from Figure
the proportional gain 21, in the
control methodmedium
based onangle ramp
the rear for the un
slip speed
matching moment can complete a better tracking of the target speed, and the slip distance
and mass, although the proportional gain control method based on the
is less than 0.004 m, but for the vehicle mass of 5000 kg and 6000 kg, it will have a starting
matching
wheel moment
slip situation, whichcan complete
is more unstable,aand
better tracking
the sliding of themethod
mode control targetbased
speed,
on and t
theless
is rear slip
than speed matching
0.004 m, butmoment can complete
for the vehiclethe tracking
mass of the target
of 5000 kg andspeed, and kg,
6000 can it wil
make the slip distance less than 0.004 m, and the vehicle driving the whole process slip rate
wheel slip
is less than situation,
20%, to keep canwhich
provideis more
the vehicleunstable, andspeed.
with a greater the sliding
The sliding mode
mode contro
on themethod
control rear based
slip speed matching
on the torque moment
can not only complete can
the complete the
tracking of the tracking
target speed of th
but also make the rear skid distance less than 0.004 m and the vehicle
and can make the slip distance less than 0.004 m, and the vehicle driving th driving the whole
process of the slippage rate less than 20% to maintain the ability to provide the vehicle with
slip
a largerate is less than
longitudinal 20%,
force and to keep
lateral force. can provide the vehicle with a greater sp
◦ ramp, 5000 kg, 6000 kg, and 7000 kg different
mode Thecontrol
two methodsmethod basedfor
are simulated on12the torque can not only complete the track
mass tracking target speed 10 km/h. The simulation results are shown in Figure 22.
speed but also make the rear skid distance less than 0.004 m and the veh
As can be seen from Figure 22, in the larger gradient ramp for the uncalibrated gradient
whole
and mass,process of thegain
the proportional slippage rate less
control method basedthan 20%
on the to maintain
back-slip the ability
speed matching
vehicle
torque canwith a large
no longer longitudinal
achieve better tracking force and speed,
of the target lateralandforce.
5000 kg, 6000 kg, and
7000 kg three kinds of mass have appeared in the case of wheel slip, which is more unstable,
The two methods are simulated for 12° ramp, 5000 kg, 6000 kg, and 7
and the sliding mode control method based on the back-slip speed matching torque still
mass
is. The tracking
sliding mode target
controlspeed
method10 km/h.
based on theThe simulation
back-slip resultstorque
speed matching are shown
can in F
complete the tracking of the target speed, the back-slip distance is less than 0.004 m, and
the vehicle traveling the whole process of the slip rate is less than 20%, to maintain the
ability to provide the vehicle with a large longitudinal force and lateral force.
 whole process of the slippage rate less than 20% to maintain the ability
vehicle with a large longitudinal force and lateral force.
Actuators 2024, 13, 201
The two methods are simulated for 12° ramp, 5000 kg, 6000 kg, and 7
16 of 17
mass tracking target speed 10 km/h. The simulation results are shown in

Figure 22. Comparison of two methods regarding 12-degree ramps.

Figure 22. Comparison of two methods regarding 12-degree ramps.
5. Conclusions
As can
Aiming be skidding
at the seen from Figure
problem 22,byinthethe
caused larger gradient
uncertainty ramp
of the vehicle for the u
driving
moment on the slope triggered by the change in the vehicle mass and the change in
dient and mass, the proportional gain control method based on the back-sl
the gradient of the self-driving commercial vehicle, a new ramp start control strategy is
ing torque
proposed, andcan no longervariable
a sliding-mode achieve bettercontroller
structure tracking of the target
is designed speed,
to calculate the and 5
standing
and 7000 moment. The standing
kg three kinds of moment
massobtained is introducedin
have appeared as the
the start
casemoment to
of wheel slip
obtain the standing moment required by the vehicle at different weights and different
gradients, and then the sliding-mode variable structure controller is used to calculate
the moment required to follow the target speed. Then, a sliding mode variable structure
controller is used to calculate the torque required to follow the target speed and is compared
with the slope mass-calibrated and un-calibrated proportional gain control controller and
the pure PI controller. The simulation results show that the proposed sliding mode ramp
start control method based on the backward sliding speed corresponding to the standstill
torque can not only complete the ramp start function under different slopes and vehicle
masses but also stably follow the speed of the vehicle.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, D.Z. and H.F.; review and supervision, D.Z., Y.Y., Y.H., P.Z.
and W.L.; methodology, D.Z. and H.F.; writing, D.Z. and H.F.; software, D.Z. and H.F.; writing—original
draft, D.Z. and H.F.; writing—review and editing, D.Z. and H.F.; funding acquisition, D.Z. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by The Ganpo Talent Support Program-Leading Academic and
Technical Personnel in Major Disciplines of Jiangxi Province (Grant No. 20232BCJ23091), The Natural
Science Foundation of Jiangxi Province (Grant No. 20232BAB214092; Grant No. 20224BAB214045),
The funding of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 52067006), The Key
R&D Program of Jiangxi Province (Grant No. 20224BBE51048), and The 03 Special Program and 5G
Project of Jiangxi Province (Grant No. 20232ABC03A30).
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: All authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or
personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Actuators 2024, 13, 201 17 of 17

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