PRINCIPLES OF MINING

Module 1

Introduction to Mining Laws and

Government Regulations; Prospecting and
Exploration; Introduction to mineral
resource/reserve estimation; Mine
Development; Mine exploitation
 Lesson 1

Introduction to Mining Laws and

Government Regulations
 Importance of the Mineral/Mining
Industry:
1. Provided materials for fuel, shelter and acquisition of food,
from prehistoric to the present.
2. The great impact of the products of mining on man is
evident because anthropologists designate steps in man’s
culture by them:
a) Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age)
b) Neolithic (New Stone Age)
c) Bronze age (4,000 – 18,000 B.C.), in the Orient; (2,000 – 1,000
B.C). in Europe
d) Iron Age (following the Bronze Age)
3. Used to make utensils/tools.
4. Used as an instrument in doing business. (gold used as
currency during the early age).
5. Essential for the requirements of people in making implements,
building, trade, jewelry, cosmetics and treasure.
6. Transportation and communication have been revolutionized partly
because of the materials that have become available because of
mining. ex. TVs, space and aircraft vehicles, steel bridges.
7. Agriculture has been drastically changed by the use of mineral
fertilizers, such phosphates, potash and nitrates.
8. Mining had a great political impact on society since ancient times: ex.
e) Ancient rulers made war partly for acquisition of minerals and to
obtain slaves to work for mines.
f) Prior to world war II, Japan invaded Manchuria for the
acquisition of coal and iron.
g) Underlying the politic of Russia and the United States in the
Middle East are the rich oil reserves.
9. Today, the standard of living of the peoples of the world are
compared on the basis of per capita consumption of the various
metals.
 Definition of Terms
1. Minerals – an inorganic substance occurring naturally in the earth
and having a consistent and distinctive set of physical properties
and a composition that can be expressed by a chemical formula.
2. Rocks – composed of assemblage of minerals.
3. Mining - is the process of obtaining useful minerals from the
earth’s crust and includes both underground excavations and
surface workings.
4. Prospecting – is searching for ore.
5. Exploration – is the worked involved in gaining knowledge of the
size, shape, position, and value of an ore body.
6. Development – is the work of driving openings to and in a proved
ore body to prepare it for mining and transporting the ore.
7. Exploitation – is the work of mining and marketing the ore.
8. A Prospect – is a mineral property, the value of which has not been
proved by exploration.
9. Vein – a mineralized zone having a more or less regular or less regular
development in length, width, and depth to give it a tabular form and
commonly inclined at a considerable angle to the horizontal. The term lode
is commonly used synonymously for vein.
10. Shoot – the valuable minerals are commonly concentrated in certain
portions of a vein that have one dimension much longer than the others.
This shoot or “chimney” of ore is usually inclined to the horizontal.
11. Bedded Deposit - an ore deposit of tabular form that lies horizontally or
only slightly inclined to the horizontal and that is commonly parallel to the
stratification of the enclosing rocks.
12. Masses – large ore bodies of irregular shape, the long axis of which may
extend in any direction.
13. Outcrop – commonly considered as the surface exposure of a mineral
deposit. The uppermost part of a mineral deposit may be covered with soil
or other overburden, however, aowever, and thus the outcrop may be
hidden.
14. Float – is composed of loose pieces of ore or particles of metal and is
produced by the weathering of an outcrop.
15. Gossan – the ferruginous deposit filling the upper part of some
mineral veins or forming a superficial cover over masses of pyrite.
It consists mainly of hydrated iron oxide and has resulted from the
removal of the sulphur as well as the copper or other sulfides
originally present.
16. Dip – the angle at which a bed, stratum, or vein is inclined from
the horizontal.
17. Strike – the horizontal course or bearing of an inclined bed,
stratum, or vein; the direction of a horizontal line in the plane of
an inclined bed, stratum, or vein.
18. Faults – interruptions to continuity- fracture in the earth, one side
of which is displaced with respect to the other.
19. Folds - any bending or wrinkling of rock strata.
20. Fissure – an extensive crack, break or fracture in rocks.
21. Apex – the top of terminal edge of the vein on the surface or its
nearest point to the surface (blind apex). The apex is the point
from which the vein has a dip and strike, otherwise no extralateral
rights could be conferred by the apex.
22. Hanging Wall – the wall or rock on the upper side of an inclined vein. It is
called the roof in bedded deposits.
23. Foot Wall – the wall or rock under a vein. It is called floor in the bedded
deposits.
24. Shaft - a vertical or inclined excavation in a mine extending downward from
the surface or from some interior point as a principal opening through which
the mine is exploited. A shaft is provided with a hoisting engine at the top for
handling men, rock and supplies, or it may be used only in connection with
pumping or ventilating operations.
25. Drift – a horizontal opening in or near an ore body and parallel to the course
of the vein or long dimension of the ore body.
26. Crosscut – a horizontal opening driven across the course of a vein or in
general across the direction of the main workings. A connection from a shaft
to a vein.
27. Level – mines are customarily worked from shafts through horizontal
passages or drifts called levels. These are commonly spaced at regular
intervals in depth and are either numbered from the surface in regular order
or designated by their actual elevation below the top of a shaft.
28. Sump – an excavation made underground to collect water, from which water
is pumped to the surface or to another sump nearer the surface. Sumps are
placed at the bottom os a shaft, near the shaft on a level or at some interior
point.
29. Winze - a vertical or inclined opening sunk from a point inside a mine for the
purpose of connecting with a lower level or exploring the ground for a
limited depth below a level.
30. Raise – a vertical or inclined opening driven upward from a level to connect
with the level above, or to explore the ground for a limited distance above
one level. After two level are connected, the connection may be a winze or a
raise, depending upon which level is taken as the point of reference.
31. Stope – an excavation from which ore has been extracted. The term stoping is
commonly applied to the extraction of ore, but does not include the ore
removed in sinking shafts and in driving levels, drifts and other development
openings.
32. Tunnel - a horizontal or nearly horizontal underground passage that is open
to the atmosphere at both ends. The term is loosely applied in many cases to
an adit.
33. Adit – a horizontal or nearly horizontal passage driven from the
surface for the working or unwatering of a mine. If driven
through the hill or mountain to the surface on the opposite side,
it would be a tunnel.
34. Collar – the term applied to the timbering or concrete around
the mouth or top of a shaft.
35. Ore – a mineral deposit that can be worked at a profit under the
existing economic conditions.
36. Gangue – the worthless minerals that are associated with the
valuable mineral in an ore. As much of this gangue as possible is
removed by the processes of concentrating and smelting.
37. Country Rock – the rock in which the ore deposit is enclosed. It
is the general mass of adjacent rock as distinguished from that
of a vein, or lode.
38. Waste – the barren rock in a mine. It is applied to the part of the
ore deposit that is too low in grade to be of economic value at
the time, but this material may be stored separately in the hope
that it can profitably treated later.
 Lesson 2

Prospecting and Exploration –

Techniques and Methods
 Prospecting and Exploration
Prospecting – is usually defined as searching for
ore deposits.
Exploration – technically means the outlining of
a deposit to determine its value and tonnage
 Methods of Prospecting/Exploration:
1. Tracing Float – in rough country, float may be found a
long distance from its source. To trace it back to its
origin, the prospector works up the slope looking for
pieces of float until no more are to be seen. At this
point if no outcrop is visible, the probabilities are that
the soil or loose material covers a hidden outcrop, which
can be sought by digging pits ors point if no outcrop is
visible, the probabilities are that the soil or loose
material covers a hidden outcrop, which can be sought
by digging pits or trenches. Trenches are limited to
depths of 6 or 7 ft. but test pits can be economically
sunk to a depth of 40 ft. or more.
2. Hydraulicking – process of removing light covering of soil
or vegetation. Water is pumped under pressure through
a nozzle, removes the covering, thus exposing a clean
rock surface.
Hydraulicking
3. Indications from Vegetation - contact or a vein, if geologic
condition are favourable, may be traced on the surface by
the difference in vegetation on the two sides.
4. Burrowing Animals – the dirt thrown out by animals while
digging holes may yield indications of ore when it is panned.
5. Drilling – shallow drill holes are used for prospecting wet
placer ground.
Other types of drilling used in prospecting are;
a.) diamond drill,
b.) churn drill,
c.) hammer drill and
d.) calyx or shot drill.
6. Piercing – in soft soil free from stones, small drive pipes may
be used to secure a sample of underlying material or to
determine the thickness of the soil. Pointed steel rods have
been used to probe for quartz veins beneath a few feet of
moss and humus
7. Geochemical Prospecting – includes any method of mineral
exploration based on a systematic measurement of the
chemical properties of a naturally occurring material. The
primary purpose of such measurements is the location of
geochemical anomalies, or of areas in which the chemical
pattern of the materials indicates the possible presence of
ore.
8. Geophysical Prospecting – is geophysics applied to the
location of mineral deposits or geological structures
concealed beneath the surface of the earth.
 Types of Geophysical Prospecting:
a. Magnetic Method
1) Hotckiss superdip needle which is more sensitive than the
common dip needle.
2) Air-Borne Magnetometer
b. Gravitational Method
c. Seismic Method – a disturbance such as the firing of a charge
of explosive buried in the earth may create both longitudinal
and transverse vibrations in the ground. The velocity with
which waves will travel through rock materials depends on
their physical properties.
d. Self-potential Method – electrolytes, commonly aqueous
solutions of dissociable salts, possess the power of
transmitting electric current by the movement of ions. Rocks,
though non-conductors if dry, become electrolytic conductors
when they contain a certain amount of moisture, which
always contains some dissolved salts.
Magnetic Method
Gravitational Method
Self Potential Method
e. Electrical Method of Prospecting – metallic sulfides
are generally good conductors of electricity; hence
electrical methods are suitable for prospecting for ore
deposits.
Types of Electrical Method:
1) Earth Resistivity Method
2) Parallel Wire Method
3) Electromagnetic Method
Earth Resistivity Method
Parallel Wire Method
 Drilling for Exploration
1. Hand Auger:
• Uses:
a. Used for testing shallow alluvial deposits.
b. Used for clay & ordinary material.

• Construction/Operation:
Extension rods are constructed of ¾ or 1 in.
pipe. For turning, a tee fitting and pipe handles are
used with the pipe and a special type of handle
with the square rods.
Hand auger
 2. Empire Drill:
• Use – for prospecting alluvials.
• Construction/Operation:
The drill consists of a flush-joint casing, on the
lower end, a toothed cutting shoe is placed and on the
other end, a light steel platform upon which the drillers
stand. The platform is provided with an attachment in
which a sweep can be inserted and the casing and
platform rotated by man or horsepower. Rotation keeps
the casing loose and free. Drilling tools are attached to
solid drill rods which are raised and allowed to fall. As the
hole is sunk, additional lengths of casing are added and
when the desired depth is reached, casing is pulled by
attaching a special pulling head and using a stand and
lever.
Empire drill
 3. Churn Drill:
• Uses – in alluvial, lead & zinc & copper.
• Construction/Operation:
The cutting tools consist of the bit, drill stem, jars and rope
socket. The jars are used for loosening the bit when stuck. The rope
socket is attached to the drilling cable. The string of tools is tightly
screwed together, conical threaded ends and sockets being the
common arrangement. A floor jack and heavy wrenches are used to
screw the parts together. Reciprocation of the drill rope is effected by a
walking beam. The drilling cable is attached to the temper screw and
the drill is fed downward by turning the screw. When the feed screw
has reached the full length of its travel the drilling cable is tightened
up, the rope clamp loosened and fastened upon the new position on
the drilling cable, while the feed screw is returned to its original
position. The cycle of operation is drilling 3 to 4 ft., removal of the drill,
lowering the bailer, working the bailer up and down until filled,
hoisting and discharging it, lowering the drill and the resumption of
drilling. Removal of cuttings is accomplished by the use of bailer.
 4. Hydraulic Rotary:
• Use – oil well drilling,
• Construction/Operation:
The hydraulic rotary consists of heavy line of tubing
or pipe (4 to 6 in. diameter) to one end of which is
attached to a cutting bit. The pipe is rapidly revolved by a
rotating turntable. Water or water laden with mud, is
pumped down through the drilling tube and issues
through openings in the sides of the cutting bit. The bore
is put down without casing and when completed the
string of casing is placed. A derrick is necessary for
handling the drill tube and casing. A duplex pump and an
engine for rotating the turntable is essential.
 5. Jetting Method:
• Use – drilling in moderately consolidated materials and alluvial
deposits.
• Construction/Operation:
The drill is attached to a hallow sectionalized tube or pipe. The
upper end is attached to swivel hose connection. The drill used is chisel
shaped and provided with two waterways discharging close to the cutting
edges. A stream of water is pumped through the drill rod and forces the
cuttings out between the rod and the casing. A tee. The drill used is chisel
shaped and provided with two waterways discharging close to the cutting
edges. A stream of water is pumped through the drill rod and forces the
cuttings out between the rod and the casing. A tee is placed on the top of
the casing for the discharge of the surplus water and cuttings. The stroke
of the drill is from 5 to 8 in., and it is rotated slightly on each stroke. A 200
or 300 lb. weight is us is placed on the top of the casing for the discharge
of the surplus water and cuttings. The stroke of the drill is from 5 to 8 in.,
and it is rotated slightly on each stroke. A 200 or 300 lb. weight is used for
driving the casing. A low derrick, pump and engine ared for driving the
casing. A low derrick, pump and engine are required.
 6. Diamond Drill
• Use – for tough hard rocks such as unaltered igneous rocks,
quartzites and slates.
• Construction/Operation:
The diamond drill consists of a soft hollow steel bit 1 ¼
to 2 ¾ in. in diameter in which are embedded or set generally
six to eight black diamonds. The bit is attached to a core
barrel and this in turn attached to a line of hollow steel rods 5
or 10 ft. sections. The drill is rotated at a rate of speed and
either the weight of the rod or the pressure due to the feed
apparatus, together with the abrading action of the diamond
bit, results in the cutting of an annular groove, the core being
received in the core barrel. Water is usually pumped through
the rods and serves to remove the cuttings. On the removal of
the drill, the core is broken off by the core lifter and can be
removed from the core barrel.
Diamond drilling
Drills are made in different sizes for depths from
300 ft. up to 10,000 ft. Standard sizes are as
follows:
a) EX - 7/8 in. core
b) AX -1 1/8 in. core
c) BX -1 5/8 in. core
d) NX -2 1/8 in. core
 7. Chilled-Shot Drilling
• Use – tough hard rock such as unaltered igneous rock, quartzites
and slates.
• Construction/Operation:
The rotating and drill rod arrangements are similar to those
used in diamond drilling. Large holes are drilled and bigger cores
obtained. The bit is soft steel and is attached to the core barrel which
is in turn attached to the hollow drill rods. Above the core barrel is an
annular open shell which receives the coarsest cuttings. The core is
detached by introducing a quantity of small gravel into the feed water.
This wedges between the core and bit and the rotation of the bit
breaks the core. Chilled shot is used as an abrasive and is introduced at
regular intervals through a tee swivel, one branch of which serves for
the introduction of the shot and the other for the water. Rotation is
accomplished by a pair of bevel gears, the hollow feed rod, having a
feather-way which connects with the driven bevel. Attached to the
upper end of the feed rod is a cross-head to which ropes are attached
on either side.
Chilled shot drill
 Lesson 3

Introduction to mineral resource/ore

reserve estimation
MINERAL RESOURCES – MINERAL RESERVES
 Mineral Resources
A mineral resource is a concentration of
naturally occurring solid, liquid, or gaseous
material in or on earth’s crust in such a form and
amount that economic extraction of a
commodity from the concentration is currently
or potentially feasible. Location, grade, quality,
and quantity are known or estimated for specific
geologic evidence.
 Mineral Resources
Categories of Resources:
1) Measured mineral resources – that part of a
mineral resource for which tonnage, densities,
shape, physical characteristics, grade, and
mineral content can be estimated with a high
level of confidence. The data must be based on
detailed and reliable information from
outcrops, trenches, pits, workings, and
drillholes. The location of the data points must
be spaced closely enough to confirm geological
and/or grade continuity.
 Mineral Resources
2) Indicated mineral resources – that part of a
mineral resource for which the tonnage,
densities, shape, physical characteristics, grade,
and mineral content can be measured with a
reasonable level of confidence. Data are
gathered from similar sample points as used for
measured mineral resources, but the locations
are too widely spaced to confirm geological
and/or grade continuity. However, the spacing is
close enough for continuity to be assumed.
 Mineral Resources
3) Inferred mineral resource – that part of a
mineral resource for which tonnage, grade,
and mineral content can be estimated with a
low level of confidence. It is inferred from
geological evidence and assumed, but not
verified.
 Mineral Reserve
A mineral reserve is the portion of a measured
mineral resource that is economically mineable at a given
moment in time.
Two categories of mineral reserve:
1) Proved mineral reserve – that part of a measured
resource that can be economically mined.
2) Probable mineral reserve – that part of an indicated
resource and, in some circumstances, measured
mineral resource that can be economically mined. A
probable mineral reserve entails a lower level of
confidence than a proved mineral reserve.
 RESERVE ESTIMATES
Mineral reserve estimation, or ore
estimation, involves the calculation of the extent
(units: tons, tonnes, cu. yd., etc.) and average
grade or tenor (units: percent, oz/ton,
g/tonnes, $/ton, $/million BTU, etc.) of reserves
in a deposit. Ore estimation provides the basic
data that determine whether the mine is to be
developed; it begins during exploration and
continues throughout the life of the mine.
 RESERVE ESTIMATES
Two General Categories of Ore Estimation Phase of
Exploration:
1) Classical Methods – use the area of influence
(volume of influence) principle or the included
area (included volume) principle in determining
the tonnage and grade.
2) Weighting Methods – assign mathematical
weights to numerous sorrounding samples to
provide a statistically more accurate estimation
of the grade in a given area or block.
 RESERVE ESTIMATES
Two Categories of Classical Method:
1) Area of influence method (also known as the polygon
method or the extended area method) – the principle of
the method is that every area constructed in the analysis
contains points that are closer to the sample collection
point within the area than to any other sample point.
Therefore, the entire area of influence of that sample is
assumed to have a value based on the grade at that one
sample point (fig a & b). The total amount of metal or
other mineral content of each area of influence is
calculated as follows:
Total content = grade at sample location x weight
inside the area
 RESERVE ESTIMATES
2) Triangle method (also known as included area method or
the valence method) – uses a similar procedure, but each
triangular area is associated with three sample
locations(fig. c). The individual areas are valued based on
the weighted average of the three corner-point samples.
The total mineral content of each area is then calculated
as:
Total content = weighted average grade at the
three sample points x weight or mass
inside the area.
The weighted average grade is obtained using the
length of the boreholes in the deposit as the weighting
factors.
 RESERVE ESTIMATES
3) Section method – cross sections are utilized
in a systematic manner. Each sample
gathered from a cross section is used to
determine the weighted average grade of
that section. The section averages are then
combined, using the basic logic of the
extended area or the included area method,
which is based on using volumes instead of
areas (fig. d)
 RESERVE ESTIMATES
Weighting method.
This method provides a logical procedure for
determination of a block of material based on
samples gathered within a region of the block. All
known samples within that region are used to
determine the estimate of grade for the block, with
weights assigned based on the distance from the
block.
Two categories of weighting method:
1) Inverse distance weighting method
2) Geostatistics
Where:
i = 1, 2, . . . n
W = weight for the ith sample
i

di = distance to the ith sample

n = number of samples
α = exponent used in the equation to reflect
the strength of the relationship between
holes in the deposit.
If one were to select a different power for d, the
result would change. The general formula is;
Where:
i = 1, 2, . . . n
m = power
gi = grade of the ith sample
di = distance to the ith sample
n = number of samples within the radius of
influence
* A radius of influence should be established so
that a number of drillhole data should only be
considered which are within the radius of
influence.
Where:
ɣ(h) = represents the semivariogram value
for the distance h
g i = grade at sample I
g i+h = grade at a sample located a
distance h from sample I
N = number of samples that are a
distance h from another sample
 Lesson 4

Mine Development
Development is the work necessary to bring a
mine into full scheduled production. It includes
planning, design, construction, and other
phases. Development generally proceeds
according to the plan adopted during the
feasibility study, but the plan may be altered as
more and better information becomes available
during successive phases of the project.
Definition of Terms
• Development – is the work of driving openings to and in a
proved ore body to prepare it for mining and transporting the
ore.
• Exploitation – is the work of mining and marketing the ore.
• Hanging Wall – the wall or rock on the upper side of an
inclined vein. It is called the roof in bedded deposits.
• Foot Wall – the wall or rock under a vein. It is called floor in
the bedded deposits.
• Shaft - a vertical or inclined excavation in a mine extending
downward from the surface or from some interior point as a
principal opening through which the mine is exploited. A
shaft is provided with a hoisting engine at the top for handling
men, rock and supplies, or it may be used only in connection
with pumping or ventilating operations.
• Drift – a horizontal opening in or near an ore body and parallel to
the course of the vein or long dimension of the ore body.
• Crosscut – a horizontal opening driven across the course of a vein or
in general across the direction of the main workings. A connection
from a shaft to a vein.
• Level – mines are customarily worked from shafts through
horizontal passages or drifts called levels. These are commonly
spaced at regular intervals in depth and are either numbered from
the surface in regular order or designated by their actual elevation
below the top of a shaft
• Sump – an excavation made underground to collect water, from
which water is pumped to the surface or to another sump nearer
the surface. Sumps are placed at the bottom os a shaft, near the
shaft on a level or at some interior point.
• Winze - a vertical or inclined opening sunk from a point inside a
mine for the purpose of connecting with a lower level or exploring
the ground for a limited depth below a level.
• Raise – a vertical or inclined opening driven upward from a level to
connect with the level above, or to explore the ground for a limited
distance above one level. After two level are connected, the
connection may be a winze or a raise, depending upon which level
is taken as the point of reference.
• Stope – an excavation from which ore has been extracted. The term
stoping is commonly applied to the extraction of ore, but does not
include the ore removed in sinking shafts and in driving levels, drifts
and other development openings.
• Tunnel - a horizontal or nearly horizontal underground passage that
is open to the atmosphere at both ends. The term is loosely applied
in many cases to an adit.
• Adit – a horizontal or nearly horizontal passage driven from the
surface for the working or unwatering of a mine. If driven through
the hill or mountain to the surface on the opposite side, it would be
a tunnel.
• Collar – the term applied to the timbering or concrete around the
mouth or top of a shaft.
Main Openings : the principal working openings of a mine may be the
following:
1. Adit
2. Entry
3. Stope
4. Incline shaft
5. Vertical shaft

Factors that determine the position and type of underground mine

opening.
1. A convenient and safe site for the surface plant.
2. Minimum footage.
3. Low maintenance cost.
4. The physical nature of the hanging wall, vein/deposit and footwall.
5. Dip of the vein/deposit.
Factors in Mine Development
(for underground and surface mining)
1. Locational Factors
a. Ease of Transport of the mineral products and supplies.
b. Availability of labor and support services (housing, educational and
recreational facilities, health care, etc.)
c. Operational (and psychological) impacts of climate and weather.
d. Employees' satisfaction with their lifestyle.
2. Natural and Geologic Factors
a. Topography
b. Spatial relations (size, shape, altitude, depth, etc.) of the orebody.
c. Geologic considerations (mineralogy, petrography, structure, ore body
genesis, thermal gradient, presence of water, etc.)
d. Rock mechanics properties (strength, modulus of elasticity, hardness,
abrasiveness, etc.)
e. Chemical and metallurgical properties of the ore that affect processing
and smelting.
3. Social-Economic-Political-Environmental
Factors
a.Demographics and occupational skills of the local
population.
b.Means of financing and marketing (determines
the scale and continuity of operation.)
c.Political stability of host country (less developed
countries constitute a high risk for foreign
investors)
d.Environmental legislation
e.Government aids, government restrictions, and
taxes on mineral enterprises.
f. Locational Factors
 Lesson 5

Mine Exploitation
Exploitation is the work of recovering mineral from
the earth in economic amounts and delivering it to
shipping or processing facilities. In this process, a
number of extractive unit operations are employed,
the primary ones constituting the production cycle
and secondary ones the auxiliary or support
operations.
The method or methods chosen for exploitation of
the mineral deposit defines the fourth stage in the
life of the mine. Selection of the method(s) to be
used is the key to be made in mine development.
The strategy for conducting the exploitation
stage of mining should be clear as mineral
production begins. The cardinal rule of
exploitation is to select a mining method that
matches the unique characteristics (natural,
physical, geologic, social, political, etc.) of the
mineral deposit being mined, subject to the
requirements of safety, mineral processing, and
the environment , to yield the overall lowest
cost and return the maximum profit.
Criteria that enter into the choice of a mining
method.
1. Shape, size and spatial position of the ore deposit.
(shallow, deep seated, etc.)
2. The absolute value and the spatial distribution of
mineral values. (uniformly distributed, low grade,
high grade)
3. The mechanical and chemical properties of the ore
and the country rock. (strength – weak or strong)
4. The available financial arrangements for the
initiation and conduct of the mining operation
5. Safety, welfare and government regulations.
6. The effect of subsidiary operations.
 Module 2

Introduction of mineral deposits; Mine

production cycles. Drilling, Blasting,
Loading, Hauling; Surface and underground
mining methods; and Miscellaneous topics
– Underground Mine Supports
 Lesson 1

Introduction of Mineral Deposits

 Mineral Deposits:
Magma – hot , fluid, subterranean mass that contains the
common rock-forming substances, different gases, such as
water vapour, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen
sulphide, sulphur, chlorine, boron, and the various metals.
During cooling, a magma differentiates or splits into mineral
components that give rise to basic and acid phase of igneous
rocks and to a residual mother liquor which is the principal
source of ore minerals. As magmas work their way toward the
surface through the earth’s crust they obey the laws of
solutions, and as the temperature and pressure become less,
the different mineral components crystallizes and separate
from the solutions in the order of saturation under the given
conditions.
 General Classification of Mineral Deposits:
1. Primary Mineral Deposits – mineral deposits
formed from magmas.
– Subdivision of Primary Mineral Deposits:
a. Syngenetic deposits – deposits formed
contemporaneously with the parent rock and enclosed by
it.
– Two types of syngenetic deposits:
1) Syngenetic Igneous Deposits – or magmatic segregations
are formed by the solidification of basic magmatic material
and occur as dikes and irregular masses. The deposits are
associated with igneous parent rocks that are fresh or are
but slightly altered.
2) Syngenetic sedimentary deposits – include placer deposits
and beds which are simple sedimentary rocks containing
sufficient valuable minerals to constitute ore.
b. Epigenetic deposits – deposits formed subsequently
to the enclosing rock by the mother liquor
penetrating into surrounding rocks and depositing
minerals.
Classification of epigenetic deposits:
1) Contact-metamorphic deposits – formed in the zone
adjacent to a magma with soluble or replaceable rocks.
Magmatic gases and solutions invade and change the
rocks which they intrude, forming new minerals and
depositing valuable metals.
2) Pegmatite deposits – found in or near igneous rocks
and at the outer margins of intrusive masses. They have
the composition of igneous rock but contain a smaller
range of minerals; consequently, they are derived from
very thin fluids. Pegmatites are usually coarsely
crystalline.
3) Deposits of Deep-Seated Vein Zone – it is estimated
that these were formed at depths of 12,000 ft. or more
beneath the earth’s surface and under conditions of
temperature ranging from 300 to 575C. The
mineralizing solutions entered fissures and other
openings under great pressure. The deposits are
commonly tabular or veinlike in form, though some are
irregular in shape.
4) Deposits of the Intermediate Vein Zone – thought to
have been formed at depths ranging from 4,000 to
12,000 ft. below the surface and at a temperature
between 175 and 300 C. such a deposit may take the
form of a fissure vein, of a series of parallel fissures
called a sheeted zone, of a replacement of the wall rock
of fissures or of a large disseminated deposit.
5) Deposits of the Shallow Vein Zone – formed at depths
probably not greater than 2,000 ft. below the surface
and within a temperature range of from 50 to 200C.
they are formed as tabular veins, irregular veins with
ore chambers, and as ledges and irregular replacement
deposits.
6) Surface Deposits formed by Springs of Magmatic Origin
– these minor deposits of the metals are of little
economic importance but of considerable scientific
interest.
2. Secondary Mineral Deposits – these are primary
mineral deposits that are eventually subjected to
alterations through weathering, both chemical and
mechanical. Mechanical weathering is the breaking
down of rock masses by changes of temperature, the
expansion of water as it freezes in cracks, the growth
of roots and abrasion from moving solid particles.
Chemical weathering is caused by the solvent action
of surface waters. Oxygen and carbon dioxide take
part in chemical reactions. Soluble substances are
carried away as carbonates, sulfates and chlorides.
Organic acids derived from decomposing vegetable
matter are active in chemical reactions.
 Classes of Secondary Mineral Deposits:
a. Sedimentary Rocks – these include the plastic sedimentary rocks,
such as shale, sandstone and quartzite, formed from the products of
mechanical weathering and also various ore deposits, such as iron
ores, phosphate deposits, salt beds and potash deposits, forming
chemically precipitated sedimentary rocks. This also includes the
sedimentary rocks composed of organic deposits, such as certain
iron ores, phosphate deposits and coal.
b. Secondarily Enriched Deposits – these are formed by the dissolving
or leaching of the metal from the upper part of the deposit close to
the surface, the metal content of the solutions collecting on the
metallic minerals below, thus forming an enriched zone.
c. Residual and Detrital Deposits – residual deposits are formed from
insoluble ,materials left by the removal of soluble material from the
original substance. Placer or detrital deposits are composed of
minerals that have been released by weathering and later have been
transported, sorted and collected by natural agencies into valuable
deposits. Such minerals are usually of high specific gravity and are
resistant to abrasion and weathering.
3. Metamorphic Ore Deposits – form by
regional metamorphism whereby both
primary and secondary mineral deposits are
subjected to great pressure and heat
accompanied by chemical reactions.
 Lesson 2

Mine Production Cycles: Drilling,

Blasting, Loading, Hauling
 PRODUCTION CYCLE
DRILL + BLAST + LOAD + HAUL
 Drilling for Blasting Purposes
1. Piston Drill (Hollow Type):
a. Admits of the use of water and air through the hollow steel.
b. Consists in the reciprocation of the piston, piston rod and drill
steel as a unit, the force of the blow being obtained by the mass
of all the moving parts. The diameter of the cylinder determine
the size of the drill.
c. Principal advantage is the use of the internal spray and exhaust air
to wet and remove the cuttings from the drill hole.
d. Drilling rate is dependent on the following;
1) Size of the drill.
2) Air pressure used.
3) Hardness of the rock.
4) Diameter and depth of drill hole.
5) Time required for setting up the drill and changing steel.
Piston drill
 2. Traction Drill:
a. Suitable in very hard rock and where systematic
drilling over an extensive area is necessary.
b. Suitable in open pit mining work.
c. Two types of traction drill;
1) Consists of drill carriage on which is mounted a
piston and boiler.
2) Known as auto-traction drill, consists of a large-size
piston drill mounted on a heavy iron base which
slides between vertical guides and is raised and
lowered through a height of 10 ft. – 20 ft. (feed
length) by a power-driven drum hoist.
Traction drill
 3. Leyner – Ingersoll:
a. Distinguishing feature is the use of a light piston
which strikes the end of the drill steel. The drill steel is
pressed against the bottom of the hole and is not
reciprocated.
b. Rotation of the drill steel is accomplished by flukes on
the prolongation of the piston. These engage and turn
the chuck. The piston itself is rotated by a rifled bar
and ratchet as in the case of the piston drill. Hollow
steel is used and water is forced through the drill
steel, eliminating dust and disposing of the cuttings.
c. The principal field of this drill is in drifting,
crosscutting, stoping and tunnel work in hard rock.
Leyner- - Ingersoll Drill
 4. Air-Feed Mounting:
a. It is a telescopic air-feed hammer drill.
b. Rotation is accomplished by the driller twisting the whole drill back and
forth, the air feed keeping the drill up to its maximum cutting capacity.
c. The telescopic feed is a light cylinder in which a piston attached to a
pointed piston rod operates. Air pressure forces the rod out and lifts the
drill into position, and keeps the drill steel pressed firmly against the
bottom of the drill hole.
d. Two types of air-feed hammer drill are as follows:
1) Solid steel type which is suitable for drilling holes at any angle above
30 and finds important application in stoping and raising.
2) Hollow steel type can be used in any position, as the exhaust air in
passing through the drill steel will blow the cuttings out of the hole.
e. Both the solid steel type and the hollow steel type are restricted to
shallow holes, 5’ to 6’ in depth and to holes of moderate diameter, 1.5”
to 2”.
f. The advantage of the air-feed mounting is that it is light weight and the
most important drilling equipment in use.
Air feed mounting drill
 5. Non-rotative Hand-held Hammer Drill:
a. Variously termed “hand-feed hammer”,
“plugger” or “plug drill”.
b. It is a small hammer drill mounted for hand
use and without an automatic rotating
device.
c. Used in the following:
1) Shaft Sinking
2) Block-holing Hard Granite
3) Limestone quarry
 6. Rotative Hand-held Hammer Drill:
a. Known as “Jack- Hammer”.
b. It combines the features of the hand-held
hammer drill with the additional feature of
the mechanical rotation of the drill steel. This
is accomplished by the use of a rifled bar,
ratchet, and rotatable chuck.
Jack hammer
 7. Electrically Operated Percussion Drill:
• Types:
a. Box Electric Drill- the piston and hammer head are carried in a movable
cylinder which is reciprocated by crank driven by gears and direct
current motor. The driving of the cylinder forward compresses the air
back of the piston and drives it forward, giving the blow to the steel. On
the return stroke of the cylinder, the air is compressed back of the
piston and it is returned to its original position.
b. Fort Wayne Electric Drill – the hammer device consists of a heavy disc in
which are placed two heavy hammer heads. These are thrown out by
centrifugal force and strike the projecting end of a rounded steel block
which delivers the blow to the drill steel. After the blow, the hammer
head is driven back into its socket and clears the block.
c. Electric Air Drill or Temple Drill – consists of a cylinder mounted upon a
shell and provided with piston, piston rod, chuck, rotating apparatus
and feed screw. The cylinders are operated by an alternating or direct-
current motor and one compresses while the other exhausts, the cycle
being alternately repeated for each evolution of the crank shaft. The
effect is to reciprocate the piston of the drill.
Percussion drill
 8. Rotary Drill:
a. Used for drilling in shale, slate, coal, gypsum, iron ore or other soft
materials.
b. It is driven by compressed air engine or a direct current motor.
c. Two types of Rotary Drill:
1) Solid Feed Bar – the feed bar is rotated by feather which engages a
slot in the feed bar and a hollow shaft surrounds the feed bar and
contains the feather. This shaft is driven by the motor with a single
gear reduction. The feed bar is advanced forward by a feed nut
which is attached to the frame of the machine. The spiral drill is
carried in a simple chuck at the end of the feed screw. The length of
the drill used is limited and for deep holes several drills are required.
2) Hollow Feed Bar Type – the drill rod passes through the center of
the feed screw and is clamped by a chuck at the forward end of the
feed screw. A long drill can be used and as the hole is deepened, it
can advance forward for each setting of the feed screw.
Crawler rotary drilll
 Rock Breaking
Explosives:
a. Straight Dynamites - consists of nitroglycerine, sodium nitrate and
combustible material. Grade range from 15% to 60% nitroglycerine.
b. Blasting Gelatine - consists of nitroglycerine and nitocellulose. Only one
grade is made. It is equivalent to 100% nitroglycerine.
c. Gelatine Dynamite - consists of blasting gelatine, sodium nitrate and
combustible material. Grades range from 35% - 60%.
d. Low-Freezing Dynamite – consists of nitroglycerine, a nitro-substitution
compound, sodium nitrate and combustible material. Grades range from
20% - 60%.
e. Ammonia Dynamite - consists of nitroglycerine, sodium and ammonium
nitrates and combustible material. Grades range from 20% - 60%.
f. Granulated Nitro Powders – consist of black powder with more or less
nitroglycerine.
g. Black Powder - consists of sodium nitrate, carbon and sulphur. Grades
are determined by the size of powder grain.
h. Permissible Explosives – consist of ammonium nitrate and some
sensitizer, ammonium nitrate and some combustible or a low grade
straight dynamite.
i. Nitroglycerine - made by mixing sulphuric acid or nitric acid in a steel
tank and then adding glycerine. It has a density of 1.6.
j. Ammonia Gelatine Dynamite – part of the nitroglycerine used in
gelatine dynamite is replaced by ammonium nitrate.
k. Semigelatine - these dynamite have ammonium nitrate as the chief
explosive ingredient but contain a certain percent of blasting gelatine to
make them plastic enough to remain in holes directed upward. They are
more resistant to water than ammonia dynamite. But they do not have
the high water resistant of gelatine dynamite.
l. Low-density Dynamite - dynamites may contain up to 80%
ammonium nitrate as the principal explosive ingredient.
m. Ammonium Nitrate-Fuel Oil Explosives (ANFO) – mixture of commercial
fertilizer grade ammonium nitrate mixed either with proper amount of
finely divided carbon or fuel oil (diesoline).
n. Slurry Explosive - contain water as an essential ingredient. The water
makes a solution which is thickened into gel and solid ingredients are
held in suspension. The gel provides the necessary water resistance.
Dynamite
Anfo explosive
Black powder
Slurry explosive
 Explosive Accessories:
a. Detonators – use to detonate or initiate the
explosion of high explosives such as dynamite,
gelatine dynamite and permissible explosive.
Two kinds of detonators:
1. Ordinary Blasting Cap (OBC) – consist of a copper cap
0.22” internal diameter and of varying length,
charged with fulminate of mercury, a mixture of
fulminate and potassium chlorate or nitrotoluene.
2. Electric Detonators or Electric Blasting Cap (EBC) –
consist of a copper cap, 0.26” inside diameter and of
varying length, within which is a charge of fulminate
of mercury or fulminate of mercury and potassium
chlorate.
Ordinary blasting cap
Electric blasting cap
b. Fuse – safety fuse consists of a core of finely divided black
powder adhering to or contained in a thread composed of
hemp, jute or cotton fibers. The core is protected by one
or more outer wrappings.
c. Instantaneous Fuse – used for simultaneous blasting of a
number of charges in a quarry work.
d. Delay Detonators – Regular delay – electric caps used to
secure the greatest efficiency from a round of holes which
are fired in a certain order. These detonators are made by
inserting a delay element between the igniting charge and
the main charge in the bottom of the cap.
e. Millisecond Delays – the delay in millisecond delay caps is
very short, the delay element being based on the same
principle as that in regular delay caps. The time interval
varies from 25 to 50 milliseconds.
Safety fuse
Delay detonator ms
Millisecond delay
f. Primacord – Bickford Fuse – this is a
detonating fuse having an explosive of
pentaerythritetetranitrate (PETN). Its speed
of detonation is 21,000 ft./sec.
g. Blasting Machine – device used to initiate the
electric blasting cap.
Detonating cord
 Blasting:
• Disruptive Effect – the property of an explosive to shatter a rock
mass. Explosives that have strong disruptive effect are as follows;
– Dynamites
– Blasting Gelatine
– Gelatine Dynamites
• Propulsive Effect – the property of an explosive to heave and throw
a mass. Explosives that have strong propulsive effect are as follows;
– Dynamites
– Blasting Gelatine
– Gelatine Dynamites
– Black Powder
– Low-grade Dynamites
• Explosives having a high rate of detonation have a high disruptive
effect, while explosives having a very low rate of detonation have a
high propulsive effect.
• Detonation – process of propagation of a shock wave
through an explosive, which is accompanied by a chemical
reaction that furnishes energy to maintain the shock wave
propagation in a stable manner. Ex. Dynamites, TNT,
Blasting Gelatine and ANFO.
• Deflagration – characteristics of low explosives that do not
exhibit a shock wave in the explosion but burn with an
extremely rapid rate. Ex. Black Powder
• Properties of high explosives that are important in blasting;
– Density
– Velocity of detonation
– Temperature and pressure of the detonation state
– Temperature and pressure of the explosion state.
– Heat of explosion
– Available energy
• Two classes of Explosives:
– Low Explosives – leave about half of their volume as a solid residue
after explosion and produce a volume of gases that exerts slow
pushing effect on the confining material because of the relatively low
rate at which they are generated. Ex. Black Powder
– High Explosives – almost completely gasified when properly initiated
and exert a strong shattering effect on the confining walls because of
the rapid generation of gases.
• Velocity of Detonation (VOD) – is the rate at which the detonation
wave travels through an explosive column. The typical VOD of
commercial explosives ranges from 8,000 to 26,000 ft./sec. (2,438 –
7,925 m./sec.). Generally, explosives with a low velocity of
detonation tend to release gas pressure over a long period of time,
compared to an explosive with a high VOD, which may release gas
pressure over a shorter period of time. Consequently, an explosive
with a low VOD has more heave which is important in applications
where material displacement is desired. A high VOD gives the
shattering action that is necessary for difficult blasting conditions.
 Open-pit Blast Design
• Blast Geometry and Initiation Sequence
– Major Parameters are as follows:
– Blasthole diameter
– Burden and Spacing
– Stemming length and subdrilling
– Height of bench and blasthole inclination
– Blasthole pattern, delay timing and initiation
sequence.
– Charging, initiation and priming
– Geometry of the free face.
• Burden – distance from a borehole to the
nearest free face at the time of detonation.
Ash formula for Burden Calculation:
B = (kbde)/12 (ft.)
where:
kb = burden ratio, 25 – 35
de = explosive column diameter, in.
• Spacing – distance between adjacent
blastholes, measured perpendicular to the
burden.
Ash formula:
S = ksB (ft.)
where:
ks = spacing ratio, 1 – 1.8
• Borehole Diameter:
Ash formula:
D = H/10 (in.)
where:
D = borehole diameter (in.)
H = bench height (ft.)
• Bench Height:
Ash formula:
H = khB (ft.)
where:
H = bench height (ft.)
Kh = 2
B = burden (ft.)
• Subdrilling – distance drilled below the floor
level.²
Ash formula:
J = kjB (ft.)
where:
J = subdrilling (ft.)
Kj = 0.2 – 0.5
• Stemming – is an inert substance, loaded on
top of the explosive charge to give
confinement of the explosive gases.
Ash formula:
T = ktB (ft.)
where:
T = stemming (ft.)
Kt = 0.7 – 1.3
• Wet Hole Loading:
Hfw = (HowD²)/(D² - de²)
where:
Hfw = final height of water, (ft.)
How = original height of water, (ft.)
• Drilling Pattern:
– Square Drill Pattern – has equal burdens and
spacing.
– Rectangular Pattern – spacing is larger than
burden.
– Staggered Pattern
• Initiation System:
– Box Cut, V – Plan
– Corner Cut, Echelon Plan
 Underground Blast Design
• Burn Cut – the principle of the burn cut is to drill
a series of closely spaced parallel holes straight
into the face so as to break out a central cavity.
• Wedge Cut – holes are drilled at an angle to the
face in a symmetrical wedge formation. When
these holes are detonated, the rock is displaced
in the direction of the tunnel axis.
• Fan Cut – is a modified half wedge applied to the
full width of the tunnel.
• Drag Cut
• Pyramid Cut
 Boulder Breaking
• Bull Dozing – several sticks of 50% or 60%
dynamite are laid upon the surface of the boulder
and exploded.
• Mudcapping – a thick “pad” of mud or moist clay
is used to cover the charge of explosive.
• Block Holing – a 1” or 1.25” hole is drilled a foot
or more into the boulder and charged with from
0.25 to 0.5 stick of explosive.
• Underblasting – a hole is scooped out under the
boulder and the powder charge placed there.
 Loading, Haulage and Hoisting
• Mine Haulage – is for moving men, supplies, ore and waste
both underground and on the surface.
• Manual Handling:
– Mucking – term applied to shovelling underground.
– Wheel Barrows – used in small, irregular mine workings and in
some stopes as an alternative for shovelling.
– Hand Tramming – pushing of cars by manpower and is limited to
mines of small output, to prospects and to work where
mechanical haulage would not be justified.
• Animal Haulage:
Horses and mules are used for underground hauling in
coal and in metal mines and are suited for hauling
mineral from 400 to 1,500 ft. distance.
Mine car
Mine cars
Load haul dump (lhd)
• Scrapers:
Work may be divided into three classes;
– For loading cars at the face in drifts, crosscuts, tunnel and
stopes, where material is transported a short distance and the
scraper functions largely as a loader, pulling the ore up a slide
into a car.
– For moving ore from the face into cars some distance away,
horizontally or down a slope almost steep enough for the ore to
slide, where the scraper transports and also loads.
– For moving ore from the face of the stope to chutes or glory
holes, for transferring ore on sublevels to chutes leading
downward to the main haulage level and for distributing waste
fillings in stope.
Two basic types of scrapers:
– Hoe Type (open type) – suitable for moving coarse, lumpy ore.
– Box Type (close type) – suitable for handling fine materials.
• Car–Loading Slides:
Use in mining flat deposits where raises are
not required, and driving crosscuts and tunnels.
• Locomotive Haulage:
– Steam Locomotive – used in underground coal mine
and in transporting material on the surface.
– Geared Locomotive – used where grades are steep
and curves sharp.
– Diesel Mine Locomotive – used in coal mines.
– Compressed Air Locomotive – used in both coal and
metal mines.
– Electric Locomotive – used for long distances and
fairly steep grades.
• Mine Cars:
Factors to be considered in the selection of
mine cars:
– Tonnage mined per day.
– Width of drifts and levels.
– Gauge of tracks.
– Radius of curve.
– Whether cars are loaded by hand, from chutes or by
loading machines.
– Method of dumping.
– Size of mine cage if cars are to be hoisted.
– Weight of broken ore per cubic foot.
– Physical condition of ore – wet, dry, fine or coarse.
• Types of mine cars:
– Solid or Box Type – requires a rotary dump at
the unloading terminal.
– Rocker Dump – V-shaped body round at the
bottom.
– Gable-bottom – capital W shaped in cross
section.
– Granby Car – side-dumping car.
– End-dump Car – used for hand tramming in
small mine.
• Rope Haulage:
Classification of Rope Haulage System:
– Self-acting or Gravity – used for transporting material on the surface
and to transfer loaded cars from one elevation to a lower one in mine.
Loaded cars will pull the empty car up the grade. The grade should be
steep.
– Engine Planes – loads are raised or lowered on the slope by a stream
or electric hoist.
– Tail –Rope Haulage – a double drum haulage engine at the unloading
terminal winds the main rope on one drum. The train or trips of cars is
connected to the other end of the main rope and also to a main rope
and also to a tail rope which extends to the inner terminal in the mine
around a tail sheave at one side of the haulage way to the other drum
at the haulage engine.
– Endless-rope Haulage – one rope runs continuously around the
haulage circuit. The tracks and single cars are attached to the moving
rope by special clips on the car.
– Aerial Tramways – suited for transporting material across rough
country.
Rope haulage
Aerial tramway
• Belt Conveyors:
These are used at concentrating plants for moving ore and for
delivering tailings to the dump, as well as in coal mines for
transporting coal from the rooms or working plate to the main
haulage line.
• Hoisting Drums:
– Cylindrical Drums – either grooved or plain
• Counterweight – used with a cylindrical drum to reduce the hoisting moment at a single
load.
• Balanced hoisting with cylindrical drums – when hoisting is in balance, both drums rotate
with shaft, one rope winding onto the drum from the top and the other unwinding from
the drum on the bottom.
– Conical Drum – was developed to secure improved starting conditions for
steam hoisting engine, since the size of the steam cylinders is proportional to
the staring moment.
– Cylindro-conical Drums – combination of a cone and a cylinder.
– Bicylindro-conical Drum – composed of two cylindrical sections one of small
diameter, joined by a conical section or a scroll of uniform or variable pitch.
• Cages – used to bring small mine cars directly to the surface.
Belt conveyor
Cylindrical drum
Mine cage
 Lesson 3

Surface and underground mining

methods
Surface mining is a broad category of mining in
which soil and rock overlying the mineral deposit
(the overburden) are removed, in contrast to
underground mining, in which the overlying rock is
left in place, and the mineral is removed through
shafts or tunnels.
Surface mining began in the mid-sixteenth century
and is practiced throughout the world. In most
forms of surface mining, heavy equipment, such as
earthmovers, first remove the overburden. Next,
large machines, such as dragline excavators or
bucket wheel excavators, extract the mineral.
 Classification of Mining Methods
Locals Class Subclass Method
Open pit mining
Mechanical Quarrying
Open cast (strip)
mining
Surface
Auger mining
Placer Hydraulicking
Aqueous Dredging
Solution Borehole mining
Leaching
Underhand Stoping
Unsupported Overhand Stoping
Sublevel stoping
Room and Pillar
Underground Shrinkage Stoping
Supported Cut-and-fill stoping
Square-set stoping
Longwall mining
Caving Sublevel caving
Block caving
Top Slicing and
cover caving
 Lesson 4

Miscellaneous Topic (Underground

Mine Supports)
 The Support of Mine Excavations
Materials used for supporting mine openings are; a) wood, b)
concrete, c) steel, d) brick, and e) stone.
• Wood - first material used as mine support, since it could be
obtained with little difficulty and was easily framed. It had the
advantage of relatively great strength and stiffness in propotion to
its weight.
• Reinforced Concrete and Steel – are both used to a considerable
extent, throughout the mines of the world, for supporting the more
permanent mine openings.
• Brick and Stone – were formerly used in may mines in Europe but
are apparently giving way to reinforced concrete or steel.
However, no substitute have the peculiar advantage of wood in failing
gradually when loaded beyond its strength , and in giving warning of
approaching failure by audible cracking.
Strength of Timber:
The density of clear wood is often a good criterion of its strength, for
it represents the actual amount of wood substance in a unit volume.
However, strength is affected by such defects as; a) decay, b) knots, c)
shakes, d) checks, e) splits, and f) crossgrain.
• Knots – if in the lower half of timbers used as beams, reduce the strength
of the beam in the proportion that the cross-sectional area of the knots
bears to the cross-sectional area of this part of the beam. Timbers with
large knots are better utilized as posts, for knots can resist compression.
• Shake – is a separation of the wood between the growth rings. It reduces
the area that resists shear.
• Check - is a separation of wood across the growth rings. It also reduces
the area that resists shear.
• Pitch Pocket - is a local shake that is filled with pitch. If a large number of
pitch pockets are found in one stick, the shearing strength of the wood is
reduced.
Moisture affects the strength of the timber. Drying stiffens and strengthens
the wood fibers, and that a dry stick has double the strength of the same stick
when green.
 Types of Mine Timbering:
1. One-piece Set:
This term is applied to a single stick of timber called a post,
stull, or prop. Post and prop are applied to vertical timbers and stull is
applied to inclined timbers or those placed horizontally. A post is set by
first digging a shallow hole or hitch to give a firm footing, and after the
post has been placed in the hitch, a headboard is put over the top and
wedges are driven between the headboard and the rock to tighten the
post in place. The function of the headboard is to distribute the
pressure over the end of the post from splitting as weight comes on it.
In narrow, inclined vein, stulls are not placed perpendicular to
the dip but an angle above the perpendicular and that is fron one-
tenth to one-quarter of the dip. In this position, a downward
movement of the hanging wall tightens the stull in place instead of
loosening it.
The maximum economic length of stull ranges from 12 to 20 ft
unless they are very large diameter.
2. Two-piece Set:
This consists of a cap and a single post. If
the ground is loose and must be supported over
the side or back, logging commonly of 2-in
boards are used. These boards extend from the
centreline of the post or cap to the middle of
the next post or cap. If they are placed touching
each other, such an arrangement is called tight
lagging; if a few inches apart, depending on the
nature of the ground to be held back, it is called
open lagging.
3. Three-and Four-Piece Sets:
In ground that requires greater support, three- and
four-piece sets are used. The post are spread apart at the
bottom to give greater stability. In narrow and steeply deeping
veins, the greatest pressure is usually from the side walls, but
in drifts and crosscuts, the pressure may be vertical , lateral or
both, if the ground is very heavy. A sill is used in case the
pressure is unusually heavy or the bottom is soft. Sills are also
necessary where a level is to be caught up from below.
Depending on the pressure, sets are made of 8-in, 10-
in or 12-in timbers which may be round or square. Lagging
may be 2 in., 3 in., or 4 in. thick.
Sets are held in place by blocking or wedging. Blocks
are placed at the ends of the caps and on the caps over the
posts. Wedges are then driven between the blocks and rocks.
4. Square Sets:
This system can be adapted to irregular ore
bodies. The four vertical timbers of a square set
are called post. To start timbering astope with
square sets, sills are laid in trenches cut in the
floor of the stope, if the stope is to be “caught
up” from the level below. Caps and girts are
placed on top of the posts, a line of caps at right
angles to a line of girts.
5. Cribbing:
Cribbing offers a strong method of supporting
the back and may take various forms. The simplest
cribbing is made by laying two pieces of round or
square timbers on top of two similar pieces but at
right angle to them. Spacing each pair of timbers
nearly as far apart as the timbers are long forms a
pen which can be built up to any desired height. For
astronger support, the crib can be filled with waste
rock. Small temporary shafts, raises and ore chutes
are frequently timbered with some form of tight or
solid cribbing.
 Steel Support
Types of Tunnel Support Systems made of Steel:
a) Continuous Rib,
b) Rib and Post,
c) Rib and Wall Plate,
d) Rib, Wall Plate and Post,
e) Full Circle Rib

Factors which must be considered in choosing a support

system:
• Method of excavation.
• Rock behaviour.
• The size and shape of the tunnel cross section.
a. Continuous Rib Type:
This is usually made in two pieces for maximum
speed of erection, lowest first cost, and lowest erection
cost. It is recommended for use in rocks where bridge
action period is long enough to permit the removal of
gases and mucking.

b. Rib and Post:

This type is generally for use in tunnels whose roof
joins the side walls at an angle instead of a smooth curve.
It may also be used in large tunnels, such as double track
rail road or two-lane highway tunnels, to keep the size of
the rib segments within handling and transporting
limitations.
c. Rib and Wall Plate:
This type is recommended for use in tunnels
with large cross sections with high straight sides
through good rocks or in large circular tunnels,
where it is possible to support the wall plate by pins
and where the strata below the wall plate does not
require support.

d. Rib, Wall Plate and Post

This type of support post spacing to be
different from the ribd spacing and is
recommended for use in tunnels with high vertical
sides.
e. Full Circle Rib
This is used in the following;
a) In tunnels in squeezing, swelling and crushed
rock or any rock that imposes considerable
side pressure, also where bottom conditions
make it impossible to carry roof loads on foot
blocks, and in earth tunnel conditions
sometimes encountered in rock tunnels.
b) Under earth tunnel conditions with joints at
spring line.
 Yielding Arches:
Types of yielding arches:
a. Symmetrical 3 segment arch with leg segments toed in – used for
predominantly vertical ground pressure.
b. Symmetrical 3 segment arch with leg segments toed out – used to
resist vertical as well as lateral ground pressure.
c. Symmetrical 2 segment arch rapid assembly characteristics – used
for moderate ground pressures.
d. Non-symmetrical 3 segment arch – overlap located in plane at
right angle to predominant direction of ground pressures.
e. Symmetrical 4 segment arch for special ground pressure patterns
– used in large sized openings to facilitate handling.
f. Symmetrical 4 segment ring to resist ground pressure from all
directions.
 Rock Bolts:
The process of rock bolting consist of three
steps;
a. Anchoring the bolt in the hole.
b. Applying tension to the bolt to place the rock
under compression parallel to the bolt.
c. Placing the bolts in such a pattern that they
will properly support the rock structure.
The basic principle of bolting is that it
should make the bolted rock an integral part of
supporting structure.
Rocks may be supported by bolts in five ways;
a. Suspension
b. Beam Building
c. Reinforcement of arched opening requiring
support.
d. Reinforcement of opening otherwise self-
supporting
e. Reinforcement of walls against shear and
compressive action.
Preservation of Timber:
The causes of the destruction of mine timber are
commonly given as follows;
a. Decay - 45%
b. Fire and crushing - 35%
c. Insects - 10%
d. Waste - 10%
Decay – is caused by low forms of plant life or fungi which
breaks down the wood substance and use it as food. The most
effective way of preventing the growth of fungi is to poison
their food supply by impregnating the wood with some
chemical or combination of chemicals.
Treating the exposed surface of timber with Portland
Cement and sand sprayed from a cement gun acts as n
effective protection against fire; and for this reason many
mines treat timbers in shaft and at shafts station.
 Timbers are best prepared for treatment with a
preservative by proper seasoning. If green timber must be
treated, it can be conditioned by steaming and then applying
a vaccum.
Methods of Treating Timber:
a. Brush treatment or painting the timber with or merely
dipping it in a tank of preservative.
b. Open –Tank Method, in which the timber is immersed in a
tank of cold preservative.
c. Pressure Process, in which preservative is forced into the
cells of the wood.
Preservatives used are;
a. Creosote
b. Zinc Chlorite
c. Sodium Flouride
FIN