Communicative language teaching in EFL contexts:

Learner attitudes and perceptions

SANDRA J. SAVIGNON AND CHAOCHANG WANG

Abstract

Reflecting a trend in Asian contexts generally, the Taiwan Ministry of Educa-

tion has recently initiated curricular changes intended to reflect a more com-
municative approach to English language learning. The impact of this policy
initiative awaits documentation. Research has highlighted the challenges asso-
ciated with the adoption of communicative language teaching in EFL contexts.
However, while many studies report on teachers’ perceptions in implement-
ing communicative language teaching, few have looked at learner attitudes
and perceptions with respect to classroom practice. This study investigates
Taiwanese EFL learners’ attitudes and perceptions with regard to classroom
practices identified as primarily meaning-based and form-focused. Findings
suggest a mismatch between learner needs and preferences and their reported
experience of classroom instruction. Interest in communicative language teach-
ing, particularly among those learners who began learning English at an early
age, offers support for the curricular changes currently being implemented. In
this and other EFL contexts planning or implementing reform, careful explo-
ration of the concordance of classroom practice with the attitudes and per-
ceptions of learners is seen to be crucial in determining the success of these
changes.

1. Introduction
With a major focus on developing learner ability to use language appropriately
in context, communicative language teaching (CLT) contrasts sharply with es-
tablished traditions that emphasize learner knowledge of formal features. Not
surprisingly, innovations in various EFL contexts developed in consonance
with the underpinnings of communicative language teaching have faced major
challenges (see, for example, Anderson 1993; Bhatia 2003; Cheng 2002; Dam
and Gabrielsen 1988; Li 1998; LoCastro 1996; Nunan 1993; Sato and Klein-
sasser 1999; Savignon 2002, 2003; Yano 2003). The origins of these challenges

IRAL 41 (2003), 223–249 0019042X/2003/041-0223

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Walter de Gruyter
224 Sandra J. Savignon and Chaochang Wang

are multiple and include the teacher, the students, the educational system, and
communicative language teaching itself (Li 1998). Dam and Gabrielsen (1988)
found that the need for teachers to redefine their roles contributed more to
difficulty in the implementation of task-based approaches than did resistance
from learners. A study by Sato and Kleinsasser (1999) points to the incon-
sistency between teachers’ perceptions of communicative language teaching
and their actual in-class behavior. And Anderson (1993) reports that in addi-
tion to both teacher and learner resistance, the difficulties of implementing a
meaning-based program include teachers’ lack of communicative competence
in English, the lack of adequate teacher preparation generally, and the multiple
and excessive demands placed upon teachers. Finally, Nunan (1993) suggests
that a mismatch between the teaching preferences of the teacher and the learn-
ing preferences of learners may be a source of difficulty.
Once they have been recognized, the difficulties experienced in the imple-
mentation of a communicative approach often lead to further modification. A
less enlightened, perhaps, but understandable response is sometimes a return to
form-focused teaching. Falling back on established practice is not an outcome
welcomed by those who promote communicative goals for language programs.
There are also reports of communicative approaches being welcomed and
resulting in positive learning experiences in EFL contexts. For example, R.
Wang (1990) reports the success of communication-based teaching with par-
ticular attention to oral competence in a foreign language school in China.
Although the goals of communicative language teaching are not limited to
spoken language, Wang reports that in this particular setting an emphasis on
oral communication was seen to contribute to learners’ development of skills
in not only listening and speaking but also in reading and writing. Anderson
(1993) indicates that despite the difficulties that may hinder innovation, there
is a growing recognition among teachers and learners of the advantages of
using a communicative approach. And many teachers have reported progress
in teaching communicatively. In his summary of research findings related to
learner-centered approaches, Nunan (1993) identifies the involvement of learn-
ers in making meaning with both their teacher and their peers as a key factor
in determining success. Finally, Kleinsasser (1993) has examined the interac-
tion between school context, teacher perceptions, and teacher performance and
found a reciprocal relationship between teacher performance and the particular
instructional or technical culture in which teachers find themselves. Teacher
performance is affected by and situated in the technical culture which, in turn,
is shaped by the way teachers go about their daily tasks (see also Sato 2002).
 Learner attitudes and perceptions 225

2. Literature review
2.1. Foreign language learner attitudes and perceptions
Whether communicative language teaching is seen to be difficult, effective,
or is rejected as inappropriate, reports on its implementation have been based
mainly on teachers’ perceptions of communicative language teaching (Li 1998).
Only a few studies have investigated learners’ views (for example, Schulz
1996), and fewer still, learner views of communicative practices in the class-
room. And yet, as Savignon (1997: 107) asserts, “if all the variables in L2
acquisition could be identified and the many intricate patterns of interaction
between learner and learning context described, ultimate success in learning to
use a second language most likely would be seen to depend on the attitude of
the learner”. Learner views of learning cannot be ignored, in particular, when
there is a mismatch between teacher beliefs and learner beliefs (Schulz 1996).
To investigate learner beliefs, Horwitz (1988) developed an instrument called
the Beliefs About Language Learning Inventory (BALLI). This instrument has
served to survey students’ views on a variety of issues regarding language
learning and teaching (Kern 1995; Yang 1993). Findings vary with different
studies. For example, many students in Horwitz’s study (1988: 290) “found it
difficult later to correct the errors they are allowed to make in the beginning
stages”, while only one third of the students in Kern’s study agreed with the
statement. Nonetheless, there were consistent findings, such as beliefs about
error correction. Most language learners in both studies expressed a desire for
error correction, that is, they wanted teachers to note and correct their “errors”.
An interesting finding in Horwitz (1988) has to do with the potential of class-
room practices for changing learner beliefs. Sixty percent of the Spanish and
German students in her study considered that “learning a foreign language is
mostly a matter of translating from English” (Horwitz 1990: 25), possibly as
a result of the classroom realities they had experienced. Kern (1995) offers
further evidence in support of the impact of instructional practices on learner
beliefs. For section 1 of a modified BALLI, 60 % of the student-teacher corre-
lations were actually lower at the end than at the beginning of the semester.
There are numerous other studies that use different instruments or interviews
to investigate learner attitudes and beliefs about language learning. For ex-
ample, Bacon and Finnemann (1990) employed a 109-item questionnaire to
survey the attitudes, motives, and strategies of university foreign language stu-
dents. Wen and Johnson (1997) used their Language Learner Factor Question-
naire, and Gaies, Galambos, and Cornish (1999) used a modified version of
Sakui and Gaies’s (1999) 45-item questionnaire. However, most studies look
at learner attitudes and beliefs about language learning in general; few focus on
learner attitudes and beliefs about instructional practices in particular. And yet,
as Horwitz (1988) suggests, classroom realities that contradict learner expec-
226 Sandra J. Savignon and Chaochang Wang

tations about learning may disappoint them and thus interfere with the attain-
ment of desired learning outcomes. To be sure, a discrepancy between learner
beliefs and teacher beliefs does not necessarily imply a need to modify instruc-
tional practices. Nonetheless, as Nunan (1993: 4) argues, “teachers should find
out what their students think and feel about what they want to learn and how
they want to learn”. The extent to which communicative components in in-
structional practices are seen by learners as essential for classroom language
learning should be taken into account in making pedagogical decisions.

2.2. ELT reform in Taiwan

Competent English users are in great demand in Taiwan, where English serves
as a link language between people from different cultures and countries, as well
as a tool for the exchange of knowledge and information in the areas of cul-
ture, technology and business. To raise Taiwanese communicative competence
in English, the Taiwan Ministry of Education has made changes in English ed-
ucation policy. The decision to introduce English learning at elementary school
level in 2001, and the elimination of form-focused senior high school and col-
lege entrance examinations effective in 2001 and 2002, respectively, are among
the more important moves in this direction. In addition, in order to reflect fea-
tures of communication-based teaching and to guide material development and
classroom practice, the Taiwan Ministry of Education has published new cur-
ricula for English teaching in both junior and senior high schools (C. Wang
2000).

3. EFL learner attitudes and perceptions in Taiwan: A quantitative study

3.1. Design of the study
To better understand the challenges facing curricular reform in the EFL context
of Taiwan, a questionnaire was developed to investigate first-year university
EFL learners’ perceptions of the classroom practices they had experienced in
secondary school as well as their beliefs about language learning in general.
Three research questions were addressed:
1. In terms of instructional focus, what are learners’ perceptions of the
classroom practices they have experienced?
2. What are learners’ attitudes toward these classroom practices?
3. What are learners’ beliefs about English language learning generally?
In developing the questionnaire, instructional practices with features that en-
gage learners in meaning making were defined as communicative. These fea-
tures may include use of the L2 as a medium of instruction, group work on
tasks, tolerance of learner errors, and a general classroom atmosphere con-
ducive to learner participation with a focus on selected grammatical features
 Learner attitudes and perceptions 227

as appropriate (Savignon 1997). In contrast, form-focused instruction focuses

learners’ attention on the forms of language and features explanation and prac-
tice of grammatical rules. The L1 is typically used for explanations of formal
linguistic features whereas L2 use is limited to sentence repetition, L1 to L2
translation, and an assortment of structure and vocabulary drills. Statements
highlighting features of these two contrasting instructional approaches were
included in each section of the questionnaire subsequently developed for use
in the study (see Appendix).

3.2. Method
To maximize the range of perspectives on current secondary school teaching
practices in Taiwan, a sample of first-year university students from different el-
ementary and secondary school backgrounds was used. One hundred seventy-
four freshman students from two Taipei universities, 105 female students and
69 male students responded to a questionnaire designed to reflect their attitudes
and beliefs about English language learning, in general, and their recollections
of experiences with EFL instructional practices in secondary school, in partic-
ular. The questionnaire was written and administered in Chinese. (The version
included in the Appendix is an English translation of the original.) Most re-
spondents had studied English in Taiwan for at least six years.
A pilot version of the questionnaire was developed and tested in spring 1998
with another sample of Taiwanese university students. This preliminary ver-
sion was then modified and expanded to its present form. The questionnaire
includes five parts. Parts 1, 2, 4 and 5 each consists of eleven statements relat-
ing to perceptions of classroom learning experiences. Five statements relate to
form-focused classroom practices; another five statements relate to meaning-
based classroom practices. An eleventh statement in each of parts 1, 2, 4, and
5 addresses attitudes toward error correction.
Part 3 of the questionnaire consists of 29 statements which concern beliefs
about English language learning in general. Items 1 to 11 are similar in na-
ture to the eleven statements in parts 1, 2, 4 and 5 of the questionnaire de-
scribed above. In addition, statements 12 to 16 specifically address beliefs
about grammar-focused instruction; statements 17 to 19 concern beliefs about
meaning-based instruction; statements 20 and 21 relate to beliefs about error
correction; 22 and 23 relate to pronunciation; 24, 25 and 28 address the impor-
tance of English; and 26 and 27 are concerned with learner perceptions of the
interrelationship of language learning ability and intelligence.
There was a total of 72 statements or items in the five-part questionnaire.
Responses were scored from 1 to 7 on a scale in the Likert format and the scores
then converted to a scale from −3 to +3 for ease in interpretation. Reliability
estimates were calculated and are shown in Table 1.
228 Sandra J. Savignon and Chaochang Wang

Table 1. Summary statistics and reliability estimation for the questionnaire (n = 174)

Variable Subjects Items Mean SD KR 20

reliability
Classroom practices
Senior high form-based 174 5 4.77 4.74 0.50
Senior high communication-based 174 5 −0.71 6.58 0.73
Junior high form-based 174 5 8.51 5.02 0.77
Junior high communication-based 173 5 −2.43 6.22 0.80

Attitude
Senior high form-based 171 5 −2.07 5.05 0.65
Senior high communication-based 170 5 8.91 5.35 0.71
Junior high form-based 174 5 0.49 5.75 0.72
Junior high communication-based 173 5 6.70 6.35 0.93

Belief
Form-based 173 10 −3.26 8.23 0.80
Communication-based 172 8 15.51 6.87 0.88

Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 (KR 20) values ranged from a low of .50

to a high of .93. All but one were above .70, exceeding the minimum for scale
reliability of .60 (Gay 1976; Sax 1989). (The scale with an estimated reliability
of .50 was among those scales that included only five items. An increase in the
number of items would most likely have increased the estimated reliability for
this scale). Two English instructors teaching at two different Taipei universities
in Taiwan were asked to distribute the questionnaire to freshman students in
two intact classes at their respective universities. Two hundred questionnaire
forms were distributed and 174 were returned: a remarkably high response rate
of 88 %.
Data were entered into Minitab 12.23 to obtain descriptive statistics and both
hypothetical and matched-groups t values as well as correlation coefficients.
Data were also imported into SAS version 7.0 (on MS Windows) for analyses
that required the use of two-way ANOVA and MANOVA statistics (between-
groups design). Data analysis included two stages. In the first stage, t tests were
used to test the trend or tendency of the respondents’ perceptions of classroom
practices, as well as their attitudes with respect to these practices. In the second
stage, the effects of learner variables including gender, university, and age of
initial English learning experience were analyzed using statistical procedures
that included correlation, two-way ANOVA, and MANOVA.
 Learner attitudes and perceptions 229

3.3. Results

3.3.1. Learner perceptions. Table 2 shows the respondents’ perceptions of

the English language classroom instruction they had experienced in senior high
school. Most agreed that these experiences had been grammar-focused (Total
M = 4.77 on a scale of −15 to +15 (−3 to +3 multiplied by 5, or the total
number of items), SD = 4.74, t = 13.22, p < 0.01). Sentence drilling and rep-
etition, grammatical rule explanation and practice, and frequent use of Chinese
as the language of instruction were reported to be common. Communication, or
meaning-based practice, was reportedly rare, with few, if any, interactive activ-
ities designed by teachers. Although respondents reported that trial-and-error
attempts to communicate were permitted, little such communication seemingly
took place. These findings are consistent with the findings of descriptive studies
of English language teaching in Taiwan (Du-Babcock and Du-Babcock 1987;
Huang 1998) as well as with the experience of the second author of this report
as a student and now a university-level teacher of English in Taiwan.
Table 3 shows the respondents’ perceptions of the English language class-
room instruction they had experienced in junior high school. As was true for
senior high school, English language teaching in junior high school was per-
ceived to be grammar-focused (Total M = 8.511 on a scale of −15 to +15,
SD = 5.02, t = 22.38, p < 0.01). Few reported having experienced a commu-
nicative approach (Total M = −2.43 on a scale of −15 to +15, SD = 6.22,
t = −5.15, p < 0.01). Clearly, the majority of participants in this study felt
that the classroom practices followed in their English language classroom in-
struction in both junior and senior high school were primarily form-focused, as
opposed to meaning-based.

3.3.2. Learner attitudes. Table 4 summarizes data concerning the respon-

dents’ attitudes toward the classroom practices they reportedly had experienced
in senior high school. Most expressed a dislike for form-focused instruction
(Total M = −2.07 on a scale of −15 to +15, SD = 5.05, t = 5.36, p < 0.01)
and high regard for practices that engaged them in making meaning (Total M
= 9 on a scale of −15 to +15, t = 21.69, p < 0.01). Many also favored the use
of Chinese as a language of instruction, item II.3 (M = 0.51 on a scale of −3
to +3, t = 4.56, p < 0.01).
Learners’ expressed preference for Chinese as the language of instruction
would appear to be inconsistent with their general preference for meaning-
based classroom activities. This seeming inconsistency may be explained by
the reportedly heavy classroom emphasis on learning grammatical rules. Learn-
ers often experience difficulty understanding teacher explanations of rules, es-
pecially when these explanations are given in the L2. Transition to a meaning-
based instruction, with more communicative activities that require interaction
230 Sandra J. Savignon and Chaochang Wang

Table 2. Perceptions of classroom practice in senior high school

Item N Mean SD t
Form-based
I.1. Grammar-focused English teaching 174 1.13 1.55 9.65a
I.2. Sentence drilling and sentence repetition 174 1.18 1.58 9.84b
I.3. Chinese used most of the time 174 0.89 1.63 7.16b
I.4. Most time spent on grammar rules 174 1.21 1.47 10.8b
explanation
I.5. Seldom needed to open my mouth 174 0.36 1.95 2.45a
Total 174 4.77 4.74 13.22b

Communication-based
I.6. Communication-based teaching practices 174 −0.40 1.83 −2.89b
I.7. Many activities involving communication 174 −0.58 1.92 −4.00b
I.8. Communication-focused with grammar 174 −0.35 2.20 −2.07a
explained when necessary
I.9. Trial-and-error attempts allowed 174 0.82 1.70 6.34b
I.10. Atmosphere created for the use of 174 −0.20 1.79 −1.44 (n.s.)
English
Total 174 −0.71 6.58 −1.42 (n.s.)

Error correction
I.11. Teachers corrected my errors in class 174 0.040 1.742 0.30

a p < 0.05
b p < 0.01
n.s. = not significant

with L2 texts, oral and/or written, should take into account established learner
preference for Chinese as the language of instruction.
The responses for item 11 indicate a strong learner desire to use English
correctly and even to attain native-like competence. Learners reported feeling
it necessary for teachers to correct their errors, even in oral communication.
The high value placed on standard American English (pronunciation, word use,
and syntax) in Taiwanese culture, a standard which few learners in fact attain,
no doubt influenced these learners’ perceptions of communicative competence
(see C. Wang 2000).
Table 5 contains data pertaining to the participants’ attitudes toward the
teaching practices in junior high school. The analysis reveals a dislike for both
form-focused teaching and the amount of class time devoted to the explana-
tion and practice of rules of grammar. As was the case for reports of senior
high school classroom practice, learners expressed a preference for the use of
 Learner attitudes and perceptions 231

Table 3. Perceptions of classroom practice in junior high school

Item N Mean SD t
Form-based
IV.1. Grammar-focused English teaching 174 1.71 1.38 16.30a
IV.2. Sentence drilling and sentence 174 1.74 1.38 16.65a
repetition
IV.3. Chinese used most of the time 174 2.05 1.20 22.47a
IV.4. Most time spent on grammar rules 174 1.90 1.20 20.88a
explanation
IV.5. Seldom needed to open my mouth 174 1.13 1.71 8.71a
Totalb 174 8.51 5.02 22.38a

Communication-based
IV.6. Communication-based teaching 174 −0.79 1.57 −6.61a
practices
IV.7. Many activities involving 173 −1.06 1.57 −8.93a
communication
IV.8. Communication-focused with grammar 174 −0.13 1.82 −0.91 (n.s.)
explained when necessary
IV.9. Trial-and-error attempts allowed 174 0.44 1.66 3.46a
IV.10. Atmosphere created for the use of 174 −0.84 1.67 −6.63a
English
Total 173 −2.43 6.22 −5.15a

Error correction
IV.11. Teachers corrected my errors in class 173 0.10 1.64 0.83

a p < 0.01
b Since numbers were automatically adjusted by Minitab, the total is almost always a very small
fractional difference from 100 %.
n.s. = not significant

Chinese as a language of instruction. However, in contrast with the negative at-

titudes expressed toward sentence drilling and repetition in senior high school,
learners favored these same practices on the junior high school level, item V.2
(M = 0.52 on scale of −3 to +3, SD = 1.60, t = 4.26, p < 0.01). A possible
explanation for this difference is that the respondents found the audio-lingual
exercises widely used in junior high school ELT to be of value simply because
they are among the few exercises at that level that require active learner par-
ticipation. Similar to their attitudes toward senior high school ELT practice,
respondents in this study reported that they enjoyed opportunities for learning
English through activities associated with a meaning-based approach (Total M
= 6.699 on a scale of −15 to +15, SD = 6.35, t = 13.87, p < 0.01).
232 Sandra J. Savignon and Chaochang Wang

Table 4. Attitude toward perceived classroom practice in senior high school

Item N Mean SD t
Form-based
II.1. Grammar-focused English teaching 174 −0.94 1.64 −7.54a
II.2. Sentence drilling and sentence repetition 174 −0.03 1.63 −0.23
II.3. Chinese used most of the time 174 0.51 1.48 4.56a
II.4. Most time spent on grammar rules 173 −0.94 1.51 −8.19a
explanation
II.5. Seldom needed to open my mouth 172 −0.68 1.54 −5.78a
Total 171 −2.07 5.05 −5.36a
Communication-based
II.6. Communication-based teaching practices 174 1.65 1.33 16.37a
II.7. Many activities involving communication 171 1.33 1.48 11.77a
II.8. Communication-focused with grammar 173 1.85 1.24 19.63a
explained when necessary
II.9. Trial-and-error attempts allowed 174 1.99 1.26 20.94a
II.10. Atmosphere created for the use of English 174 2.03 1.13 23.70a
Total 170 9.00 5.35 21.69a

Error correction
II.11. Teachers corrected my errors in class 174 1.190 1.424 11.02a

a p < 0.01

3.3.3. Learner perceptions and attitudes compared. The findings summa-

rized above pertain to classroom practices as they were experienced by respon-
dents at both the senior and junior levels of high school as well as to the at-
titudes of these same respondents toward these practices. Generally speaking,
learners reported having experienced far more grammar-based than meaning-
based instruction at both levels of high school. They expressed highly negative
attitudes toward the former and positive attitudes toward the latter. They also
felt it important for teachers to correct their oral errors and favored Chinese as a
language of instruction. When the classroom experiences reported by learners
were compared with their attitudes, they were clearly at odds. Table 6 shows
the comparison of learner attitudes with reported classroom practices in senior
high school for each item in parts 1 and 2. All differences are significant.
The clear mismatch in senior high school between learner attitudes and their
perceptions of classroom practices can be seen in Figure 1 (p. 235).
Similarly, the results presented in Table 7 and Figure 2 (p. 235) show the
extent to which communication-based practice was favored and not perceived
for junior high schools.
 Learner attitudes and perceptions 233

Table 5. Attitude toward perceived classroom practice in junior high school

Item N Mean SD t
Form-based
V.1. Grammar-focused English teaching 174 −0.27 1.77 −2.02a
V.2. Sentence drilling and sentence 174 0.52 1.60 4.26b
repetition
V.3. Chinese used most of the time 174 0.99 1.43 9.14b
V.4. Most time spent on grammar rules 174 −0.37 1.76 −2.76b
explanation
V.5. Seldom needed to open my mouth 174 −0.38 1.81 −2.77b
Total 174 0.49 5.75 1.12 (n.s.)

Communication-based
V.6. Communication-based teaching 174 1.24 1.47 11.13b
practices
V.7. Many activities involving 173 1.08 1.55 9.11b
communication
V.8. Communication-focused with grammar 174 1.31 1.50 11.51b
explained when necessary
V.9. Trial-and-error attempts allowed 174 1.58 1.32 15.76b
V.10. Atmosphere created for the use of 174 1.53 1.35 14.94b
English
Total 173 6.70 6.35 13.87b

Error correction
V. 11. Teachers corrected my errors in class 173 0.79 1.50 6.91b

a p < 0.05
b p < 0.01
n.s. = not significant

3.3.4. Learner beliefs about language learning. Table 8 shows learner at-
titudes and/or beliefs about English language learning in general, part 3 of
the questionnaire. Not surprisingly, learners considered important those same
classroom emphases for which they expressed a preference.
Items measuring the same variable are grouped. Items 1–5 and 12–16 re-
late to grammar-based teaching and learning; items 6–10 and 17–19 relate to
meaning-based teaching and learning. The t-test results clearly show learners
to believe that language teaching should focus on communication (M = 15.51
on a scale of −24 to +24, SD = 6.87, t = 29.60, p < 0.01) and that language
learning should not be grammar-based, or form-focused (M = −3.26 on a scale
of −30 to +30, SD = 8.23, t = −5.21, p < 0.01). Items 24, 25, and 28 reveal
highly positive attitudes toward English (M = 5.82 on a scale of −9 to +9, SD
234 Sandra J. Savignon and Chaochang Wang

Table 6. Needs and perceived classroom practice in senior high school

Emphases/Attitudes (Item) N Emphases SD Needs SD t

Mean Mean
1. Grammar-focused English 174 1.13 1.55 −0.94 1.64 13.03b
teaching
2. Sentence drilling and sentence 174 1.18 1.58 −0.03 1.63 7.64b
repetition
3. Chinese used most of the time 174 0.89 1.63 0.51 1.48 2.57a
4. Most time spent on grammar 171 1.21 1.47 −0.94 1.51 13.63b
rules explanation
5. Seldom needed to open my 172 0.36 1.95 −0.68 1.54 6.11b
mouth
6. Communication-based 174 −0.40 1.83 1.65 1.33 −12.26b
teaching practices
7. Many activities involving 171 −0.58 1.92 1.33 1.48 −10.96b
communication
8. Communication-focused with 173 −0.35 2.20 1.85 1.24 −11.48b
grammar explained when
necessary
9. Trial-and-error attempts 174 0.82 1.70 1.99 1.26 −9.56b
allowed
10. Atmosphere created for the 174 −0.20 1.79 2.03 1.13 −14.96b
use of English

a p < 0.05
b p < 0.01

= 2.98, t = 25.67, p < 0.01), consistent with the generally positive attitudes
toward English in Taiwan society as a whole (see C. Wang 2000). Items 22 and
23 indicate that those surveyed did not consider “good pronunciation” to be an
indicator of English language ability (M = −2.26 on a scale of −6 to +6, SD
= 2.79, t = −10.68, p < 0.01). However, they did feel that teachers should cor-
rect learner errors. Items 26 and 27 showed that students did not believe there
to be a correlation between intelligence and the ability to learn a new language,
an indication that they considered language learning attainable by all students,
irrespective of their overall academic aptitude.

3.3.5. Learner variables. In anticipation of school language study, it is com-

mon for Taiwanese parents to enroll their children in private English language
classes, or bushiban, for one or more years of advance preparation. Parents who
send their children to these private English language classes seek to give them
not only an early start but also better communication skills. English teaching
 Learner attitudes and perceptions 235

Figure 1. Comparison of perceived classroom practice and learner needs in senior high
school (Items in Parts 1 and 2 of the questionnaire)

Figure 2. Comparison of perceived classroom practice and learner needs in junior high
school (Items in Parts 4 and 5 of the questionnaire)

in these settings emphasizes oral communication in a pleasant, non-threatening

environment (C. Wang 2000). Most bushiban for children learning English em-
ploy native speakers of English with one Chinese teacher per class to assist
them.
Inasmuch as learners who have experienced the communication-based prac-
tices familiar in bushiban ELT may have attitudes or beliefs different from
those without such experience, the attitudes of those who had begun their En-
glish language learning prior to entering secondary school were compared with
those whose English language learning had not begun until junior high school.
Results were analyzed using one-way MANOVA for a between-groups design.
The analysis of the results regarding attitudes and beliefs about communication-
based practices showed no significant difference between these two groups:
Wilks’ lambda = 0.99, F(3, 157) = 0.70; p > 0.05. However, the analysis of
the results regarding attitudes and beliefs about form-based instruction revealed
236 Sandra J. Savignon and Chaochang Wang

Table 7. Needs and perceived classroom practice in junior high school

Emphases/Attitudes (Item) N Emphases SD Needs SD t

Mean Mean
1. Grammar-focused 174 1.71 1.38 −0.27 1.77 12.51a
English teaching
2. Sentence drilling 174 1.74 1.38 0.52 1.60 8.54a
and sentence
repetition
3. Chinese used most 174 2.05 1.20 0.99 1.43 8.14a
of the time
4. Most time spent on 174 1.89 1.20 −0.37 1.76 14.70a
grammar rules
explanation
5. Seldom needed to 174 1.13 1.71 -0.38 1.81 9.05a
open my mouth
6. Communication- 174 −0.79 1.57 1.24 1.47 −13.00a
based teaching
practices
7. Many activities 173 −1.06 1.57 1.08 1.55 −13.00a
involving
communication
8. Communication- 174 −0.13 1.82 1.31 1.50 −8.25a
focused with
grammar explained
when necessary
9. Trial-and-error 174 0.44 1.66 1.58 1.32 −7.96a
attempts allowed
10. Atmosphere 174 −0.84 1.67 1.53 1.35 −15.20a
created for the use
of English

a p < 0.01

a significant multivariate effect for different groups who began learning En-
glish at different ages: Wilks’ lambda = 0.93, F(3, 160) = 3.80; p < 0.05. The
age of initial English learning showed a significant effect on attitudes toward
form-focused instruction in both senior and junior high school, as well as on
beliefs about language learning in general. The sample means are displayed in
Figure 3.
Tukey’s HSD test showed that respondents who had begun learning English
before they entered secondary school scored significantly lower on the three
dependent variables (p < 0.05). That is to say, they expressed significantly
 Learner attitudes and perceptions 237

Table 8. Beliefs about learning English

Item N Mean SD t
Grammar-based: III.1–5 and 12–16 173 −3.26 8.23 −5.21a
Communication-based: III.6–10 and 17–19 172 15.51 6.87 29.60a
Correction: III.11, 20, 21 174 3.37 2.58 17.21a
Pronunciation III.22, 23 174 −2.26 2.79 −10.68a
Attitude toward English: III.24, 25, 28 173 5.82 2.98 25.67a
Intelligence: III.26, 27 171 −1.75 2.36 −9.71a

a p < 0.05

Figure 3. Mean levels of attitude and belief about form-based instruction observed for
participants beginning learning English before secondary school and on entering sec-
ondary school

more negative attitudes about form-focused instruction than did those who did
not begin to learn English until after they had entered secondary school.
One-way MANOVA was used to see if this early experience of learning En-
glish had an effect on beliefs about pronunciation, the importance of English,
the relationship of intelligence and good learners, and/or error correction. The
results failed to show a significant multivariate effect: Wilks’ lambda = 0.99,
F(4, 161) = 0.53; p = 0.72.
Gender and the university to which they had been admitted were learner
variables potentially affecting their views of instruction. Results were ana-
lyzed using a two-way MANOVA, between-groups design. This analysis failed
to show significant multivariate effects on attitudes and beliefs about either
form-based practices (Wilks’ lambda = 0.99, F(3, 159) = 0.76; p > 0.05) or
communication-based practices (Wilks’ lambda = 0.98, F(3, 156) = 0.79; p >
0.05). The effect of these two variables on each variate was further examined
by means of a two-way ANOVA. Their individual effect on each variate was
238 Sandra J. Savignon and Chaochang Wang

also examined by means of a one-way ANOVA. No significant effect was found

for these two variables.
Similarly, results analyzed with a two-way ANOVA revealed no significant
effect for gender or university on views of error correction, pronunciation, and
the relationship of intelligence and good learners. However, the university in
which repondents were enrolled did have a significant main effect on their
views of the importance of English, F(1, 164) = 11.88; p < 0.01. Tukey’s HSD
test indicated that respondents from one university scored significantly higher
on their views of the importance of English than did those in the other univer-
sity (p < 0.05). The analysis using a one-way ANOVA yielded similar results.
Since both universities were located in Taipei, access to and awareness of En-
glish would not appear to be an explanatory factor. However, it may be relevant
to note that of the two universities, the one from which was drawn the sample
of learners who expressed more markedly positive views about the importance
of English was the university with higher academic entrance requirements.

4. Discussion
The results of this study suggest a mismatch between the needs and preferences
of English language learners in Taiwan and their perceptions of instructional
practice. Instructional practice in secondary schools is described as generally
form-focused in nature. These learner perceptions are consistent with the obser-
vations of Du-Babcock and Du-Babcock (1987), who report the predominance
of grammar-translation and audiolingual methods in English language teaching
in Taiwan, as well as with the experience of the second author of this article as
both a learner and teacher of EFL in Taipei. The results are also consistent with
data found in the narrative accounts of a group of prominent Taiwan English
language teacher educators reported in C. Wang (2002).
In contrast, an analysis of attitudes toward English teaching and learning in
general shows learner preference for a meaning-based approach. Learners sam-
pled expressed strong agreement with such statements as “Learning English is
learning to use the language”. They disagreed with such statements as “Learn-
ing English is learning its grammar rules” and “I believe my English improves
most quickly if I study and practice the grammar”. (The statements used here
for illustration, like the questionnaires provided as an appendix to this article,
are English translations and therefore only approximations of the Chinese state-
ments that were used in the study. The actual Chinese statements are available
from the authors.) Learner attitudes toward classroom practice reflected a simi-
lar preference. There was strong agreement with statements such as “I liked my
(high school) English teachers to create an atmosphere that encouraged us to
use English in class” and “I liked communicative activities where we could in-
teract in English with peers”. There was general disagreement with such state-
 Learner attitudes and perceptions 239

ments as “I liked English classes in which I did not need to open my mouth”
or “I liked sentence drilling and repeating phrases after my teacher”. In sum,
learners expressed negative attitudes toward grammar-based instruction and
positive attitudes toward a more communicative approach. These findings cor-
roborate those of Huang (1998) who found Taiwanese senior high school stu-
dents’ view of the ideal way to learn English to be through the use of English.
She observed that grammar instruction was being emphasized while learners’
communicative needs were being ignored. They are moreover consistent with
current classroom language learning theory which underscores the value of
meaning-based experience in the development of communicative competence
(see, for example, Lightbown and Spada 2000; Savignon in press; Wong and
vanPatten in press).
Although a majority of the learners in both groups expressed a preference
for communicative practices, negative attitudes toward form-focused instruc-
tion were stronger among those those who had had more English language
learning experience. Of particular significance was the effect of age of initial
English language learning on learner attitudes. Learners who had begun learn-
ing English prior to entering secondary school expressed stronger negative at-
titudes about form-focused instruction than did those whose initial classroom
experience had been in junior high school.
As was reported in the introduction to this article, public school English lan-
guage learning in Taiwan has until recently begun at the junior high school
level. In recognition of the high value accorded communicative competence
in English, effective in Fall 2000, island-wide curricular reform mandates the
introduction of English language learning at the 5th grade elementary school
level. The elimination of form-focused senior high school and college entrance
examinations effective in 2001 and 2002, respectively, further signals a com-
mitment to communicative goals for ELT. If the trend of preparing children
for state school ELT by sending them for prior private school instruction in
English continues, a likely supposition given the high stakes of school achieve-
ment in Taiwan, learners will be afforded even greater opportunity to develop
their communicative skills. The findings of this study suggest that upon reach-
ing the secondary school level, these learners may well have established beliefs
and preferences that strongly favor communicative language teaching.
It is true that classroom practices are not necessarily a reflection of teach-
ers’ beliefs about language teaching and learning, let alone those of learners.
Theory and practice are often at odds for a number of reasons (Sato and Klein-
sasser 1999; Savignon 2002). A discrepancy between learners’ beliefs and
classroom practices, however, has been shown to affect learning no less than
does a discrepancy between learner beliefs and teacher beliefs (Horwitz 1988;
Kern 1995; Schulz 1996). Successful instructional programs thus depend upon
a clarification of the needs and expectations of learners. Where there is a mis-
240 Sandra J. Savignon and Chaochang Wang

match with learner perceptions of classroom practices, there may be a need for
teachers to convey to learners their own expectations as to the goals and nature
of language learning (Nunan 1993). Or, more relevant to the focus of the study
reported here, a mismatch may suggest a need to reconsider classroom prac-
tices. Although many of the learners who responded to the questionnaire in this
study consider the integration of a grammar component necessary for initial
language interaction and practice, the majority felt that their English language
needs are best met through communicative programs that encourage language
use in class. They favor the idea of adopting a meaning-based approach, with
grammar taught in class as needed. Moreover, they feel it important that lan-
guage teachers do not overemphasize the teaching of rules.

5. Conclusion
Taiwanese learners may be typical of learners in other EFL contexts in that
they are very good at explaining the rules of English but are often unable to
use English for communication (Liang 1994). Activities or tasks designed to
engage them in making meaning orally or in writing offers an opportunity to
learn English by using the language in context rather than simply recognizing
or memorizing grammatical rules. Research has documented the difficulties in
adopting a communication-based approach in many EFL contexts. Nonethe-
less, teaching for communicative competence appears to be the appropriate
guiding principle of English pedagogy in settings such as Taiwan where learn-
ers and the society as a whole expect and value communicative skills. Over-
coming the many obstacles confronted when implementing a communicative
program is, of course, in no way the responsibility of classroom teachers and
learners alone. Successful program implementation requires efforts from ad-
ministrators, parents and society as a whole (Kleinsasser 1993).
This study is not without limitations. The learner samples used in this study
were drawn from populations of first-year university students in Taipei who
were asked to reflect post hoc on their secondary school EFL classroom ex-
perience. Although the questionnaire response rate was quite high (88 %), the
preference expressed for communication-based English language learning can-
not be said to represent the views of university students throughout Taiwan.
Moreover, additional research is needed before any claim can be made about
the experiences and preferences of learners who do not continue English lan-
guage study beyond secondary school. On a yet more basic level, the statement
of learner attitudes and beliefs about classroom language teaching practices
on a Likert-type scale may or may not be an accurate reflection of learner atti-
tudes. And, certainly, reports of learner perceptions of their classroom language
learning experiences cannot be claimed to accurately reflect actual classroom
practices.
 Learner attitudes and perceptions 241

The learner perceptions and attitudes reported in this study represent but one
feature of English language learning and teaching in Taiwan, an EFL context
among many worldwide currently engaged in or contemplating curricular re-
form. In addition to the perceptions and attitudes of learners, numerous other
factors necessarily inform pedagogical decisions. The findings are nonethe-
less encouraging in the support they reflect for ongoing Ministry of Education
revisions of English education policy. Given the documented struggles for lan-
guage teaching reform in other international contexts, the implementation of
new curricula reflective of communication-based teaching in Taiwan promises
to be a challenge. An understanding of learner attitudes and their perceptions
of current teaching practices is important to an accurate definition of the func-
tion and goals of EFL and of the methods of teaching that best help learners to
attain these goals.

The Pennsylvania State University

SJSavignon@psu.edu
Ming Chuan University

caw207@yahoo.co

Appendix
Questionnaire (English translation of the Chinese questionnaire used in the
study)
Please circle the number or provide an answer that best reflects your view for
each item.

I. English practice in the classroom in my Senior high school

1. English teaching in my high school was grammar-focused.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

2. My English teachers in high school often asked us to do sentence drilling

and repeat sentences after them.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

3. The language used in the classroom by my teachers was mostly Chinese.

Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

4. English teaching in my high school was mainly explaining and practicing

grammar rules.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree
242 Sandra J. Savignon and Chaochang Wang

5. I seldom needed to open my mouth in the classroom.

Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

6. English teaching in my high school was communication-based.

Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

7. My teachers often designed activities to have us interact in English with

peers.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

8. Our focus in class was communication, but the teacher would explain
grammar when necessary.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

9. English teachers in my high school allowed us trial-and-error attempts

to communicate in English.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

10. My English teachers often created an atmosphere for us to use English.

Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

11. My English teachers often corrected my errors in class.

II. My attitude toward the instructional practice in my senior high school

1. I liked grammar-focused English teaching in my high school.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

2. I liked sentence drilling and repeating sentences after my teachers in my

high school English class.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

3. I liked the language used in the classroom by my English teachers in

high school to be mostly Chinese.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

4. I liked much of the time in the classroom to be spent in explaining and

practicing grammar rules.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

5. I liked an English class in which I did not need to open my mouth.

Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree
 Learner attitudes and perceptions 243

6. I liked communication-based English teaching.

Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree
7. I liked communicative activities so that we could interact in English with
peers.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree
8. I liked my English class to be focused on communication, with grammar
explained when necessary.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree
9. I liked English teachers in my high school to allow us to make trial-and-
error attempts to communicate in English.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree
10. I liked my English teachers to create an atmosphere that encouraged us
to use English in class.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree
11. I liked my errors in speaking to be corrected by my teachers.

III. My beliefs about learning English

1. Learning English is learning its grammar rules.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree
2. English learning through sentence drilling is effective
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree
3. I believe Chinese should be frequently used in my English class for my
better understanding of the lessons.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree
4. I believe the more grammar rules one memorizes, the better he/she is at
using English.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree
5. Opening one’s mouth to practice speaking in the classroom is not essen-
tial for English learning.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree
6. A language classroom should be communication-focused.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree
244 Sandra J. Savignon and Chaochang Wang

7. It is important to practice English in real-life or real-life like situations.

Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

8. Languages are learned mainly through communication, with grammar

rules explained when necessary.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

9. I believe making trial-and-error attempts to communicate in English

helps me to learn English.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

10. A teacher should create an atmosphere in the classroom to encourage

interaction as a class or in groups.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

11. It is important for the teacher to correct students’ errors in class.

Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

12. The formal study of grammar is essential to eventual mastery of English.

Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

13. I believe my English improves most quickly if I study and practice the
grammar.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

14. There should be more formal study of grammar in English class.

Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

15. It is more important to study and practice grammatical patterns than to

practice English in an interactive way in the classroom.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

16. Grammar rules should be explicitly explained in class.

Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

17. Learning English is learning to use the language.

Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

18. Learning English by practicing the language in communicative activities

is essential to eventual mastery of a foreign language.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree
 Learner attitudes and perceptions 245

19. A communication-focused language program often meets the learner’s

needs.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

20. I believe it is important to avoid making errors in the process of learning

English.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

21. Teachers should correct students’ pronunciation or grammatical errors in

class.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

22. A good language learner usually pronounces beautifully.

Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

23. A person’s good pronunciation usually indicates good English.

Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

24. Learning English is important for people in Taiwan.

Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

25. English is useful in getting a good job.

Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

26. Good language learners are intelligent.

Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

27. Students who have good grades in other subjects are likely to be good
language learners.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

28. English education should begin in elementary school.

Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

29. I wish to speak like English native speakers. If you agree with the above
statement, what English would you like to learn to use?

IV. English practice in the classroom in my Junior high school

1. English teaching in my school was grammar-focused.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree
246 Sandra J. Savignon and Chaochang Wang

2. My English teachers in school often asked us to do sentence drilling and

repeat sentences after them.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

3. The language used in the classroom by my teachers was mostly Chinese.

Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

4. English teaching in my school was mainly explaining and practicing

grammar rules.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

5. I seldom needed to open my mouth in the classroom.

Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

6. English teaching in my school was communication-based.

Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

7. My teachers often designed activities to have us interact in English with

peers.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

8. Our focus in class was communication, but the teacher would explain
grammar when necessary.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

9. English teachers allowed us trial-and-error attempts to communicate in

English.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

10. My English teachers often created an atmosphere for us to use English.

Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

11. My English teachers often corrected my errors in class.

V. My attitude toward the instructional practice in my junior high school

1. I liked grammar-focused English teaching in my school.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

2. I liked sentence drilling and repeating sentences after my teachers in my

school English class.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree
 Learner attitudes and perceptions 247

3. I liked the language used in the classroom by my English teachers in

school to be mostly Chinese.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree
4. I liked much of the time in the classroom to be spent in explaining and
practicing grammar rules.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree
5. I liked an English class in which I did not need to open my mouth.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree
6. I liked communication-based English teaching.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree
7. I liked communicative activities so that we could interact in English with
peers.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree
8. I liked my English class to be focused on communication, with grammar
explained when necessary.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree
9. I liked English teachers in my school to allow us trial-and-error attempts
to communicate in English.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree
10. I like my English teachers to create an atmosphere that encouraged us to
use English in class.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree
11. I liked my errors in speaking to be corrected by my teachers.
Strongly Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 agree

Background information
1. Male Female Major College/University
2. Age: 15–20 21–25 26–29 30–35 36–40 Over 40
3. When did you start learning English?
Before 7 years old Between 7 and 11 Between 12 and 15
At 16 or after
4. Senior high school Junior high school
248 Sandra J. Savignon and Chaochang Wang

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