INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

TOPIC : STUDY PROJECT ON TPP BOILERS AND TURBINE

OPERATIONS

RASHTRIYA ISPAT NIGAM LIMITED(RINL),

VISAKHAPATNAM STEEL PLANT,
VISAKHAPATNAM, ANDHRA PRADESH

DEPARTMENT Of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MAULANA AzAD NATIONAL INSTITUTE Of TECHNOLOGY, BHOPAL
AN INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL fULfILLMENT Of
THE REQUIREMENT fOR THE AWARD Of THE DEGREE Of BACHELOR Of
TECHNOLOGY IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.

SUBMITTED BY:
NAME: CHIMALAKONDA SUBRAHMANYA KRISHNA TEJA
B. TECH 3rd YEAR , MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
TRAINEE NO: 100033487
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that the project report entitled “STUDY

PROJECT ON TPP BOILERS AND TURBINE
OPERATIONS” has been submitted by
CHIMALAKONDA SUBRAHMANYA KRISHNA TEJA
Project Trainee No: 100033487 at Visakhapatnam Steel
Plant in, CAPTIVE POWER PLANT – 2 (CPP-2)
Department, in partial fulfilment of their training in this
organization under my supervision and guidance, during
their training period of four weeks from 20-05-2024 to
15-06-2024.

T. SATYA DATTU
DEPUTY GENERAL MANAGER
CAPTIVE POWER PLANT
VISAKHAPATNAM STEEL PLANT
 DECLARATION

I here by declare that the Internship titled “STUDY

PROJECT ON TPP BOILERS AND TURBINE
OPERATIONS” , in VSP is a BONAFIDE work done by
me. The project work is done in partial fulfilment of the
requirement for the completion of “INDUSTRIAL
TRAINING PROGRAMME”, for the award of B.Tech in
Mechanical Engineering from our university
MAULANA AZAD NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY, BHOPAL.

DATE : JUNE 2024

PLACE: VISAKHAPATNAM
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to say my sincere thanks to D.V.S.

NAGESH sir (General Manager) , Captive Power Plant,
Department of Visakhapatnam Steel Plant for his
encouragement and permission to do this project.

I express my deep sense of gratitude and thanks to our

project guide T. Satya Dattu sir (Deputy GM) &
A S Rao sir (Deputy Manager), CPP-2 Department of
VSP for their excellent guidance, encouragement and
valuable advice throughout the course of this project.

I’m also thankful to Das sir, Sunil sir & Shubham sir for
clarifying my doubts and for giving valuable advices for
doing this project.

DATE: CHIMALAKONDA SUBRAHMANYA

KRISHNA TEJA
RD
3 Year, Mechanical Engineering
MANIT, BHOPAL
 PREFACE
This project is related to the boiler and turbine
operations in thermal power plant at Visakhapatnam
steel plant. The main objective of the project is to study
the various equipment provided for boilers and process
of calculation of total efficiency of the thermal power
plant in Visakhapatnam steel plant.

A generating station which converts heat energy

obtained by the combustion of coal or other fuels into
electrical energy is known as Power Station. A Thermal
power plant basically works on the principle as seen in
Rankine cycle. Steam is produced in the boiler by
utilizing the heat obtained by combustion of coal. This
steam is used to run the prime mover where it gets
expanded. This expanded steam is then condensed in a
condenser to be fed into the boiler again. The prime
mover (here the steam turbine) drives the alternator
which converts the mechanical energy of the turbine into
electrical energy. Such types of power stations are
generally commissioned where its main source coal and
water are available in abundance.
 INDEX

 OVERVIEW OF RINL
 THERMAL POWER PLANT

 BOILER MOUNTINGS AND

ACCESSORIES

 PROCESSES INVOLVED IN BOILER-

TURBINE SYSTEM

 RANKINE – CYCLE

 WATER TO STEAM CONVERSION PATH

 POWER GENERATION IN TURBINE

GENERATOR

 CONCLUSION
 OVERVIEW OF RINL
The various departments available in the VSP
include:
1) Raw Material Handling Plant (RMHP)
2) Coke ovens & Coal Chemical Plant (CO&CCP)
3) Sinter Plant (SP)
4) Blast Furnace (BF)
5) Steel Melt Shop (SMS)
6) Continuous casting Department
7) Rolling Mills RS & RS (Roll Shop & Repair Shop)
8) Light & Medium Merchant Mill (LMMM)
9) Wire Rod Mill (WRM)
10) Medium Merchant & Structural Mill (MMSM)
11) Thermal Power Plant (TPP)

Let’s discuss about above departments in brief:

RMHP :
VSP annually requires quality raw materials viz. Iron Ore, fluxes (Lime
stone, Dolomite), coking and non coking coals etc. to the tune of 12-13
Million Tonnes for producing 3 Million Tonnes of Liquid Steel. To handle
such a large volume of incoming raw materials received from different
sources and to ensure timely supply of consistent quality of feed
materials to different VSP consumers, Raw Material Handling Plant
serves a vital function. This unit is provided with elaborate unloading,
blending, stacking & reclaiming facilities viz. Wagon Tipplers, Ground &
Track Hoppers, Stock yards Crushing plants, Vibrating screens, Single /
twin boom stackers, wheel on boom and Blender reclaimers, Stacker –
cum – Reclaimer (SCR). In VSP peripheral unloading has been adopted
for the first time in the country. Coking coals are received through
conveyors directly from M/s Gangavaram Port Limited to Coal Stock
Yard.

CO & CCP :
Blast Furnaces, the mother units of any Steel plant require huge
quantities of strong, hard and porous solid fuel in the form of hard
metallurgical coke for supplying necessary heat for carrying out the
reduction and refining reactions besides acting as a reducing agent. At
VSP there are Five Coke Oven Batteries, 7 Metre tall and having 67
Ovens each. Each oven is having a volume of 41.6 cu. metre & can hold
upto 31.6 Tonnes of dry coal charge. There are 5 Coke Dry Cooling
Plants (CDCP) each having 4 cooling chambers. Nitrogen gas is used as
the Cooling medium. The heat recovery from nitrogen is done by
generating steam and expanding in two back pressure turbines to
produce 7.5 MW each.

SINTER PLANT :
Sinter is a hard & porous ferrous material obtained by agglomeration of
iron ore fines, coke breeze, Lime stone fines, Metallurgical wastes, etc.
Sinter is a better feed material to the blast furnace in comparison to the
iron ore lumps and its usage in BF help in increasing productivity,
decreasing the coke rate & improving the quality of the hot metal
produced.

BLAST FURNACE :
Hot metal is produced in the Blast furnaces which are tall vertical
furnaces and it runs with blast at high pressures & temperatures. Raw
materials are charged from top and the hot blast at 1373 K to 1573 K
2nd 5.75 g/cm2 is blown from bottom. VSP has two 3200 cu meter BF's
with conveyor charging and named as "GODAVARI" & "KRISHNA".
STEEL MELT SHOP :
Steel generated has lot number of impurities in it which makes it unfit for
engineering practices. So in order to remove those impurities from the
steel, oxygen is blown to enter in to the convertor so that the impurities
gets oxidized and form slag with basic fluxes as that of lime. By
controlling the oxygen flow the different grades of the3 steel of superior
quality can be obtained.

CONTINUOUS CASTING DEPARTMENT :

VSP has six-4 strand continuous casting machines capable of producing
2.82 million Tonnes / year Blooms of size 250 x 250 mm and 250 x 320
mm. Entire quantity of molten steel produced (100%) is continuously
cast in radial bloom casters which help in energy conservation as well as
production of superior quality products. Facilities at continuous casting
machines include a lift and Turn table for ladles, Copper mould,
oscillating system tundish, Primary & Secondary Cooling arrangement to
cool the steel bloom. Gas cutting machines for cutting the blooms in
required lengths ( Av. 6 metres long ).

ROLLING MILLS RS & RS (ROLL SHOP & REPAIR

SHOP) :
Blooms produced from the continuous casting machines 40
not find much applications as such and are required to be shaped in
to products such as billets, round, squares, etc, by rolling them in
the sophisticated, high capacity, high speed, fully automated rolling
mills, namely Light & Medium Merchant Mill, Wire Rod Mill &
Medium Merchant and Structural Mill.

LIGHT & MEDIUM MERCHANT MILL :

LMMM comprises two units, namely Billet Mill and Bar Mill. The Billet Mill
is facilitated with 2 Walking Beam Furnaces and it is a continuous seven
stand mill. In the Billet Mill 250 x 320 mm size blooms are rolled into
Billets of 125 x 125 mm size. Billets are supplied from this mill to Bar Mill
of LMMM, Wire Rod Mill and for sale. Bar Mill is facilitated with tempcore
heat treatment technology, automated bundling facilities and high degree
of automation. Bar Mill is a 2 strand continuous mill having a capacity of
7,10,000 tons per annum and produces rounds and rebars of various
sizes from 16 mm to 36 mm.

WIRE ROD MILL :

Wire Rod Mill is fully automated & sophisticated mill. The billets are
rolled in 4 strand, high speed continuous mill having a Annual Capacity
of 8,50,000 Tonnes of Wire Rod Coils. The mill produces rounds in 5.5 -
14 mm range and rebars in 8, 10 & 12 mm sizes. The mill is equipped
with standard and Retarded Stelmor controlled cooling lines for
producing high quality Wire rods in Low, Medium & High carbon grade
meeting the stringent National & International standards viz. BIS, DIN,
JIS, BS etc. and having high ductility, uniform grain size, excellent
surface finish.

MEDIUM MERCHANT & STRUCTURAL MILL :

This mill is a high capacity continuous mill. The feed material to the mill
is 250 x 250 mm size blooms, which is heated to rolling temperatures of
1200 °C in two walking beam furnaces. The mill is designed to produce
8,50,000 tons per annum of various products such as rounds, squares,
flats, angles (equal & unequal), T bars, channels, IPE beams I HE
beams (Universal beams).

THERMAL POWER PLANT :

The detailed study of this department will be discussed in the next
section:
 THERMAL POWER PLANT
THERMAL POWER PLANT (TPP) caters to the needs of power
requirements for all the departments of Visakhapatnam Steel
Plant. Power plays a major role for the continuous working of
Steel Plant.

Principle behind TPP working :

The Boiler produces steam of high pressure and high

temperature by burning of fuel in the presence of air, which
goes to the turbine and rotates the turbine blades and the
shaft of the turbine is connected to the generator which
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy and in
turbine steam undergoes expansion so it loses its pressure
and temperature and this steam goes to the condenser,
where the condensate forms and gets stored in hotwell, with
the help of condensate extraction pump (CEP) this
condensate is sent to deaerator where dissolved oxygen is
removed from the water and then with help of boiler feed
pump (BFP) again this water goes to the boiler and this cycle
repeats again and again.

Components of TPP:
1. Boiler
2. Turbine Generators
3. Chemical Water Treatment Plant
4. Chilled Water Treatment Plant

BOILER
A boiler is a closed vessel in which water is converted into
steam with the help of burning of fuel in presence of air under
desired pressure, temperature and mass flow rate. The steam
produced by boiler can be used for various purposes including
heating, for generation of power with the help of turbine by
rotating it. Boilers are commonly used in residential,
commercial and industrial settings.

The basic principle behind a boiler's operation involves heating

a fluid to a high temperature, which generates steam or hot
water. This is typically achieved by burning fuels such as
natural gas, oil, coal, or biomass in a combustion chamber.
The heat produced from the combustion process is
transferred to the water or fluid, raising its temperature. The
resulting steam or hot water is then circulated through pipes
and used for its intended applications.

Boilers come in various types, including:

1.According to location of boiler shell axis:

a) Horizontal Boilers : If the axis of boiler shell is horizontal.

b) Vertical Boilers : If the axis of boiler shell is vertical.
c) Inclined Boilers :If the axis of boiler shell is inclined.

2.According to flow medium inside the tubes:

a) Fire-Tube Boilers: When hot flue gases are inside the

boiler tubes
b) Water-Tube Boilers: When water is inside the boiler
tubes

3.According to boiler pressure:

a) Low Pressure boilers: If the pressure inside the boiler is

between 3.5 to 10 bar.
b) Medium Pressure boilers: If the pressure inside the boiler
is between 10 to 25 bar.
c) High Pressure boilers: If the pressure inside the boiler is >
25 bar.
4.According to drafts used:

a) Natural draft: When air or hot flue gases flow due to

difference in densities with the help of chimney.
b) Artificial draft: When air or hot flue gases flow with the
help of Induced Fan (ID Fan).

5.According to method of water circulation:

a) Natural circulation: If circulation of water takes place due

to difference in densities.
b) Forced circulation: If circulation of water takes place due
to a pump.

6.According to furnace position:

a) Internally fired: If the furnace is inside the boiler.

b) Externally fired: If the furnace is outside the boiler.

7.According to type of fuel used:

a) Solid: If we use solid type fuel in the boiler.

b) Liquid: If we use liquid type fuel in the boiler.
c) Gaseous: If we use gas type fuel in the boiler.
8.Accoring to number of tubes:

a) Single tube boiler: If boiler consists single fire or water

tube.
b) Multi tube boiler: If boiler consists more than one fire or
water tube.

9.According to boiler mobility:

a)Stationary: If boiler is fixed at one position.

b) Portable: If boiler can be moved from one position to
another.
c)Marine boiler: If boiler is positioned on the water surface.

Boilers play a crucial role in many industries and residential

settings, contributing to heating, energy production, and
various industrial processes. Proper maintenance and safety
precautions are essential when operating boilers, as they
involve high temperatures and pressure, which can be
hazardous if not managed correctly.

➢ Vizag Steel Plant has 8 boilers, 6 in TPP out of which 5 are in

working condition and 2 in CPP 2(Captive Power Plant).
➢ These are multi fuel fired stationary and high pressure,
water tube boilers with single drum.
➢ The steam produced in these boilers at full load rating is
supplied to the turbine generators which produce power by
expanding steam.
➢ 6 boilers at TPP have a steam flow capacity of 330
Nm^3/Hr.
➢ The 2 boilers located at CPP2 have a steam flow capacity
of 223Nm^3/Hr.

Difference between Fire tube and Water tube boilers are as

follows:

Fire tube Boilers Water tube Boilers

In this boiler the hot flue gases The water is present inside the
is present inside the tubes and tubes and hot flue gases
water surrounds them surrounds them

They are low pressure boilers. They are high pressure boilers
The operating pressure is
about 25 bar
The steam generation rate in
fire tube boiler is low, i.e.
9tonne per hour
The overall efficiency of this
boiler is upto75%
It can works on fluctuating
loads for shorter period
Operating cost is low
It is suitable for small power
plants
and the operating pressure is
165 bar
The steam generation rate in
water tube boiler is high, i.e
450 tonne per hour
The overall efficiency is upto
90% boiler with the
economiser
It works on fluctuating loads
all the time
Operating cost is high
It is suitable for large power
plants
Let’s discuss about some of the boilers briefly:

Cornish Fire Tube Boiler:

This style of boiler includes a plain cylindrical shell, and a
single heat pipe through its center. It has a single exhaust flue
connected to its single heat pipe.

Lancashire Fire Tube Boiler:

The construction of the Lancashire boiler is similar to the
Cornish, except it has two internal fire tubes and
two exhaust flues.
Locomotive Fire Tube Boiler:

The locomotive boiler is an obsolete design. Originally found in

steam locomotives, wood or coal was burned in the
combustion chamber (furnace). A unit with a horizontal tube
design, it was a rugged piece of equipment, with a
high steam capacity.

Cochran Fire Tube Boiler:

The Cochran boiler is also a vertical-type boiler of multi-

tubular design. It includes multiple horizontal fire tubes.
Babcock and Wilcox Boiler:
Babcock and Wilcox Boiler was discovered by George Herman
Babcock and Stephen Wilcox in the year 1967. This is a water
tube boiler, used in steam power plants. In this type of boiler,
water is circulated inside the tubes and hot gases
flow over the tubes.
La mont Boiler:
La Mont boiler is a type of forced circulation water-tube boiler
in which the boiler water is circulated through an external
pump through long closely spaced tubes of small diameter.
The mechanical pump is employed in order to have an
adequate and positive circulation in steam and
hot water boilers.
 TURBINE GENERATOR
A turbine generator, often referred to simply as a 'generator," is
a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy. It consists of two main components: a turbine and a
generator. The turbine converts the energy of a moving fluid
(usually steam, gas, or water) into mechanical rotational
energy, and the generator then converts this mechanical
energy into electrical energy.

Here's how a turbine generator works:

1. Turbine: The turbine is a mechanical device that typically

has blades or vanes attached to a shaft. When a high-speed
fluid (such as steam or gas) passes through the blades, it
imparts a force on them, causing the turbine to rotate. In the
case of water turbines, the force of flowing water is used to
turn the turbine blades.

2. Generator: The rotating shaft of the turbine is connected

to the rotor of the generator. Inside the generator, there are
coils of wire that surround the rotor. As the rotor spins due to
the turbine's rotation, it induces a changing magnetic field in
the coils of wire. This, in turn, generates an electrical current
according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.

3. Electricity Generation: The generated electrical current

in the coils of wire is typically alternating current (AC). This
alternating current can be used directly or converted to a
different voltage or frequency using transformers and other
equipment, depending on the intended application.
Turbine generators are commonly used in power plants to
generate electricity on a large scale. There are different types
of turbine generators based on the type of fluid used to turn
the turbine:

1. Steam Turbine Generators: These use high-pressure

steam produced by heating water using methods like burning
coal, natural gas, or nuclear reactions. The steam is then
directed through the turbine to generate rotational energy.

2. Gas Turbine Generators: Also known as combustion

turbine generators, these use combustion gases produced by
burning fuels like natural gas, oil, or even biomass. The hot
gases expand through the turbine, causing it to rotate.

3. Hydroelectric Turbine Generators: These use the kinetic

energy of flowing water in rivers or dams to rotate the turbine.
The water's energy is harnessed to generate electricity.

4. Wind Turbine Generators: Wind turbines are a type of

turbine generator that convert the kinetic energy of wind into
rotational energy through the rotation of large blades• This
rotation is then used to generate electricity.
Turbine generators are integral to the generation of electricity
in various ways, contributing to both industrial and
commercial power generation, as well as renewable energy
production.

➢ TPP has 03 Turbine Generators, four of 60 MW capacity

each, one of 67.5 MW, 02 Back Pressure Turbine Generators
of 7.5 MW and 02 Gas Expansion Turbine Generators of 12
M W.
➢ CPP2 has 01 Turbine Generator of 120 MW capacity.

CHEMICAL WATER TREATMENT

PLANT
A chemical water treatment plant in boilers is a system
designed to treat and condition water used in boilers to
prevent scale formation, corrosion, and other issues that can
arise due to the presence of impurities and minerals in the
water. Proper water treatment is essential to ensure the
efficient and safe operation of boilers, as untreated water can
lead to reduced efficiency, equipment damage, and even
boiler failure.

The primary goals of a chemical water treatment plant for

boilers are:

1. Scale Prevention: When water is heated, minerals and

impurities can precipitate out and form deposits on the
internal surfaces of the boiler, known as scale. Scale buildup
can reduce heat transfer efficiency and potentially lead to
overheating and equipment damage. Chemical treatments can
help prevent scale formation by keeping these minerals in
suspension or preventing their deposition.
2. Corrosion Protection: Corrosion is a major concern in
boilers, as it can weaken the structural integrity of the system
and lead to leaks and failures. Chemical additives are used to
create a protective film on metal surfaces, which helps
prevent the corrosion caused by the presence of oxygen,
dissolved gases, and other corrosive elements in the water.

3. pH Adjustment: The pH level of the water in a boiler is

important for maintaining optimal conditions for preventing
both scale formation and corrosion. Chemicals are added to
adjust the pH within a recommended range.

4. Oxygen Scavenging: Oxygen dissolved in water can lead to

corrosion, especially in the presence of high temperatures.
Chemicals called oxygen scavengers are used to remove or
neutralize dissolved oxygen in the water.

5. Control of Suspended Solids: Suspended solids in water

can lead to fouling and reduced heat transfer efficiency.
Chemical treatments help keep these solids in check and
prevent their buildup on heat transfer surfaces.

6. Control of Alkalinity and Hardness: Alkalinity and

hardness levels in water can impact the effectiveness of other
treatments and contribute to scale formation. Chemicals are
added to control these parameters and keep them within
acceptable limits.
7. Biological Control: Bacterial growth in boiler systems can
lead to biofilm formation, which can impact heat transfer and
promote corrosion. Biocides are used to control bacterial
growth and keep the system clean.

The specific chemicals and treatment methods used

depend on the type of boiler, the quality of the feedwater, and
the operational requirements. Regular monitoring of water
quality and treatment effectiveness is crucial to ensure that
the chemical water treatment plant is functioning as intended.

It's important to note that improper chemical treatment can

have negative consequences, including increased corrosion,
equipment damage, and even safety hazards. Therefore, water
treatment should be carried out by trained professionals
following industry standards and guidelines.
 CHILLED WATER TREATMENT
PLANT
Chilled water plants that use cooling towers are a common
setup for providing cooling to large buildings, industrial
facilities, and other applications where a significant amount of
cooling is required. Cooling towers are an integral part of these
systems as they help dissipate the heat absorbed by the
chilled water from the building's air conditioning system.
Here's how a chilled water plant with cooling towers works:
1. Chiller Operation and Chilled Water Generation:
The process begins with a chiller, which cools water to a
low temperature. The chiller's evaporator absorbs heat from a
water loop, producing chilled water.

2. Chilled Water Distribution:

The chilled water is then pumped through a distribution
system of pipes to different areas of the building or facility that
require cooling.

3. Cooling Towers:
As the chilled water absorbs heat from the indoor spaces, its
temperature increases. This warmer chilled water is then sent
to cooling towers.

4. Heat Exchange and Evaporation:

In the cooling tower, a process called evaporation cooling
takes place. The warm chilled water is distributed over a
series of fill material, which increases the surface area for air
and water interaction. Air is blown through the fill material,
causing a portion of the water to evaporate. This evaporation
process removes heat from the remaining water, significantly
reducing its temperature.

5. Heat Dissipation:
The heat that was initially absorbed from the building is
carried away by the air as water evaporates. This cooled
water, now referred to as "cooled return water," is then sent
back to the chiller plant to be reused in the cooling cycle.
6. Condenser Water Loop:
In addition to the chilled water loop, there's a separate
loop called the condenser water loop. This loop collects hot
water from the chiller's condenser, where the heat absorbed
from the building's air is released. The hot condenser water is
sent to the cooling towers.

7. Cooling Tower Airflow:

The cooling tower's fans draw ambient air through the fill
material, facilitating the heat exchange and evaporation
process. The warm, moist air exit the cooling tower, and some
of the evaporated water may be visible as a plume of vapour.

8. Heat Rejection and Cycle Completion:

As the hot condenser water flows through the cooling
tower, it releases heat to the surrounding air via evaporation
and convection. The cooled condenser water then returns to
the chiller's condenser, completing the cycle.

In the boilers, the water from these cooling towers goes

into the hot well which cools the water formed in the
condenser.
 BOILER MOUNTINGS AND
ACCESSORIES

Boiler mountings are various devices, fittings, and

control instruments that are essential for the proper
functioning, safety, and efficient operation of a boiler. They are
installed on the boiler itself to ensure its safe operation and to
facilitate various processes associated with boiler
management. Boiler mountings serve both operational and
safety functions. Here are some common examples of boiler
mountings:

1) Safety valve:
When the pressure inside the boilers increase , then
these safety valves lifts up from the seat automatically
and allow the steam to enter into the atmosphere until
the pressure inside the boiler becomes normal.
 l
2)Water level indicator: These indicate the amount of water
in the boiler shell so that to operate the boiler safely and
smoothly.

3)Pressure gauge: These indicate the pressure of the water

leaving the boiler or even to measure the pressure of the
steam inside the boiler.
4) Fusible plug: Whenever the water level decreases than its
rated level then these fusible plugs are exposed to a very high
temperatures and these plugs starts melting and allow steam
to enter atmosphere and maintain the pressure inside and
protects from explosion.
5) Steam stop valve: Regulates steam flow from one steam
line to another or from boiler to steam line.

6) Feed check valve: Regulates flow of water from pump to

boiler and ensures there is no backflow from boiler to pump
due to high pressure in boiler and low pressure in pump.
7) Blow off cock: Used to remove excess water from boiler
shell and also used to remove mud, sediments from the shell
for proper functioning of boiler.

8) Man hole: Used for regular maintainance and inspection

for the welfare of the boiler.

Boiler accessories are additional devices and components

that enhance the functionality, efficiency, and overall
operation of a boiler system. Unlike boiler mountings, which
are primarily focused on safety and basic operation,
accessories provide supplementary features and capabilities.
Here are Some common examples of boiler accessories:
1)Air pre heater(APH): With the help of heat of flue gases
we heat air before it enters into the furnace to increase
the efficiency of steam production and this air is
produced with the help of FD FAN (Forced draft fan or
Secondary fan) which is taken from atmosphere.

2)Economiser: With the help of heat of hot flue gases we

heat the water before sending into the drum.
 3) Super heater: These are used to heat the wet steam
(saturated) and to convert it into dry steam and sends it
to the turbine. This is also present in the flue gas path. In
VSP we use primary super heater, secondary super
heater and tertiary super heater before sending the steam
into turbine.

4) Feed pump: This sends water into the boiler and sends
only required amount of water to maintain proper
functioning of boiler.

5) Deaerator: A deaerator removes dissolved gases,

such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, from the feedwater
before it enters the boiler. This helps prevent corrosion and
scaling within the boiler.

6)Chemical Dosing System: This system introduces

chemicals into the boiler water to prevent scaling,
corrosion, and the formation of deposits. Proper water
treatment is essential for the longevity and efficient
operation of the boiler.
7)Draft Fans and Dampers: These accessories help
control the airflow and draft within the boiler system.
They ensure proper combustion and heat transfer by
maintaining the right balance of air and fuel.

8) Steam Separator: A steam separator is used to

separate water droplets from steam before it enters the
distribution system. This ensures that only dry steam
reaches the intended destination.

Boiler accessories are designed to optimize boiler efficiency,

reduce maintenance requirements, and enhance overall
system performance. They are chosen based on the specific
needs of the boiler system and the type of fuel being used.
Properly selected and maintained accessories contribute to
the longevity, safety, and efficiency of boiler operations.

Mountings
Devices mounted on boiler
surface for safe operation of
boiler and control of steam
generation
Accessories
Devices fitted in boiler to
increase efficiency and proper
working of boiler

Mounted on boiler shell Mounted outside boiler shell

A boiler should not be A boiler can be operated
operated without mountings without accessories
 PROCESSES INVOLVED IN A
BOILER AND
TURBINE SYSTEM

CONDENSATION:
Condensation is the process which involves the
transformation of a substance from a gaseous state to a liquid
state as it loses heat. This occurs when a gas cools down and
its molecules lose energy, causing them to come closer
together and form a liquid.

Key points about condensation include:

1. Temperature Reduction: Condensation takes place

when a gas is cooled down to a temperature below its
condensation point, also known as its dew point. At this
temperature, the gas molecules lose energy and slow down,
leading to the formation of liquid droplets.

2. Surface Nucleation: Condensation often begins

when gas molecules come into contact with a surface that is
colder than the dew point. The surface provides a nucleus for
the gas molecules to gather and form liquid droplets. This is
why you might see water droplets forming on the surface of a
cold drink or on a mirror in a steamy bathroom.
3. Cloud Formation: In the atmosphere, condensation
plays a crucial role in cloud formation. When warm, moist air
rises and cools at higher altitudes, it reaches its dew point,
causing the water vapor to condense into tiny water droplets.
These droplets gather to form clouds.

4. Phase Transition: Condensation is a phase transition,

similar to evaporation and boiling. It involves a change in the
arrangement of molecules from a gas to a liquid, as opposed
to the vaporization process where a liquid changes to a gas.

5. Applications: Condensation is used in various

applications, such as in distillation processes where vapor is
cooled and condensed to obtain a liquid product. It's also a
fundamental process in the water cycle, where water vapor in
the atmosphere condenses into water droplets, eventually
leading to precipitation.

Condensation is a common occurrence in everyday life, and

it's an essential process in various natural and industrial
contexts.
 CONDENSATION OF WATER
The condensation of water refers specifically to the
process by which water vapor in the air transitions back into
liquid water as it cools down. This is a fundamental aspect of
the water cycle, which involves the continuous movement of
water between the Earth's surface, the atmosphere, and back
again. Here's a more detailed explanation of the condensation
of water:

1.Water Vapour: Water exists in three states: solid (ice),

liquid (water), and gas (water vapor). Water vapor is the
gaseous form of water that is present in the air. It is formed
when water evaporates from liquid or solid surfaces due to
heat energy.

2. Cooling and Dew Point: As air cools down, its capacity

to hold water vapor decreases. The temperature at which air
becomes saturated with moisture and water vapor begins to
condense into water droplets is known as the dew point.
When the dew point is reached, condensation occurs.

3. Formation of Water Droplets: When air cools and

reaches its dew point, the water vapor molecules lose energy
and slow down. This causes them to come closer together and
form tiny water droplets. These droplets gather on surfaces
such as grass, windows, and leaves, forming dew.
4. Cloud Formation: In the atmosphere, warm air rises
and cools as it ascends to higher altitudes. As the air
temperature drops to the dew point, water vapor in the air
condenses into small water droplets or ice crystals, forming
clouds. Clouds are essentially visible masses of condensed
water vapor suspended in the atmosphere.

5. Fog: Fog is another example of condensation. It forms

near the ground when the air near the surface cools down to
the dew point, causing water vapor to condense into tiny water
droplets that create a misty appearance.

6. Precipitation: Condensation is a precursor to

precipitation. When water droplets in clouds become large
and heavy enough, they merge and fall from the sky as rain. In
colder conditions, these droplets may freeze and fall as snow
or sleet.

The condensation of water is a crucial process that influences

weather patterns, cloud formation, and the distribution of
water resources on Earth. It's intimately connected with other
phases of the water cycle, such as evaporation, sublimation,
and precipitation, and it plays a vital role in maintaining the
Earth's ecosystems and climate.
 PREHEATING OF WATER IN A
BOILER
Preheating water in a boiler refers to the process of raising the
temperature of the water before it enters the main boiler
system. This is done for various reasons, including improving
efficiency, reducing thermal stress on the boiler, and ensuring
a consistent output temperature. Preheating water in a boiler
has several benefits:

1. Efficiency: Preheating the water before it enters the boiler

can improve overall efficiency. When cold water enters the
boiler, more energy is required to bring it up to the desired
operating temperature. Preheating the water reduces the
energy required to reach that temperature, making the
boiler operation more energy efficient.

2. Reduced Thermal Stress: Rapid temperature changes

can cause thermal stress and wear on the boiler
components. Preheating the water gradually helps mitigate
these stresses, prolonging the life of the boiler and
reducing the risk of mechanical failures.

3. Steam Quality: Preheating water can lead to improved

steam quality. Steam generated from preheated water tends
to be drier and have fewer impurities, which can be
important in applications where high-quality steam is
required.
4. Faster Start-Up: Preheating the boiler water can
significantly reduce the time it takes for the boiler to reach
its operational temperature. This is especially useful
during start-up or when the boiler has been idle for a while.

5. Consistent Output Temperature: Preheating ensures a

more consistent output temperature of the steam or hot
water produced by the boiler. This can be important in
industrial processes or heating systems where precise
temperature control is required.

Preheating of boiler water is often achieved using a separate

heat exchanger, where the incoming cold water passes
through coils or tubes that are heated by the combustion
gases from the main boiler. This heat exchange process
warms up the water before it enters the main boiler system.
The specific preheating temperature and methods vary based
on the type of boiler, its application, and the desired
outcomes. However, the overarching goal is to enhance
efficiency, reduce wear and tear, and ensure reliable operation
of the boiler system.
 WATER DEMINERALIZATION
Water demineralization, also known as deionization, is a
process that removes mineral ions and impurities from Water
resulting in highly purified water with a very low concentration
of dissolved solids. This process is commonly used in various
industries, laboratories, and applications where ultra-pure
water is required. The primary goal of water demineralization is
to eliminate or reduce the presence of minerals, salts, and
other charged particles in water. This is often achieved through
two main methods: ion exchange and membrane filtration.

1. Ion Exchange: Ion exchange involves passing water through

a resin bed containing ion exchange resins. These resins are
designed to attract and capture ions present in the water.
Cations (positively charged ions) and anions (negatively
charged ions) are exchanged for hydrogen ions (H+) and
hydroxide ions(OH-) respectively, as water passes through the
resin bed. The result is water with significantly reduced
concentrations of minerals and ions.

2. Membrane Filtration: Membrane filtration methods' such

as reverse osmosis (RO) and electrodialysis, use
semipermeable membranes to selectively allow water
molecules to pass through while blocking larger ions and
impurities.
3. Chemical Processes: Many chemical reactions and
processes require water with controlled levels of ions to
ensure accurate results. It's important to note that while water
demineralization removes minerals and impurities, it also
removes beneficial minerals that are essential for human
health. As a result, demineralized water is not suitable for
human consumption on its own, as it lacks essential
electrolytes and minerals. In cases where water is intended
for drinking, additional treatment or re-mineralization may be
necessary to make it safe and healthy for consumption.
 DEAERATION
The deaeration process is a method used to remove dissolved
gases, primarily oxygen and carbon dioxide, from liquids, most
commonly water. These dissolved gases can have negative
effects in various industrial processes, particularly those
involving boilers and steam systems. The presence of
dissolved gases can lead to corrosion, reduced heat transfer
efficiency, and other operational issues. The deaeration
process aims to prevent these problems by removing the
gases from the liquid.

Here's how the deaeration process typically works:

1. Spraying or Pouring: In the deaerator, water is often

sprayed or poured onto a large surface area to expose a
significant portion of the liquid to the air. The goal is to
maximize the contact between the water and the air'
promoting the transfer of dissolved gases from the water to
the air.

2. Heating: The water is usually heated to near its boiling

point, which helps to lower the solubility of gases in the liquid.
As the water temperature increases, the solubility of gases
like oxygen and carbon dioxide decreases, causing these
gases to come out of solution and rise to the surface.
3. Vacuum or Steam: To aid the removal of gases, a vacuum
or steam is often applied in the deaerator vessel. A vacuum
helps to lower the partial pressure of the gases above the
liquid, facilitating their release. Alternatively, steam can be
injected into the water to create a region of high turbulence,
which encourages the separation of gases from the liquid.

4. Gaseous Removal: The gases that are released from the

water rise to the top of the deaerator vessel and are vented
out. This may involve mechanical devices that aid in the
separation of the gases from the liquid.

5. Treated Liquid Outlet: The deaerated water, now mostly

free of dissolved gases, exits the deaerator and is ready for
use in various processes, such as in boilers or other industrial
applications.

The deaeration process is crucial in industries where the

quality of water and steam is critical to efficient and safe
operations. It helps prevent issues like corrosion, scale
formation, and reduced heat transfer efficiency that can arise
due to the presence of dissolved gases. The specific design
and technology used in deaeration systems can vary based
on the requirements of the industry and application.
 HEAT SOURCE
A heat source is any object, substance, or process that emits
heat energy. Heat energy is a form of energy that flows from a
region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature.
Heat sources provide the energy required to raise the
temperature of other objects or substances.

Here are a few examples of heat sources:

1. Fire: Combustion processes, such as burning wood,

coal, or natural gas, release a significant amount of heat
energy in the form of flames and hot gases. Fire is a traditional
and common heat source used for cooking, heating, and
various industrial processes.

2. Electric Heater: Devices like electric stoves, space

heaters, and electric furnaces convert electrical energy into
heat energy through resistive heating elements. These
elements become hot and transfer heat to the surrounding
environment.

3. Sun: The Sun is a massive natural heat source that emits

tremendous amounts of heat and light energy through nuclear
fusion reactions in its core. This solar energy reaches Earth
and warms its surface, driving weather patterns and providing
the energy Cor various natural processes.
4. Geothermal Energy: Heat from the Earth's interior,
known as geothermal energy, can be harnessed as a heat
source for heating buildings, generating electricity, and other
applications.

5. Industrial Processes: Many industrial processes

generate heat as a byproduct. For example, chemical
reactions, mechanical friction, and other processes can
produce significant amounts of heat that can be captured and
utilized.

6. Nuclear Reactions: Nuclear reactors and processes

involving nuclear reactions release substantial heat energy.
This energy can be used for electricity generation or other
specialized applications.

7. Biological Processes: In living organisms, metabolic

processes can generate heat. Warm-blooded animals,
including humans, regulate their body temperature through
these metabolic heat sources.

8. Heat Pumps: Heat pumps are devices that can extract

heat from the surrounding environment, even when the
temperature is relatively low, and transfer it to a desired
location. They can act as both heating and cooling sources.

Heat sources play a crucial role in many aspects of daily life,

from keeping homes warm to enabling industrial processes
and power generation. They are essential for various
technological advancements and are central to understanding
how energy is transferred and transformed in our world.

Here in Thermal Power Plant of VSP, we use pulverized coal,

BF Gas (Exhaust gas from Blast Furnace Department) and CO
Gas (Exhaust gas from Coke Oven Department) as fuels to
ignite.

BLAST FURNACE GAS:

Blast furnace (BF) process is the leading technology for the

production of hot metal (HM) required for steel making as well
as for the production of pig iron. HM is the main product of the
BF. During the production of the HM, BF gas is produced
simultaneously. BF gas is the name given to the by-product
which is continuously produced from the upward gaseous rise
of blast air through the burden in the BF during its operation.
BF Gas Composition:
1. Carbon Mono Oxide 25 %
2. Hydrogen -1.8 %
3. Methane - 0.4 %
4. Carbon Di Oxide - 18 %
5. Nitrogen - 54 %
6. Oxygen - 0.5 %

BF Gas Properties:
1. Ignition Temperature: 600-650C
2. Explosive range: 45-70 %
3. Density: 1.2 kg/nm3
4. Calorific value: 840 kcal/nm3
5. Nature: Poisonous, colourless, explosive and burns with
yellow flame.

COKE OVEN GAS:

The coke oven by-product plant is an integral part of the by-

product coke making process. During the production of coke
by coal carburization in a coke oven battery a large quantity of
gas is generated because of the vaporisation of volatile matter
in the coal. The gas is generated over majority of the coking
period, the composition and the rate of evolution changing
during this period and being normally complete by the time
coal charge temperature reaches 700 deg C. This gas is known
as raw or crude coke oven gas and is processed in the
byproduct plant.
The raw coke oven gas is sprayed with flushing liquor as it
leaves the individual oven chambers, the objective being to
reduce the temperature to a reasonably low value and to
condense the most easily condensable (high boiling
point) components. The gas is hence cooled by adiabatic
evaporation of some the spray liquor and the mixed gases from
the battery are reduced to around 80 deg C to 84 deg C water
saturated, this temperature being sufficiently low for handling
the gas in the gas collecting mains etc. The gas, together with
flushing liquor and condensed tar, pass along the collecting
main and through a butterfly control valve before leaving the
battery area. This control valve is set to maintain a slight
positive pressure, around 10 kilo-pascal (kPa), in the collecting
main to provide safe working conditions in the coke oven
chambers.
CO GAS COMPOSITION:
1. Carbon Monoxide-6.4 %
2. Hydrogen-56.7 %
3. Methane-27.8 %
4. Carbon Dioxide-2.3 %
5. Nitrogen-3.5 %
6. Oxygen-0.3-0.5 %
7. Hydrocarbon-2.3 %
8. Hydrogen Sulphide-0.4 %
9. Naphthalene-0.65 g/nm3

CO GAS PROPERTIES:
1. Ignition Temperature: 550-600C
2. Explosive range: 7-30 %
3. Density: 0.42-0.45 kg/nm3
4. Calorific value: 4300-4500 kcal/nm3
5. Nature: Poisonous, typical smell of H2S, burns with yellow
flame.
 PULVERIZED COAL
Pulverized coal refers to coal that has been crushed into a fine
powder and then combusted in a boiler to generate heat. This
fine powder form allows for efficient and complete
combustion, maximizing the energy extraction from the coal.
Pulverized coal is commonly used as a fuel in power plants for
electricity generation and in industrial processes that require
heat.
Here's how the process of using pulverized coal as a fuel
works:

1. Coal Preparation: Raw coal is initially cleaned and

processed to remove impurities and rocks. It is then crushed
into a very fine powder using a pulveriser. The pulveriser is a
machine that mechanically crushes coal into small particles.

2. Combustion: The pulverized coal is mixed with air and

introduced into a combustion chamber within a boiler. The
coal particles are suspended in the air, creating a mixture that
can burn efficiently. The combustion process generates high
temperatures, and the heat energy produced is used to
convert water into steam.

3. Boiling : Boiling is a physical process in which a liquid is

heated to its boiling point, at which it undergoes a phase
change from a liquid to a gas. This transition occurs when the
vapor pressure of the liquid equals the atmospheric pressure
exerted on the liquid's surface. As a result, bubbles of vapor
form within the liquid and rise to the surface, releasing steam
into the air.

Key points about boiling include:

1 . Boiling Point: The boiling point of a substance is the

temperature at which it changes from a liquid to a gas at a
given pressure. Different substances have different boiling
points due to variations in their molecular structures and
intermolecular forces.

2. Vapour Pressure: As a liquid is heated, the molecules

gain energy and move more rapidly. This increased motion
leads to an increase in the vapor pressure of the liquid, which
is the pressure exerted by the vapor molecules above the
liquid's surface.

3. Boiling Bubbles: When the vapor pressure equals the

atmospheric pressure, bubbles of vapor start forming within
the liquid.

4. Steam Generation: The heat from the combustion of

pulverized coal is transferred to tubes containing water in the
boiler. This causes the water to boil and form steam under
high pressure.

Pulverized coal combustion offers

several advantages:

➢ Efficiency: The fine powder form of coal allows for efficient

combustion and heat transfer, resulting in higher energy
extraction.

➢ Consistency: The uniformity of pulverized coal particles

ensures consistent combustion, reducing emissions and
promoting stable operation.
➢ Flexibility: Different types of coal can be pulverized and
used, offering flexibility in fuel selection.

➢ Reduced Emissions: Pulverized coal combustion

technologies can include measures to reduce emissions of
pollutants like sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and
particulate matter.

However, pulverized coal combustion also has environmental

and health concerns due to the emissions of greenhouse
gases and pollutants. Efforts to develop cleaner coal
technologies, such as advanced combustion and carbon
capture and storage (CCS), aim to mitigate these
impacts.

➢ Boiling vs. Evaporation: Evaporation is different from

boiling. Evaporation occurs at temperatures below the boiling
point and happens at the surface of a liquid. Boiling, on the
other hand, involves the entire mass of the liquid and occurs at
the boiling point.

➢ Applications: Boiling is widely used in cooking to prepare

food, such as boiling water for pasta or vegetables, or boiling
liquids to make soups and sauces. It's also used in industrial
processes, like distillation, where different components of a
mixture are separated based on their boiling points.

➢ Boiling Point Elevation: Adding solutes, like salt, to a liquid

can raise its boiling point. This phenomenon is used in cooking
and in antifreeze solutions, for instance.

The boiling point of a substance can vary with changes in

atmospheric pressure. At higher altitudes, where atmospheric
pressure is lower, liquids will boil at lower temperatures.

BOILING OF WATER

Water is a common substance that undergoes boiling. Its

boiling point depends on the pressure it's under. The Standard
boiling point of water at sea level (atmospheric pressure of I
atmosphere or 101.3 kPa) is 100 degrees Celsius (212
degrees Fahrenheit). This means that at this temperature,
water changes from a liquid to a gas (steam) as bubbles of
vapor form within the liquid.

However, as you change the pressure, the boiling point of

water also changes. Here are a few examples:

1. Higher Altitudes: At higher altitudes where atmospheric

pressure is lower, water will boil at temperatures lower than
100 degrees Celsius. This is why cooking times and methods
might need adjustment at higher elevations.
2. Pressure Cookers: In pressure cookers, the pressure is
increased above atmospheric pressure, which raises the
boiling point of water. This allows food to cook faster at higher
temperatures.

3. Vacuum Distillation: In some industrial processes like

vacuum distillation, water can be made to boil at lower
temperatures by lowering the surrounding pressure This is
useful for separating substances that have high boiling points
under normal conditions.

4. Boiling Points of Other Substances: Water's boiling

point is relatively high due to its strong hydrogen bonding. In
comparison, other substances like alcohol or acetone have
lower boiling points because of weaker intermolecular forces.
Boiling point is a physical property specific to each substance
and depends on the pressure it's subjected to.

SUPERHEATING
Superheating is a process in which a substance, typically a
gas or a vapor, is heated to a temperature above its boiling
point while still remaining in its gaseous state. This results in a
substance with higher thermal energy than is typically
associated with its state at that temperature and pressure.
Superheating is commonly encountered in the context of
steam, especially in power generation and industrial
processes.
Here's how superheating works:

1) Boiling : When a liquid is heated, it eventually reaches its

boiling point, at which it changes from a liquid to a vapour
(gas). During this process, the temperature remains constant
until all of the liquid has vaporized.

2) Superheated Steam : Once all the liquid has vapourised,

if additional heat is supplied to the vapour, its temperature
will increase further. The vapour is then referred to as
“ Superheated steam”. Unlike saturated steam (steam at its
boiling point), superheated steam is above its boiling point
and possesses higher energy content (dry steam).

3) Energy Increase : Superheated steam contains more

thermal energy compared to saturated steam at the same
temperature and pressure. This energy can be harnessed for
specific applications, such as driving turbines in power
plants more efficiently or providing heat in industrial
processes.

4) Applications : In power plants, superheated steam is often

used to spin the turbines connected to generators, producing
electricity. Industrial processes that require hightemperature
heat sources also benefit from superheated steam due to its
ability to transfer heat efficiently.
Superheating steam has several benefits :

➢ Improved efficiency : Superheated steam can carry more

energy per unit mass compared to saturated steam at the
same temperature. This results in more efficient energy
transfer and work extraction in various applications.

➢ Reduced Moisture : Superheated steam has lower

moisture content compared to saturated steam, making it
useful in processes where moisture can be detrimental.

➢ Controlled Temperature : Superheated steam allows for

better temperature control in processes that require precise
heating.

The extent of superheating depends on the initial pressure

and temperature of the vapour and the amount of heat
added. It’s important to note that superheating should be
carefully controlled to avoid reaching critical temperatures
that could damage equipment or compromises the integrity
of the substance being heated.
 HEAT EXCHANGE
Heat exchanging, also known as heat exchange or heat
transfer, refers to the process of transferring thermal energy
from one substance or medium to another. Heat exchange
occurs naturally in various everyday situations and is also
deliberately used in many industrial processes and
technologies to manage temperatures, conserve energy, and
facilitate desired reactions.

There are three main methods of heat exchange:

1.Conduction: Conduction is the transfer of heat through

direct physical contact between two objects or substances. In
this process, heat flows from a region of higher temperature to
a region of lower temperature. For example, when you touch a
hot pan, heat is conducted from the pan to your hand.

2. Convection: Convection involves the transfer of heat

through the movement of fluids (liquids or gases). When a fluid
is heated, it becomes less dense and rises, while cooler,
denser fluid sinks to take its place. This creates a continuous
circulation of the fluid, which transfers heat throughout the
system. Natural convection can be seen in boiling water,
where hotter water rises to the surface.

3. Radiation: Radiation is the transfer of heat in the form of

electromagnetic waves, such as infrared radiation. Unlike
conduction and convection, radiation can occur in a vacuum,
as it doesn't require a medium to transfer heat. The Sun's
energy reaches Earth through radiation, and objects also emit
radiation based on their temperature.

In industrial applications, heat exchangers are devices

specifically designed to facilitate the controlled transfer of
heat between two fluids, which are often at different
temperatures. Heat exchangers are widely used.

In various sectors, including power generation, refrigeration,

chemical processing, and more. They come in various
designs, such as shell-and-tube, plate, and finned-tube heat
exchangers.

The key components of a heat exchanger include:

✓ Hot Fluid: The fluid that carries thermal energy to be

transferred.

✓ Cold Fluid: The fluid that receives the thermal energy.

✓ Heat Transfer Surface: The barrier between the hot

and cold fluids, allowing heat to flow from one fluid to
the other.

✓ Heat Exchange Area: The area where the hot and cold
fluids come into contact to facilitate heat transfer.
In summary, heat exchange is a fundamental
process involved in the movement of thermal energy between
substances or mediums. It plays a vital role in maintaining
temperatures, energy efficiency, and various technological
processes. In the boiler we use several heat exchangers:

1.Economizer
2. Air Pre Heaters (APH)
3. Super Heaters (SH)
4. Low Pressure Heaters (LPH-1, LPH-2)
5. High Pressure Heaters (HPH-1, HPH-2)
 RANKINE CYCLE
The Boiler-Turbine system basically runs of the principle of
Rankine cycle. The Rankine cycle is a thermodynamic cycle
used in steam power plants and other heat engines to convert
thermal energy into mechanical work. It's the fundamental
operating principle behind many power generation systems,
including steam turbines commonly used in electricity
generation.

Basically, in rankine cycle four processes are involved let’s

discuss about them briefly:

1.Constant Pressure Heat Addition (1-2): The high

pressure water from the pump is then heated in a boiler at
constant pressure, during which it undergoes a phase change
from liquid to steam. This isobaric (constant pressure) heating
process takes place at a relatively high temperature and
results in the generation of high-energy steam.

2. Isentropic Expansion (2-3): The high-energy steam

flows through a turbine, where it expands and does work by
turning the turbine blades. The expansion process is assumed
to be isentropic, just as in the compression process, but in this
case, the steam loses energy and its pressure and temperature
decrease.
3. Constant Pressure Heat Rejection (3-4): After the
steam has done work in the turbine, it enters a condenser
where it is condensed back into liquid form by rejecting heat to
a cooling medium, often water from a cooling tower or a river.
This cooling process occurs at a constant pressure and results
in the liquid water being ready to enter the pump again.

4. Isentropic Pumping (4-1) : In this stage, water is

pumped from a lower pressure to a higher pressure using a
pump. The process is assumed to be isentropic, meaning that
it occurs with no entropy change. The temperature of the
water increases during this process.

These graphs explains the above processes in a detailed

manner.

The Rankine cycle can be represented on a pressure vs

enthalpy diagram, and the efficiency of the cycle is determined
by the temperature difference between the heat addition and
heat rejection processes. Higher efficiency can be achieved by
increasing the temperature at which heat is added and
decreasing the temperature at which heat is rejected.

It's important to note that while the ideal Rankine cycle

assumes isentropic processes, in real-world applications,
there are various inefficiencies and losses due to factors like
irreversibility’s, friction,and heat losses. Despite these real
world limitations, the Rankine cycle serves as a foundation for
understanding and designing practical steam power plants
and energy conversion systems.

The Rankine cycle has widespread applications in various

industries, particularly in power generation and thermal
systems. Its efficiency and adaptability makes it suitable for a
range of contexts.

Here are some common applications of the Rankine cycle:

1. Steam Power Plants: The most prominent application of

the Rankine cycle is in steam power plants, where it is used to
generate electricity. Coalfired, natural gas-fired, and nuclear
power plants utilize the Rankine cycle to produce steam,
which drives turbines connected to generators to produce
electrical power.

2. Nuclear Power Generation: Nuclear power plants use the

Rankine cycle to convert heat generated by nuclear reactions
into electricity. The heat from the reactor is used to produce
steam, which drives the turbine and generates power.
3. Geothermal Power Generation: Geothermal power plants
harness heat from within the Earth to generate electricity. The
Rankine cycle is employed in these plants to convert
geothermal heat into mechanical energy, which is then
transformed into electrical energy.

4. Solar Power Plants: Concentrated solar power (CSP)

plants use the Rankine cycle to convert solar thermal energy
into electricity. The heat collected from concentrated sunlight
is used to produce steam that drives a turbine-generator
system.

5. Industrial Processes: Rankine cycle-based systems can be

used for industrial applications beyond power generation. For
example, some industries employ cogeneration or combined
heat and power (CHP) systems, where waste heat from
industrial processes is used to produce steam and generate
electricity.

6. Marine Propulsion: Some marine vessels, especially large

ships, use steam turbines powered by the Rankine cycle for
propulsion. Steam is generated using boilers 1 heated by fossil
fuels or other sources, and the steam's energy drives the
ship's propellers.

7. Desalination: In some desalination plants, the Rankine

cycle is used in combination with other processes to produce
freshwater from sea water. Heat is used to evaporate
seawater, and then the vapour is condensed to produce clean
water.
8. Waste Heat Recovery: Rankine cycle-based systems can
recover waste heat from various industrial processes and
convert it into useful work or electricity, thereby increasing
overall energy efficiency.

9. District Heating: In district heating systems, where a

centralized heat source provides heat to multiple buildings or
users, the Rankine cycle can be used to distribute thermal
energy efficiently.

10. Thermal Power Research and Education: The Rankine

cycle is a fundamental concept in thermodynamics education
and research. It serves as a basis for understanding heat
engines, thermodynamic processes, and power generation
principles.

The Rankine cycle's versatility and adaptability to different

heat sources and applications contribute to its enduring
relevance in modern energy systems. However, in recent
years, there has been increasing interest in more advanced
cycles and technologies that aim to achieve higher efficiencies
and lower environmental impacts.

The Rankine cycle offers several advantages that make it a

widely used and versatile thermodynamic cycle for various
applications, particularly in power generation. Here are some
of the key advantages of the Rankine cycle:
1. Flexibility: The Rankine cycle can be adapted to a wide
range of heat sources, including fossil fuels, nuclear energy,
geothermal heat, and solar thermal energy. This adaptability
makes it suitable for different types of power generation
plants.

2. Efficiency: While actual efficiencies can vary depending on

system design and operating conditions, the Rankine cycle
can achieve relatively high thermal efficiency, especially when
operated at high temperatures and pressures. Advances in
materials and technology have enabled the development of
more efficient Rankine cycle systems.

3. Well-Established Technology: The Rankine cycle is a

mature and well-understood technology. Design, operation,
and maintenance practices are well-established, and there is
a wealth of engineering knowledge and expertise available for
designing efficient and reliable Rankine cycle systems.

4. Scalability: The Rankine cycle can be scaled to match the

required power output, making it suitable for both small-scale
and large-scale power generation systems. This scalability is
advantageous for various applications, from residential
cogeneration to utility-scale power plants.

5. Energy Storage: The Rankine cycle can be integrated with

thermal energy storage systems, allowing excess heat to be
stored for later use. This is particularly valuable for addressing
the intermittency of certain renewable energy sources, such
as solar thermal power.
6. Cogeneration and Combined Heat and Power (CHP):
The Rankine cycle can be effectively combined with industrial
processes to provide both electricity and useful thermal
energy. Cogeneration systems enhance overall energy
efficiency by utilizing waste heat that Would otherwise be
wasted.

7. Base Load Power Generation: Rankine cycle-based

power plants are often used for base load Power generation,
providing a consistent and reliable supply of electricity to the
grid. They can be operated continuously and efficiently for
extended periods.

8. Compatibility with Steam Turbines: Rankine cycle

systems can be easily integrated with steam turbines, which
are mature technologies with high efficiency and reliability.
Steam turbines are commonly used in various industries,
making the Rankine cycle a practical choice.

9. Economic Viability: Due to the well-established nature of

Rankine cycle technology and the availability of components
and expertise, the initial capital costs and operational
expenses of Rankine cycle-based systems can be competitive
compared to newer and less proven technologies.

10. Wide Application Range: The Rankine cycle finds

applications not only in power generation but also in other
sectors such as marine propulsion, industrial processes, and
desalination, further demonstrating its versatility.
While the Rankine cycle ha numerous advantages, it’s also
has certain disadvantages and limitations that should be
considered when designing and implementing systems based
on this cycle.

Some of the disadvantages of the Rankine cycle are :

1. Thermal Efficiency Limitations : The Rankine cycle’s

efficiency is limited by the temperature range within which it
operates . Higher cycle temperatures generally lead to higher
efficiency, but the materials required to withstand high
temperatures can be expensive and may degrade over time.

2. Heat Rejection Challenges : Heat rejection in the

condenser can be a challenge, especially in environments
where there is limited access to cooling water. This can
impact the overall efficiency of the cycle, particularly in dry or
arid regions.

3. Large Plant Footprint: Rankine cycle-based power plants,

especially those with steam turbines, often require substantial
infrastructure, including large boilers, turbines, and cooling
systems. This can result in a significant physical footprint.

4. Slow Start-Up and Shutdown: Rankine cycle-based

systems can have slower start-up and shutdown times
compared to some other power generation technologies. This
can limit their ability to respond quickly to fluctuating energy
demand.
5. Thermal Stress and Fatigue : Components within a
Rankine cycle system, such as boilers and turbines, can
experience thermal stress and fatigue due to the cyclic
temperature changes during start-up, operation, and
shutdown. This can affect their durability and lifespan.

6. Water Consumption: Rankine cycle systems require a

significant amount of water for the steam generation and
cooling processes. In regions with water scarcity, the water
consumption of these systems can be a concern.

7. Environmental Impact: While the Rankine cycle itself is a

well-established technology, some of its applications, such as
coal-fired power plants, can produce emissions and
contribute to air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions if not
properly equipped with emission control technologies.

8. Maintenance Complexity: Rankine cycle-based systems

require regular maintenance to ensure efficient and reliable
operation. Maintenance can be complex and costly, especially
for larger plants and for components subjected to high
temperatures and pressures.

9. Efficiency at Part Load: Rankine cycle efficiency can

decrease significantly at part load operation, which can be
problematic in situations where power demand fluctuates.
Advanced control strategies are needed to maintain
acceptable efficiency levels during varying loads.
10. Emerging Technologies: As newer and potentially more
efficient power generation technologies emerge, such as
supercritical and ultra-supercritical cycles, the Rankine cycle
may face competition from these technologies in terms of
efficiency and environmental performance.

It's worth noting that many of these disadvantages are not

inherent to the Rankine cycle itself but rather relate to specific
implementations and operational conditions. Ongoing
research and development aim to address these limitations
and improve the overall performance and environmental
impact of Rankine cycle-based systems.

How is Rankine cycle applied in

a boiler turbine system?
The Rankine cycle is commonly applied in a boiler-turbine
system to convert thermal energy from a heat source (such as
burning fossil fuels, nuclear reactions, geothermal heat, or
concentrated solar energy) into mechanical work and
eventually electricity.

Here's a step-by-step explanation of how the Rankine cycle is

applied in a boiler-turbine system:

1.Boiler: The process begins in the boiler, where a working

fluid (typically water) is heated to high temperatures and
pressures. The heat is supplied by burning a fuel (like coal,
natural gas, or oil), nuclear reactions, geothermal heat, or
concentrated solar energy. The heated water undergoes phase
change from liquid to steam.

2. Steam Turbine: The high-energy steam generated in the

boiler is directed to a steam turbine. The steam's expansion
through the turbine's blades causes the turbine rotor to spin.
The turbine converts the kinetic energy of the moving steam
into mechanical work, which turns the turbine shaft.

3. Electric Generator : The turbine shaft is connected to an

electric generator. As the shaft rotates, it drives the i
generator, which converts the mechanical work into electrical
energy. This is the point at which the Rankine cycle's
mechanical work is transformed into electricity.

4. Condenser: After passing through the turbine, the low-

energy steam exits the turbine and enters a condenser. In the
condenser, the steam is cooled and condensed back into
liquid form. Heat is rejected from the steam to a cooling
medium (typically water or air), and this heat rejection causes
the steam to return to its liquid state.

5. Pump: The condensed liquid (now water) is then pumped

back to the boiler using a pump. The pump increases the
pressure of the liquid, preparing it for the next cycle of the
Rankine process. The pumping process requires mechanical
work to be input to the system.
6. Repeating the Cycle: The high-pressure liquid Water is
then heated in the boiler once again, and the cycle repeats.
The Rankine cycle is a closed-loop cycle, meaning that the
working fluid (water) is reused in the process, undergoing a
series of state changes and energy transformations.

This sequence of processes-boiler, steam turbine, electric

generator, condenser, and pump-constitutes the Rankine
cycle as applied in a boiler-turbine system. The system is
designed to maximize the conversion of thermal energy into
mechanical work and ultimately electricity. The efficiency of
the system depends on factors like the temperature and
pressure levels in the cycle, the quality of the components
(boiler, turbine, etc.), and the control of losses due to heat
transfer, friction, and other real-world considerations.
 CONDENSER
A condenser is designed to transfer heat from a working fluid
(e.g. water in a steam power plant) to a secondary fluid the
surrounding air. The condenser relies on the efficient heat
transfer that occurs during phase changes, in this case during
the condensation of a vapour into a liquid. The vapour typically
enters the condenser at a temperature above that of the
secondary fluid. As the vapour cools, it reaches the saturation
temperature, condenses into liquid and releases large
quantities of latent heat. As this process occurs along the
condenser, the quantity of vapour decreases and the quantity
of liquid increases; at the outlet of the condenser, only liquid
remains. Some condenser designs contain an additional
length to sub-cool this condensed liquid below the saturation
temperature.
Countless variations exist in condenser design, with design
variables including the working fluid, the secondary fluid, the
geometry and the material. Common secondary fluids include
water, air, refrigerants, or phase-change materials.

Condensers have two significant design advantages over other

cooling technologies:

✓ Heat transfer by latent heat is much more efficient than heat

transfer by sensible heat only.

✓ The temperature of the working fluid stays relatively

constant during condensation, which maximizes the
temperature difference between the working and
secondary fluid.
 CEP: CONDENSATE
EXTRACTION PUMP
Once the condensate gets collected in the hotwell , from
there the steam will go to the deaerator with the help of the
condensate extraction pump. Before entering into the
deaerator the steam will go through the LP Heater which gets
Low pressure hot steam from the turbine at end cross section
of turbine.
 HOT WELL
The condensed steam (water) from condenser gets stored in
this hotwell. From this the condensate will go to the CEP and
reaches to the deaerator and gets supplied to the boiler tank
with the help of BFP.
 AIR EJECTOR
The main function of the Air ejector is to create vacuum or
negative pressure in the condenser so that the steam will flow
properly from the turbine to the condenser and efficiently
maximize the power production.
LOW PRESSURE HEATERS
Low pressure heaters are used to heat the water using steam
at low pressure from the turbine as a heat source. We have 2
Low Pressure heaters:

1. LPH-1: Steam enters at -0.549kg/cm2 and 83℃

2. LPH-2: Steam enters at 1.560kg/cm2 and 111℃

These are used to initially preheat the water before passing it

on to the deaerator.

HIGH PRESSURE HEATERS

High pressure heaters are used to heat the water using steam
at a slightly higher pressure from the turbine as a heat source.
We have 2 High Pressure Heaters:

1. HPH-1: Steam enters at 9.61kg/cm2 and 252℃

2. HPH-2: Steam enters at 15.86kg/ cm2 and 306℃

They receive water at around 100- 110kg/cm2 from the BFP.

BOILER FEED PUMP

A Boiler Feed Pump (BFP) is a crucial component in steam
power generation systems, particularly in industrial and power
plant settings. Its main function is to supply feedwater to a
boiler at the required pressure and temperature. Feedwater is
essential for steam generation, and the Boiler Feed Pump
plays a pivotal role in maintaining the water supply to the
boiler at the appropriate conditions.

Here's how the Boiler Feed Pump works and its significance:

1. Water Supply: The Boiler Feed Pump takes in water from

an external source, such as a condensate recovery system, a
deaerator, or a feedwater tank. This water might come from
various sources, including condensed steam returned from
the steam turbine or water makeup from an external supply.

2. Pressure Boosting: The water obtained from the external

source is typically not at the required pressure for entering the
boiler. The Boiler Feed Pump pressurizes this water to the
desired level, ensuring that it can enter the boiler without
causing any damage to its components.

3. Heating: Before entering the boiler, the feedwater often

needs to be heated to the proper temperature. This is usually
achieved by passing the feedwater through a heat exchanger
or other heating mechanisms. Preheating the feedwater
improves boiler efficiency and prevents thermal shock to the
boiler components.

4. Steam Generation: Once the feedwater is pressurized and

heated, it's supplied to the boiler. In the boiler, the water is
converted into steam through the application of heat. The
steam generated is then used to drive turbines for power
generation, heat processes, or other industrial applications.
Boiler Feed Pumps are typically high-capacity, high-pressure
pumps designed to handle the demanding conditions of power
generation systems. They need to be reliable, efficient, and
capable of providing a continuous and consistent flow of
feedwater to the boiler.

The Boiler Feed Pump is an integral part of the power

generation process, as it ensures the availability of feedwater
at the right pressure and temperature to facilitate efficient
steam generation. It plays a key role in maintaining the overall
efficiency and safety of steam power plants and industrial
processes.

BFP pumps water to the HP heaters and further into the boiler
at a very high pressure of around 100-110kg/cm2.

DEAERATOR
A deaerator is a device used in power plants, industrial boilers,
and other facilities to remove dissolved gases, primarily
oxygen and carbon dioxide, from water. These gases can be
detrimental to various processes and equipment, Causing
corrosion and reducing the efficiency of heat transfer.
Deaeration is important in systems where the presence of
these gases can lead to problems such as:

1.Corrosion: Dissolved oxygen in water can react with metal

surfaces, causing corrosion and deterioration of equipment
like boilers, steam turbines, and heat exchangers.

2. Reduced Heat Transfer Efficiency: Gases trapped in

water can form insulating layers on heat transfer surfaces,
hindering the efficient exchange of heat. This can result in
decreased system performance and higher energy
consumption.

3. Boiler Performance: In steam generation systems, the

presence of dissolved gases can lead to problems like pitting
corrosion, which can compromise the integrity of boiler
components.

A deaerator works by heating the water to its saturation

temperature under reduced pressure. As the water
temperature increases and pressure decreases, the solubility
of gases in the water decreases, causing the gases to be
released in the form of bubbles. The deaerator typically
consists of several components, including:

1. Spray Section: Hot water is sprayed into the deaerator,

allowing it to come into contact with the gases and facilitate
their release.

2. Steam Scrubbing Section: Steam is introduced into the

deaerator to further assist in the removal of dissolved gases by
scrubbing them from the water.

3. Storage Section: The deaerated water is then stored

temporarily before being used in various processes or fed into
a boiler.

By removing these dissolved gases, a deaerator helps prevent

corrosion, improves heat transfer efficiency, and ensures the
proper
functioning and longevity of equipment in industrial processes.

Deaerator receives steam from turbine at a pressure of

4.61kg/cm2 and 196 C.

ECONOMISER
An economiser in a boiler is a heat exchanger that is designed
to recover heat from the flue gases leaving the boiler and
transferring it to the incoming feed water. Its primary purpose
is to improve the overall efficiency of the boiler system by
preheating the water before it enters the boiler. This reduces
the energy required to heat the water to the desired operating
temperatures, thus saving fuel and reducing operating costs.
Here’s how an economiser works and it’s benefits :

1. Heat Recovery : After the fuel is burned in the boiler, hot

flue gases are produced. These gases contain a significant
amount of heat energy, which is often discharged into the
atmosphere through the boiler's exhaust stack. An
economizer is installed in the flue gas path to capture this heat
energy before it is wasted.

2. Feedwater Preheating: The economizer contains a series

of tubes through which the incoming feedwater passes. As
the hot flue gases pass over these tubes, they transfer their
heat to the feedwater, preheating it before it enters the boiler.

3. Efficiency Improvement: Preheating the feedwater

reduces the temperature difference between the water and
the combustion gases in the boiler. This means that less
energy is required to bring the feedwater to the desired
operating temperature. As a result, the overall boiler efficiency
is improved, leading to reduced fuel consumption and lower
operating costs.

4. Temperature Reduction of Flue Gases: The heat transfer

in the economizer causes the temperature of the flue gases to
decrease. Cooler flue gases can lead to reduced stack heat
losses and may also contribute to environmental benefits by
lowering the temperature of the exhaust gases emitted into
the atmosphere.
Economizers are commonly used in various types of boilers,
including industrial boilers, power plant boilers, and steam
generators. They are particularly effective in applications
where a large amount of heat is lost through the flue gases.
The installation of an economizer can result in significant
energy savings, improved boiler efficiency, and reduced
greenhouse gas emissions.

It's important to note that the design and effectiveness of an

economizer depend on factors such as the boiler type,
operating conditions, fuel type, and the specific requirements
of the application. Economiser heats up the water up to
2000C.

BOILER
A water tube boiler is a type of boiler that uses a network of
tubes to circulate water and heat it. In contrast to a fire tube
boiler, where hot gases pass through tubes immersed in
water, water tube boilers have the water inside the tubes and
the hot gases surrounding them. This design allows for higher
heat transfer efficiency and the ability to generate high-
pressure steam.

Here's how a water tube boiler works:

1.Water Circulation: The boiler contains a large number of

tubes, typically arranged in a circular or zigzag pattern. These
tubes are connected to vertical or inclined headers at the top
and bottom of the boiler. Water circulates through these tubes
due to natural convection or forced circulation, depending on
the design.

2. Heat Generation: Fuel: pulverized coal, BF gas, CO gas

in a combustion chamber using an ignitor located at one end of
the boiler. The combustion process generates hot gases and
heat energy. Here the furnace of one boiler contains 8 burners,
4 each at 2 different elevations.

3. Heat Transfer: The hot gases flow around the outside of

the water tubes, transferring heat to the water inside the
tubes. As the heat is absorbed by the water, it causes the
water to boil and form steam.

4. Steam Separation: The steam-water mixture rises in the

tubes due to its lower density compared to water. Steam and
water separate naturally in the upper headers, with steam
moving upward and water returning downward.

5. Steam Collection: The steam is collected from the upper

headers and directed to the steam drum, where any remaining
water droplets are separated from the steam. The dry steam is
then sent to various applications, such as power generation,
heating, or industrial processes.

6. Circulation: The cooler water from the steam drum flows

down through the downcomer tubes and into the lower
headers, where it is distributed to the water tubes for further
heating.
7. Continuous Cycle: The process of water circulation, heat
absorption, steam generation, and steam separation
continues in a continuous cycle as long as the boiler is in
operation.

Water tube boilers are known for their ability to generate

high-pressure steam, making them suitable for applications
requiring large amounts of steam, such as power plants,
industrial processes, and some marine applications. They are
favoured in situations where higher efficiency and compact
designs are desired. Additionally, water tube boilers offer
better resistance to thermal stress and a faster response to
load changes compared to fire tube boilers.

The specific design and features of a water tube boiler can

vary based on factors such as its intended use, capacity,
pressure, and the type of fuel being used. Steam exits boiler
drum with around 450 C and enters the superheaters.
 SUPERHEATERS
A superheater is an essential component in a boiler system
used to increase the temperature of steam above its saturation
point without raising its pressure. Superheaters are designed
to improve the efficiency and performance of steam turbines
in power plants and other industrial applications. Here is a
detailed note on superheaters in boilers:

Purpose and Function

1. Temperature Increase: The primary purpose of a
superheater is to increase the temperature of steam
above its boiling point at a given pressure, thus producing
superheated steam. This superheated steam has a higher
thermal energy content.
2. Efficiency Enhancement: Superheated steam enhances
the efficiency of steam engines and turbines by reducing
the moisture content, thus preventing turbine blade
erosion and improving thermal efficiency.
3. Work Capacity: Superheated steam provides a greater
capacity to do work, making the power generation
process more efficient.

Types of Superheaters

1. Radiant Superheaters: Positioned in the boiler's radiant

zone, they absorb heat through radiation from the furnace
flame.
 2. Convective Superheaters: Located in the flue gas path,
they absorb heat through convection from the hot gases
produced in the combustion process.
3. Separately Fired Superheaters: Operate independently
of the main boiler, using a separate fuel source to heat
the steam.

STEAM HAMMERING
Steam hammering, also known as water hammer, is a
phenomenon that occurs in steam systems when a sudden
change in the flow of steam causes a pressure wave to travel
through the pipes. This pressure wave creates a loud
hammering noise and can potentially cause significant
damage to the system.

Causes:

1. Condensate Formation: When steam condenses into

water within the pipes, the sudden presence of liquid in a
high-velocity steam flow can cause a pressure surge.
 2. Valve Operation: Rapid closing or opening of valves can
abruptly stop or start the steam flow, leading to pressure
fluctuations.
3. Trapped Air: Air trapped in the steam system can create
pockets that cause steam to condense irregularly,
leading to water hammer.
4. Improper Pipe Slope: Inadequate slope in steam pipes
prevents proper drainage of condensate, leading to
accumulation and sudden movement of water slugs.
5. Thermal Shock: When cold water is introduced into a hot
steam system, it can cause rapid condensation and
pressure spikes.

Consequences:

• Noise: The characteristic banging or hammering noise

can be disruptive in an industrial setting.
• Pipe Damage: Repeated hammering can lead to cracks,
joint failures, or even rupture of pipes.
• Equipment Damage: Components such as valves,
gauges, and steam traps can be damaged due to the
sudden pressure surges.
• Safety Hazards: The physical impact and potential for
leaks create safety risks for personnel.
 CONTINIOUS BLOW DOWN
When the silica level in the water is above 0.02ppm, CBD is
used to remove the excess silica. Water from the drum flows
into the CBD tank using valves where a coagulant is added
which makes the silica settle down and then the water is
blown down using the blow down valve.
 INTERMEDIATE BLOW DOWN
IBD is similar to CBD unless, it is used only when the silica
content is more than 0.04ppm. IBD contains pipes with higher
diameter than CBD, which allows more water to flow, so it is
used when the silica content is very high.

AIR PREHEATER
An air preheater is a type of boiler accessory used to improve
the efficiency of a boiler system by preheating the combustion
air before it enters the combustion chamber. The primary
function of an air preheater is to recover the heat from the flue
gases leaving the boiler and transfer that heat to the incoming
combustion air. This process reduces the energy required to
heat the air, which in turn improves the overall efficiency of the
combustion process. Here's how an air preheater works:

l . Principle of Operation: In a boiler system, fuel is burned

in the combustion chamber to produce heat. The hot
combustion gases, also known as flue gases, exit the boiler
through the chimney. These flue gases still contain a
significant amount of heat energy. Instead of allowing this heat
to go to waste, an air preheater captures a portion of the heat
from the flue gases.

2. Heat Exchange: The air preheater consists of a heat

exchanger that is positioned between the flue gas path and the
incoming combustion air path. The flue gases pass through
one side of the heat exchanger, while the combustion air flows
through the other side. Heat is transferred from the flue gases
to the metal walls of the heat exchanger and then to the
combustion air.

3. Preheated Air: As the combustion air passes through the

air preheater, it absorbs heat from the hot metal surfaces that
have been heated by the flue gases. This results in the
combustion air being preheated to a higher temperature
before it enters the combustion chamber.

Preheating the air reduces the energy needed to raise its

temperature to the desired level for efficient combustion.

BOILER DRAFT
The difference between atmospheric pressure and the
pressure existing in the furnace or flue gas passage of a boiler
is termed as Draft. Draft can also be referred to as the
difference in pressure in the combustion chamber area which
results in the motion of the flue gases and the air flow.

Types Of Drafts :
Drafts are produced by the rising combustion gases in the
stack, flue, or by mechanical means. For example, a boiler can
be put into four categories: natural, induced, balanced, and
forced.

•Natural draft: When air or flue gases flow due to the

difference in density of the hot flue gases and cooler ambient
gases. The difference in density creates a pressure differential
that moves the hotter flue gases into the cooler surroundings.

•Forced draft: When air or flue gases are maintained above

atmospheric pressure. Normally it is done with the help of a
forced draft fan.

•Induced draft: When air or flue gases flow under the effect of
a gradually decreasing pressure below atmospheric pressure.
In this case, the system is said to operate under induced draft.
The stacks (or chimneys) provide sufficient natural draft to
meet the low draft loss needs. In order to meet higher
pressure differentials, the stacks must simultaneously
operate with draft fans.

•Balanced draft: When the static pressure is equal to the

atmospheric pressure, the system is referred to as balanced
draft. Draft is said to be zero in this system.
 FORCED DRAFT FAN (FD FAN)
We know that for combustion we require air so what do we do
is we keep an FD fan which collects air from atmosphere and
forces it to the air pre-heater (APH) and from there the air goes
to the furnace where the firing takes place.
 INDUCED DRAFT FAN (ID FAN)
Induced fans are used for pulling the flue gases from the 2nd
pass after it heats the air in APH and makes it to go through the
chimney into the atmosphere.
 SCANNER FAN
It scans the firing zone and checks whether the burners are
burning or not if the required burner is not burning then this
particular fan sends air through the burner and makes it burn.

CHIMNEY
A chimney is a vertical structure or conduit that is designed to
carry away smoke, gases, and other byproducts of
combustion from a building, industrial facility, or any type of
heating or combustion system. Chimneys provide a means for
these emissions to safely exit the structure or system and be
released into the atmosphere.
Chimneys play a crucial role in industrial processes,
residential heating systems, and power generation facilities by
providing a safe and efficient means to exhaust combustion
byproducts. They contribute to both operational efficiency and
environmental protection by ensuring that harmful emission
are properly dispersed and minimized.
➢ Why are chimneys designed with a very high length?

The length of a chimney is determined by several factors, each

of which contributes to its efficiency, safety, and overall
functionality. The height of a chimney is crucial for creating
proper draft, ensuring effective combustion, and preventing
various issues that can arise from inadequate exhaust of
combustion byproducts. Here are some reasons why
chimneys are often relatively long:

1.Draft Creation: One of the primary functions of a chimney is

to create draft, which is the pressure difference between the
inside and outside of the combustion system. Draft is
necessary to ensure that gases and byproducts of combustion
are carried away from the source and released into the
atmosphere. A taller chimney generates a Stronger natural
draft due to the difference in air pressure at different heights.

2. Prevention of Downdrafts: Downdrafts occur when

wind or atmospheric conditions force air and combustion
gases down the chimney, potentially leading to the release of
smoke and pollutants into the building. A taller chimney can
help minimize the occurrence of downdrafts by providing a
longer vertical pathway for the gases to travel against the
wind.

3. Effective Exhaust: Longer chimneys allow combustion

gases to rise higher before being released, which can aid in the
effective dispersion of pollutants into the atmosphere. This
can reduce the potential for ground level pollution and
improve air quality in the immediate vicinity.
4. Temperature Drop: As combustion gases rise through the
chimney, they cool down due to the temperature difference
between the hot gases and the surrounding air. Cooler gases
have lower buoyancy and are less likely to rise effectively. A
taller chimney compensates for this temperature drop by
providing a longer vertical path for the gases to rise.

5.Efficient Combustion: Proper draft contributes to efficient

combustion by supplying the necessary oxygen for the
process. Insufficient draft can lead to incomplete combustion,
which results in increased fuel consumption, reduced heat
output, and the emission of harmful pollutants.

6. Regulatory Requirements: Regulatory standards and

building codes often dictate the minimum height of chimneys
for specific applications. Compliance with these standards is
essential to ensure safety, prevent environmental pollution,
and adhere to legal requirements.

7. Type of Fuel: The type of fuel being burned can impact

the design of the chimney. Different fuels produce varying
amounts of combustion byproducts and require specific
conditions for proper exhaust. The height of the chimney might
be adjusted accordingly.

8. Environmental Factors: Wind patterns, local terrain,

and surrounding buildings can influence the effectiveness of a
chimney's draft. Designing a chimney of appropriate height
takes into account these environmental factors to ensure
consistent and reliable performance.
It's important to note that while chimney height is a critical
factor, other design elements, such as chimney diameter,
insulation, and construction materials, also contribute to its
overall functionality and efficiency. The specific height
required for a chimney depends on the unique characteristics
of the system it serves and the goals of efficient and safe
operation.

POWER GENERATION IN
TURBINE
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that converts the
energy stored in steam into mechanical work, which is then
used to generate electricity or perform other types of
mechanical tasks. It's a critical component in many power
generation systems, including steam power plants and certain
types of industrial processes. Here's what happens inside a
steam turbine:

1. Steam Inlet: High-pressure, high-temperature steam is

admitted into the turbine through a set of nozzles. These
nozzles are designed to direct the steam flow with high
velocity onto the turbine's blades. The steam's pressure and
temperature depend on the type of power plant and its design.

2. Blade Arrangement: The turbine contains a set of blades

or buckets mounted on a rotor. There are typically several
stages of blades, each with increasing size. The blades are
designed in a way that the high-velocity steam flow causes
them to rotate.
3. Steam Expansion and Impulse: As the high-velocity
steam flows through the nozzles and impacts the blades, it
undergoes a process of expansion and impulse. This means
that the steam's high pressure and temperature are converted
into kinetic energy and directed onto the blades, causing them
to spin.

4. Rotational Motion: The kinetic energy transferred from

the steam to the blades results in the rotation of the turbine
rotor. The rotor is connected to a shaft, and as it spins, it
generates rotational mechanical energy.

5. Energy Conversion: The rotational motion of the turbine

rotor is connected to a generator. The generator consists of
coils of wire and a magnet system. As the rotor spins, it
causes the magnet system to rotate within the coils of wire,
which generates an electromagnetic field. This process
induces a flow of electric current within the coils, ultimately
generating electricity.

6. Exhaust: After the steam has passed through one stage of

blades, its pressure and temperature drop. This lower-energy
steam is then directed to the next stage of blades, which are
larger and designed to extract additional energy. This process
is repeated through multiple stages until the steam's energy
has been significantly depleted.

7. Condensation and Recycling: Once the steam has

passed through all the stages of the turbine, it is usually
condensed back into water using a condenser. The condensed
water is then pumped back to the boiler, where it is reheated
to produce more steam. This closed-loop cycle ensures
efficient use of water and steam.

The efficiency and performance of a steam turbine depend on

factors such as the design of the blades, the pressure and
temperature of the steam, the number of stages, and the
overall engineering of the turbine system. Steam turbines play
a crucial role in various power generation methods, including
coal-fired power plants, nuclear power plants, and certain
types of renewable energy systems.

The turbine rotates with a constant speed of 3000 rpm to

maintain the standard frequency of 50Hz. Change in frequency
may cause excess voltage or voltage drop.

The turbine is supported by two journal bearings. A Jack Oil

Pump is used to ensure that the shaft does not get seated on
the bearing.
TURBINE TRIPS
If a steam turbine trips, it means that the turbine has
undergone an unplanned shutdown due to a safety concern,
operational issue, or other abnormal condition. Tripping a
turbine is a protective measure designed to prevent damage to
the equipment, ensure the safety of personnel, and maintain
the overall integrity of the power generation system.

Here's what typically happens when a steam turbine trips:

1 . Automatic Shutdown: Modern power generation
systems are equipped with sophisticated control systems that
continuously monitor various parameters such as
temperature, pressure, vibration, and flow rates. If any of
these parameters deviate from safe operating limits or if
there's a fault detected in the system, the control system
initiates an automatic shutdown sequence.

2. Isolation and Cooling: When a turbine trip occurs, valves

are quickly closed to isolate the turbine from the steam
supply. This prevents high-pressure steam from entering the
turbine and causing damage due to the sudden pressure drop.
Cooling systems may also be activated to help dissipate heat
and prevent overheating of the turbine components.

3. Blade Locking: In some turbine designs, blade locking

mechanisms may be engaged to prevent the uncontrolled
movement of the turbine blades during shutdown. This helps
avoid potential damage caused by the abrupt stopping of the
rotating blades.
4. Controlled Speed Reduction: In certain scenarios, if
the cause of the trip is not an immediate threat to the turbine's
integrity, the control system may initiate a controlled speed
reduction instead of an abrupt stop. This allows the system to
gradually reduce the turbine's speed to a safe level before
stopping completely.

5. Alarms and Notifications: When a turbine trip occurs,

alarms and notifications are often triggered. These alerts notify
operators and control room personnel about the situation,
allowing them to take appropriate actions and investigate the
cause of the trip.

6. Safety Checks and Inspections: After a turbine trip, it's

essential to conduct thorough safety checks and inspections
before attempting to restart the turbine. Engineers and
maintenance personnel need to assess the equipment's
condition, identify the root cause of the trip, and ensure that
the system is safe for operation.

7. Restart Procedures: Depending on the cause of the trip,

restart procedures will be followed. This may involve
addressing and resolving the underlying issue, conducting
tests to ensure proper functioning, and gradually bringing the
turbine back to operational speed.

Turbine trips can occur due to a wide range of factors,

including equipment malfunctions, abnormal process
conditions, operator errors, and more. The priority in such
situations is to ensure the safety of personnel, protect the
equipment from damage, and restore normal operations as
soon as possible while addressing the root cause of the trip.

TURNING GEAR MECHANISM

A turning gear mechanism, often referred to simply as a
"turning gear," is a device used in large rotating machinery,
such as steam turbines and electric motors, to slowly rotate
the equipment when it's not in operation. The primary purpose
of a turning gear is to prevent the shaft and rotor from warping,
sagging, or experiencing uneven stresses due to prolonged
periods of inactivity. Here's how a turning gear mechanism
works:

1. Preventing Sagging and Warping: In large rotating

machinery, such as steam turbines, the rotor can be extremely
heavy. When the turbine is shut down, the rotor may be
stationary for extended periods, which can cause its weight to
lead to sagging or warping due to gravitational forces. This can
result in misalignment and mechanical stress when the
turbine is restarted.

2. Even Stress Distribution: By using a turning gear

mechanism, the rotor is slowly rotated at a very low speed,
typically around 1-3 revolutions per minute. This slow rotation
helps distribute the weight of the rotor evenly, preventing any
single point from bearing the full load for an extended period.
3. Minimizing Stress and Wear: The slow and continuous
rotation provided by the turning gear helps ensure that all parts
of the rotor experience a roughly equal amount of stress and
wear, reducing the risk of damage or deformation.

4. Cooling and Lubrication: Turning the rotor can also

help with cooling and lubrication. The slight movement
promotes air circulation, which aids in cooling the rotor
components. Additionally, it helps distribute lubricating oil
evenly across bearings and other critical parts, preventing dry
starts and minimizing wear during startup.

5. Control and Monitoring: Modern turning gear systems

may be equipped with control systems that allow operators to
start, stop, and monitor the turning gear remotely. They can
also include sensors to detect any anomalies in the rotation,
ensuring the system functions as intended.

6.Safety Measures: Turning gear mechanisms often include

safety features to prevent accidental startup of the main
equipment while the turning gear is engaged. This is crucial
because the turning gear operates at a much slower speed
than the main equipment and is not designed to handle the
load of the actual operation.

Overall, a turning gear mechanism is an important tool in

maintaining the health and operational readiness of large
rotating machinery. It helps extend the life span of the
equipment and ensures that it's ready to perform optimally
when needed.
 BARRING GEAR
A barring gear system, also known as a turning gear or
barring device, is a mechanical arrangement used to manually
rotate a large and heavy machine, such as a steam turbine,
when the machine is not in operation. This system is
particularly useful during maintenance, inspections, and
startup procedures. The purpose of a barring gear system is to
ensure that the machinery is slowly and evenly turned
without using the main power source.

Here's how it works:

1. Manual Rotation: A barring gear system consists of a set

of mechanical components, including gears, shafts, and
sometimes an electric motor. These components are
designed to enable the manual rotation of the equipment,
such as a steam turbine's rotor.

2. Low Speed: The key feature of a barring gear system is

that it allows the machine to be rotated at a very low speed,
typically just a few revolutions per minute. This slow rotation
prevents any sudden stresses or jerks that could potentially
damage the equipment.

3. Maintenance and Inspection: Barring gear systems are

often used during maintenance and inspection periods. When
a turbine or another large machine is shut down for
maintenance, the barring gear system can be engaged to
slowly turn the rotor.
This provides access to various parts of the machinery, making
it easier for maintenance crews to inspect, repair, or replace
components.

4. Start-Up Preparation: Before starting a large machine

like a steam turbine, it's essential to ensure that all parts are
properly aligned, lubricated, and free from any obstructions.
The barring gear system is often used during the pre-startup
phase to ensure that the rotor is gradually brought up to speed
and any potential issues are identified before applying full
power.

5. Safety Measures: Barring gear systems typically

incorporate safety features to prevent accidental startup or
engagement of the main equipment while the barring gear is in
use. This prevents conflicts between the slow rotation
provided by the barring gear and the rapid acceleration
generated by the main power source.

6. Emergency Scenarios: In some cases, barring gear

systems can also serve as a backup method for rotating the
equipment in emergency situations, such as when the main
power source is unavailable or compromised.

Overall, barring gear systems play a crucial role in maintaining

the health and operational readiness of large rotating
machinery. They help prevent sagging, uneven stresses, and
potential damage that could occur if the equipment remains
stationary for extended periods.
 GENERATOR
Power is produced in a generator through the process of
electromagnetic induction. When a generator is equipped with
excitation, it means that the generator has a system in place to
create and maintain a magnetic field within its stator
(stationary part) that interacts with the rotor (rotating part).
This interaction leads to the generation of electrical power.

Here's how power is produced in a generator with excitation:

1. Excitation System: The excitation system of a generator

is responsible for creating and regulating the magnetic field
within the generator's stator. This magnetic field is essential
for inducing an electromotive force (EMF) in the generator's
windings as the rotor rotates within the stator.

2. Rotor Motion: The generator's rotor is connected to a

prime mover, such as a steam turbine, water turbine, or
internal combustion engine. When the prime mover rotates
the rotor, it also rotates the magnetic field lines within the
stator.

3. Electromagnetic Induction: As the rotor rotates, the

changing magnetic field lines cut across the windings in the
stator. According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction, this movement induces a voltage (EMF) in the stator
windings. This induced voltage is what generates the electrical
power.
4. Three-Phase System: Most power generators operate
using a three-phase system, which means there are three sets
of windings in the stator, each producing an alternating current
(AC). These three-phase AC voltages are typically out of phase
with each other by 120 degrees.

5.Output Terminals: The AC voltages generated in the

stator windings are collected at the output terminals of the
generator. These terminals are connected to the external
electrical system, where the generated power can be utilized
for various applications, such as supplying electricity to
homes, businesses, and industries.

6.Voltage Regulation: The excitation system plays a crucial

role in regulating the output voltage of the generator. By
adjusting the strength of the magnetic field in the stator, the
excitation system can control the output voltage and ensure it
remains within acceptable limits, even as the load on the
generator changes.

7. Control and Monitoring: Modern generators with

excitation are equipped with control systems that monitor
various parameters, including voltage, current, frequency, and
temperature. These control systems ensure stable and
efficient generator operation and may also include protective
features that automatically trip the generator if abnormal
conditions are detected.
In summary, a generator with excitation produces power by
using electromagnetic induction. The excitation system
maintains a magnetic field within the generator's stator, and as
the rotor rotates, this magnetic field induces a voltage in the
stator windings. The generated AC voltage is then collected at
the generator's output terminals and supplied to the external
electrical system for various applications.

Basically there are three types of paths in TPP:

1.STEAM PATH
2.WATER PATH
3.FLUE GAS PATH
1.WATER PATH:

DEAERATOR  BOILER FEED PUMP  FEED REGULATING

STATION  ECONOMISER  DRUM  EVAPORATOR 
DRUM

2.STEAM PATH:

DRUM  SUPER-HEATER’s  TURBINE

3.FLUE GAS PATH:

FIRING ZONE  SUPER-HEATER  ECONOMISER  AIR

PRE-HEATER  ID FAN  CHIMNEY
POWER GENERATION CYCLE IN
TPP
 CONCLUSION
From this project I have been concluded that VSP is having its
own captive power plant through which the power is
distributed to all the units in VSP. In addition to its own captive
power plant, AP TANSCO grid is also kept synchronized with
its power system. Whenever the power generated in the plant
is not able to meet the required load, a partial amount of
power will be imported from the grid.

This project is the result of our study on the boilers in

Visakhapatnam Steel Plant. The whole generation and
distribution process of steam is thoroughly studied, and the
report is presented.