VOLCANO

Definition
A volcano is an opening, or rupture, in a planet's surface or crust, which allows
hot magma, volcanic ash and gases to escape from below the surface.
The word volcano is derived from the name of Vulcano, a volcanic island in the Aeolian
Islands of Italy whose name in turn originates from Vulcan, the name of a god of fire in Roman
mythology. The study of volcanoes is called volcanology, sometimes spelled vulcanology.
Location of Volcano

1. Divergent plate boundaries

At the mid-oceanic ridges, two tectonic plates diverge from one another. New oceanic crust is
being formed by hot molten rock slowly cooling and solidifying. The crust is very thin at mid-
oceanic ridges due to the pull of the tectonic plates. The release of pressure due to the thinning
of the crust leads to adiabatic expansion, and the partial melting of the mantle causing volcanism
and creating new oceanic crust. Most divergent plate boundaries are at the bottom of the oceans,
therefore most volcanic activity is submarine, forming new seafloor. Black smokers or deep sea
vents are an example of this kind of volcanic activity. Where the mid-oceanic ridge is above sea-
level, volcanic islands are formed, for example, Iceland.
2. Convergent plate boundaries
Subduction zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental plate,
collide. In this case, the oceanic plate subducts, or submerges under the continental plate
forming a deep ocean trench just offshore. Water released from the subducting plate lowers the
melting temperature of the overlying mantle wedge, creating magma. This magma tends to be
very viscous due to its high silicacontent, so often does not reach the surface and cools at depth.
When it does reach the surface, a volcano is formed. Typical examples for this kind of volcano
are Mount Etna and the volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire.
3. Hotspots
"Hotspots" is the name given to volcanic provinces postulated to be formed by mantle plumes.
These are postulated to comprise columns of hot material that rise from the core-mantle
boundary. They are suggested to be hot, causing large-volume melting, and to be fixed in space.
Because the tectonic plates move across them, each volcano becomes dormant after a while and
a new volcano is then formed as the plate shifts over the postulated plume. The Hawaiian
Islands have been suggested to have been formed in such a manner, as well as the Snake River
Plain, with the Yellowstone Caldera being the part of the North American plate currently above
the hot spot. This theory is currently under criticism, however
Popular classification of volcanoes
1. Active
A popular way of classifying magmatic volcanoes is by their frequency of eruption, with those
that erupt regularly called active, those that have erupted in historical times but are now quiet
called dormant, and those that have not erupted in historical times called extinct. However, these
popular classifications—extinct in particular—are practically meaningless to scientists. They use
classifications which refer to a particular volcano's formative and eruptive processes and
resulting shapes, which was explained above.
There is no real consensus among volcanologists on how to define an "active" volcano. The
lifespan of a volcano can vary from months to several million years, making such a distinction
sometimes meaningless when compared to the lifespans of humans or even civilizations. For
example, many of Earth's volcanoes have erupted dozens of times in the past few thousand years
but are not currently showing signs of eruption. Given the long lifespan of such volcanoes, they
are very active. By human lifespans, however, they are not.
Scientists usually consider a volcano to be erupting or likely to erupt if it is currently erupting, or
showing signs of unrest such as unusual earthquake activity or significant new gas emissions.
Most scientists consider a volcano active if it has erupted in holocene times. Historic times is
another timeframe for active.[5] But it is important to note that the span of recorded history
differs from region to region. In China and the Mediterranean, recorded history reaches back
more than 3,000 years but in the Pacific Northwest of the United States and Canada, it reaches
back less than 300 years, and in Hawaii and New Zealand, only around 200 years.[6] The
Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program's definition of active is having erupted within the last
10,000 years (the 'holocene' period).
Presently there are about 500 active volcanoes in the world – the majority following along the
Pacific 'Ring of Fire' – and around 50 of these erupt each year.[7] The United States is home to 50
active volcanoes.[8] There are more than 1,500 potentially active volcanoes. [9] An estimated 500
million people live near active volcanoes. [10]
2. Extinct
Extinct volcanoes are those that scientists consider unlikely to erupt again, because the volcano
no longer has a lava supply. Examples of extinct volcanoes are many volcanoes on the Hawaiian
– Emperor seamount chain in the Pacific Ocean, Hohentwiel, Shiprock and theZuidwal
volcano in the Netherlands. Edinburgh Castle in Scotland is famously located atop an extinct
volcano. Otherwise, whether a volcano is truly extinct is often difficult to determine. Since
"supervolcano" calderas can have eruptive lifespans sometimes measured in millions of years, a
caldera that has not produced an eruption in tens of thousands of years is likely to be considered
dormant instead of extinct.
3. Dormant
It is difficult to distinguish an extinct volcano from a dormant one. Volcanoes are often
considered to be extinct if there are no written records of its activity. Nevertheless volcanoes
may remain dormant for a long period of time, Yellowstone has a repose/ recharge period of
around 700 ka and Toba of around 380 ka.[11] Vesuvius was described by Roman writers as
having been covered with gardens and vineyards before its famous eruption of AD 79, which
destroyed the towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Before the catastrophic eruption of
1991, Pinatubowas an inconspicuous volcano, unknown to most people in the surrounding areas.
More recently, the long-dormant Soufrière Hills volcano on the island of Montserrat was thought
to be extinct before activity resumed in 1995. Another recent example is Fourpeaked
Mountain inAlaska, which, before its eruption in September 2006, had not erupted since before
8000 BC and was long thought to be extinct.
Type of Volcano

1. Shield volcano
A shield volcano is a type of volcano built almost entirely of fluid lava flows. They are named so
because of their large size and low profile, resembling a warrior's shield. This is caused by the
highly fluid lava they erupt, which travel farther than those erupted from more explosive
volcanoes. This results in the steady accumulation of broad sheets of lava, building up the shield
volcano's distinctive form.
Shield volcanoes are built up by effusive eruptions, which flow out in all directions to create a
shield like that of a warrior. The word shield has a long history, and is derived from the Old
English scield or scild, which is in turn taken from the Proto-Germanic skeldus taken from
various derivations of the Gothic skildus, meaning "to divide, split, or separate". Shield volcano
itself is taken from the German term schildvulkan.
Shield volcanoes are one of the three major types of volcanoes, distinguished from the two other
major volcanic types, stratovolcanoesand cinder cones, by distinct differences in structure and
composition. Stratovolcanoes are built up by the accumulation of thick, viscouslavas, whereas
cinder cones are constructed of tephra ejected in explosive eruptions. In comparison, shield
volcanoes are built of relatively weakly viscous basaltic lavas that erupts in longer cycles than
that of a stratovolcano.[3] Shield volcanoes are distinctive products of hotspot volcanism, but can
form at rift and subduction zones as well.
The types of eruptions that occur at shield volcanoes have been named Hawaiian eruptions, after
the Hawaiian chain in which they are most prominent. Hawaiian eruptions are characterized by
the effusive emission of fluid lavas. The mobile nature of these lavas allows shield volcano
flows to travel a longer distance then those of other volcanic types, resulting in a larger and
thinner sheets of lava, often just 1 m (3 ft) thick. Over long periods of time, the gradual buildup
of thousands of these flows slowly constructs the characteristically low, broad profile of a
mature shield volcano.
Because of their gradual buildup and near-continuous eruptive characteristics, shield volcanoes
vary widely in size with their age. Mature shield volcanoes are the largest volcanoes on
Earth. Shield volcanoes often measure 3 to 4 mi (5 to 6 km) in diameter and surpass 1,500 to
2,000 ft (460 to 610 m) in height. The largest shield volcano (and the largest active volcano) in
the world is Mauna Loa inHawaiʻi, which projects 13,677 ft (4,169 m) above sea level, and is
over 60 mi (97 km) wide. The volcano is estimated to contain 80,000 km3 (19,000 cu mi) of
basalt, a mass is so great that it has slumped into the Earth's crust. Their lower slopes are
generally gentle (~2 degrees), but steepen with elevation (reaching ~10 degrees) before
flattening near the summit, giving the volcanoes a convexshape. The height of a shield volcano
is typically 1/20th of its width.
Rift zones are a prevalent feature on shield volcanoes that is rare on other volcanic types. The
large, decentralized shape of Hawaiian volcanoes as compared to their smaller, symmetrical
Icelandian cousins can be attributed to rift eruptions. Fissure venting is common in Hawaiʻi;
most Hawaiian eruptions begin with a so-called "wall of fire" along a major fissure line before
centralizing to a small number of points. This accounts for their asymmetrical shape, whereas
Icelandian volcanoes follow a pattern of central eruptions dominated bysummit calderas, causing
much evener lava.
Another hallmark of shield volcanism are lava tubes. Lava tubes are cave-like volcanic straights
formed by the hardening of overlaying lava. These structures help further the propagation of
lava, as the walls of the tube insulates the lava within. Lava tubes can account for a large chunk
of shield volcano activity; for for example, an estimated 58% of the lava forming Kilauea comes
from lava tubes.
Most mature shield volcanoes have multiple splatter (or cinder) cones on their flanks. The cones
are a result of tephra ejection during incessant activity, building up a volcanic cone at the
eruption site, and thus marking the site of former and current eruptive sites on the shield
volcano. A prominent example of a shield volcano-bound cinder cone is is Puʻu
ʻŌʻō on Kīlauea. The cone has been erupting continuously since 1983 in one of the longest-
lasting rift eruptions in history, and was built up to its present height of 2,290 ft (698 m) by over
25 years of activity. The collapse-driven calderas that form at the ends of a cinder cone's lifespan
are often filled up, and new ones formed elsewhere, in an ongoing cycle of collapse and
regeneration.
In some shield volcano eruptions, basaltic lava pours out of a long fissure instead of a central
vent, and shrouds the countryside with a long band of volcanic material in the form of a
broud plateau. Plateaus of this type exist in Iceland, Washington, Oregon, and Idaho; the most
prominent ones are situated along the Snake River in Idaho and the Columbia River in
Washington and Oregon, where they have been measured to be over a 1 mi (2 km) in
thickness. Many eruptions start as a so-called "curtain of fire"—a long eruptive chain along
a fissure vent on the volcano. Eventually these eruptions die down and start to focus around a
few points on the fissure, where activity is concentrated.
Interactions between water and lava at shield volcanoes can cause some eruptions to
become hydrovolcanic. These explosive eruptions are drastically different from the usual shield
volcanic activity, and are especially prevalent at the waterbound volcanoes of the Hawaiian
Isles.
The largest and most prominent shield volcano chain in the world are the Hawaiian Islands,
a chain of hotspot volcanoes in Pacific Ocean. The Hawaiian volcanoes are characterized by
frequent rift eruptions, their large size (thousands of km3 in volume), and their rough,
decentralized shape. Rift zones are a prominent feature on these volcanoes, and account for their
seemingly random volcanic structure. Theu are fueled by the movement of the Pacific Plate over
the Hawaii hotspot, and form a long chain of volcanoes, atolls, andseamounts 2,600 km (1,616
mi) long with a total volume of over 750,000 km3 (179,935 cu mi). The chain contains at least
43 major volcanoes, and Meiji Seamount at its terminus near the Kuril-Kamchatka Trench is
85 million years old.
The chain includes the largest volcano on Earth, Mauna Loa, which stands 4,170 m (13,680 ft)
above sea level and reaches a further 13 km (8 mi) below the waterline and into the crust,
approximately 80,000 km3 (19,000 cu mi) of rock. Kilauea, meanwhile, is one of the most active
volcanoes on Earth, with the current ongoing eruption having begun in January 1983.
Another major center of shield volcanic activity is Iceland. There, the volcanoes are small
(~15 km3 (4 cu mi)), symmetrical, and are characterized by eruptions from summit calderas.
Shield volcanoes are not only limited to Earth, but have been found on Mars. Though Mars'
shields are much more massive than those of Earth, reaching more than 17 miles (27 km) in
height and 350 miles (563 km) in diameter, they bear a resemblance to the volcanoes of the
Hawaiian Islands because of their shape and features. The most famous example is Olympus
Mons, a shield volcano that is the highest known mountain in the solar system.
The Hawaiian eruptions of shield volcanoes do not pose much threat to humans, as they emit
large amounts of slow moving lava over long periods of time. However, they are hazardous
to agriculture and infrastructure; the ongoing 1983 eruption of Kīlauea has destroyed over 200
structures and buried kilometers of highways.
Rarer pyroclastic shield volcanoes are similar to normal mafic shields in shape. But rather than
being formed entirely by basalt lavas, pyroclastic shields are mainly formed from explosive
eruptions of ignimbrite.

2. Stratovolcano
A stratovolcano, also known as a composite volcano, is a tall, conical volcano built up by many
layers (strata) of hardened lava, tephra,pumice, and volcanic ash. Unlike shield volcanoes,
stratovolcanoes are characterized by a steep profile and periodic, explosive eruptions. The lava
that flows from stratovolcanoes typically cools and hardens before spreading far due to high
viscosity. The magma forming this lava is often felsic, having high-to-intermediate levels
of silica (as in rhyolite, dacite, or andesite), with lesser amounts of less-viscous mafic magma.
Extensive felsic lava flows are uncommon, but have travelled as far as 15 km (9.3 mi).
Stratovolcanoes are sometimes called "composite volcanoes" because of their composite layered
structure built up from sequential outpourings of eruptive materials. They are among the most
common types of volcanoes, in contrast to the less common shield volcanoes. Two famous
stratovolcanoes are Krakatoa, best known for its catastrophic eruption in 1883 and Vesuvius,
famous for its destruction of the towns Pompeii and Herculaneum in AD79.
Stratovolcanoes are common in subduction zones, forming chains along plate tectonic
boundaries where oceanic crust is drawn under continental crust (Continental Arc Volcanism,
e.g. Cascade Range, central Andes) or another oceanic plate (Island arc Volcanism,
e.g. Japan, Aleutian Islands). The magma that forms stratovolcanoes rises when water trapped
both in hydrated minerals and in the porous basalt rock of the upper oceanic crust, is released
into mantle rock of the asthenosphere above the sinking oceanic slab. The release of water from
hydrated minerals is termed "dewatering," and occurs at specific pressures and temperatures for
each mineral, as the plate descends to greater depths. The water freed from the rock lowers
the melting point of the overlying mantle rock, which then undergoes partial melting and rises
due to its lighter density relative to the surrounding mantle rock, and pools temporarily at the
base of thelithosphere. The magma then rises through the crust, incorporating silica-rich crustal
rock, leading to a final intermediate composition (seeClassification of igneous rock). When the
magma nears the top surface, it pools in a magma chamber under or within the volcano. There,
the relatively low pressure allows water and other volatiles (mainly CO2, SO2, Cl2, and H2O)
dissolved in the magma to escape from solution, as occurs when a bottle of carbonated water is
opened, releasing CO2. Once a critical volume of magma and gas accumulates, the obstacle
(mass blockage) of the volcanic cone is overcome, leading to a sudden explosive eruption.
In recorded history, explosive eruptions at subduction zone (convergent-boundary) volcanoes
have posed the greatest hazard to civilizations. Subduction-zone stratovolcanoes, like Mount St.
Helens and Mount Pinatubo, typically erupt with explosive force: the magma is too stiff to allow
easy escape of volcanic gases. As a consequence the tremendous internal pressures of the
trapped volcanic gases remain in the pasty magma. Following the breaching of the magma
chamber, the magma degasses explosively. Such an explosive process can be likened to shaking
a bottle of carbonated water vigorously, and then quickly removing the cap. The shaking action
nucleates the dissolution of CO2 from the liquid as bubbles, increasing the internal volume. The
gases and water gush out with speed and force.
Two Decade Volcanoes that erupted in 1991 provide examples of stratovolcano hazards. On
June 15, Mount Pinatubo spewed ash 40 kilometres (25 mi) into the air and produced
huge pyroclastic flows and mudflows that devastated a large area around the volcano. Pinatubo,
located 90 km (56 mi) from Manila, had been dormant for 600 years before the 1991 eruption,
which ranks as one of the largest eruptions in the 20th Century. Also in 1991, Japan's Unzen
Volcano, located on the island of Kyushu about 40 km (25 mi) east of Nagasaki, awakened from
its 200-year slumber to produce a new lava dome at its summit. Beginning in June, repeated
collapse of this erupting dome generated ash flows that swept down the mountain's slopes at
speeds as high as 200 km/h (120 mph). Unzen is one of more than 75 active volcanoes in Japan;
an eruption in 1792 killed more than 15,000 people — the worst volcanic disaster in the
country's history.
The 79 CE Plinian eruption of Mount Vesuvius, a stratovolcano looming adjacent to Naples,
completely covered the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum with pyroclastic surge deposits. The
death toll ranged between 10,000 and 25,000. Mount Vesuvius is recognized as one of the most
dangerous volcanoes, jointly because of its potential for powerful explosive eruptions and the
high population density of the area (around 3 million people) around its perimeter.

There are two types of eruptions in terms of activity,

1. explosive eruptions : Explosive eruptions are characterized by gas-driven explosions
that propels magma and tephra.
2. effusive eruptions. Effusive eruptions, meanwhile, are characterized by the outpouring
of lava without significant explosive eruption.

Volcanic eruptions arise through three main mechanisms:

1. Magmatic eruptions, which involve the decompression of gas within magma that propels it
forward.
2. Phreatomagmatic eruptions are another type of volcanic eruption, driven by the
compression of gas within magma, the direct opposite of the process powering magmatic
activity.
3. Phreatic eruption, which is driven by the superheating of steam via contact with magma;
these eruptive types often exhibit no magmatic release, instead causing the granulation of
existing rock.

1. Magmatic eruptions

A. Hawaiian
Hawaiian eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption, named after the Hawaiian volcanoes with
which this eruptive type is hallmark. Hawaiian eruptions are the calmest types of volcanic
events, characterized by the effusive eruption eruption of very fluid basalt-type lavas with low
gaseous content. The volume of ejected material from Hawaiian eruptions is less than half of that
found in other eruptive types. Steady production of small amounts of lava builds up the large,
broad form of a shield volcano. Eruptions are not centralized at the main summit as with other
volcanic types, and often occur at vents around the summit and from fissure vents radiating out
of the center.
Hawaiian eruptions often begin as a line of vent eruptions along a fissure vent, a so-called
"curtain of fire." These die down as the lava beings to concentrate at a few of the vents. Central-
vent eruptions, meanwhile, often take the form of large lava fountains (both continuous and
sporadic), which can reach heights of hundreds of meters or more. The particles from lava
fountains usually cool in the air before hitting the ground, resulting in the accumulation of
cindery scoria fragments; however, when the air is especially thick with clasts, they cannot cool
off fast enough due to the surrounding heat, and hit the ground still hot, the accumulation of
which forms splatter cones. If eruptive rates are high enough, they may even form splatter-fed
lava flows.
B. Strombolian
Strombolian eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption, named after the volcano Stromboli, which
has been erupting continuously for centuries. Strombolian eruptions are driven by the bursting of
gas bubbles within the magma. These gas bubbles within the magma accumulate and coalesce
into large bubbles, called gas slugs. These grow large enough to rise through the lava
column. Upon reaching the surface, the difference in air pressure causes the bubble to burst with
a loud pop, throwing magma in the air in a way similar to a soap bubble. Because of the high gas
pressures associated with the lavas, continued activity is generally in the form of
episodic explosive eruptionsaccompanied by the distinctive loud blasts. During eruptions, these
blasts occur as often as every few minutes.

C. Vulcanian
Vulcanian eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption, named after the volcano Vulcano, which
also gives its name to the word Volcano. It was named so following Giuseppe Mercalli's
observations of its 1888-1890 eruptions. In Vulcanian eruptions, highly viscous magma within
the volcano make it difficult for vesiculate gases to escape. Similar to Strombolian eruptions,
this leads to the buildup of high gas pressure, eventually popping the cap holding the magma
down and resulting in an explosive eruption. However, unlike Strombolian eruptions, ejected
lava fragments are not aerodynamical; this is due to the higher viscosity of Vulcanian magma
and the greater incorporation of crystalline material broken off from the former cap. They are
also more explosive than their Strombolian counterparts, with eruptive columns often reaching
between 5 and 10 km (3 and 6 mi) high. Lastly, Vulcanian deposits are andesitic to dacitic rather
than basaltic.
Initial Vulcanian activity is characterized by a series of short-lived explosions, lasting a few
minutes to a few hours and typified by the ejection of volcanic bombs and blocks. These
eruptions wear down the lava dome holding the magma down, and it disintegrates, leading to
much more quiet and continuous eruptions. Thus an early sign of future Vulcanian activity is
lava dome growth, and its collapse generates an outpouring ofpyroclastic material down the
volcano's slope.

D. Peléan
Peléan eruptions (or nuée ardente) are a type of volcanic eruption, named after the
volcano Mount Pelée in Martinique, the site of a massive Peléan eruption in 1902 that is one of
the worst natural disasters in history. In Peléan eruptions, a large amount of gas, dust, ash, and
lava fragmets are blown out the volcano's central crater, driven by the collapse
of rhyolite, dacite, and andesite lava dome collapses that often create large eruptive columns. An
early sign of a coming eruption is the growth of a so-called Peléan or lava spine, a bulge in the
volcano's summit preempting its total collapse. The material collapses upon itself, forming a
fast-moving pyroclastic flow (known as a block-and-ash flow) that moves down the side of the
mountain at tremendous speeds, often over 150 km (93 mi) per hour. These massive
landslides make Peléan eruptions one of the most dangerous in the world, capable of tearing
through populated areas and causing massive loss of life. The 1902 eruption of Mount
Pelée caused tremendous destruction, killing more than 30,000 people and competely destroying
the town of St. Pierre, the worst volcanic event in the 20th century.
Peléan eruptions are characterized most prominently by the incandescent pyroclastic flows that
they drive. The mechanics of a Peléan eruption are very similar to that of a Vulcanian eruption,
except that in Peléan eruptions the volcano's structure is able to withstand more pressure, hence
the eruption occurs as one large explosion rather than several smaller ones.

E. Plinian
Plinian eruptions (or Vesuvian) are a type of volcanic eruption, named for the historical AD 79
eruption of Mount Vesuvius that buried theRoman towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum, and
specifically for its chronicler Pliny the Younger. The process powering Plinian eruptions starts in
the magma chamber, where dissolved volatile gases are stored in the magma. The
gases vesiculate and accumulate as they rise through the magma conduit. These bubbles
agglutinate and once they reach a certain size (about 75% of the total volume of the magma
conduit) they explode. The narrow confines of the conduit force the gases and associated magma
up, forming an eruptive column. Eruption velocity is controlled by the gas contents of the
column, and low-strength surface rocks commonly crack under the pressure of the eruption,
forming a flared outgoing structure that pushes the gases even faster.
These massive eruptive columns are the distinctive feature of a Plinian eruption, and reach up 2
to 45 km (1 to 28 mi) into the atmosphere. The densest part of the plume, directly above the
volcano, is driven internally by gas expansion. As it reaches higher into the air the plume
expands and becomes less dense, convection and thermal expansion of volcanic ash drive it even
further up into the stratosphere. At the top of the plume, powerful prevailing winds drive the
plume in a direction away from the volcano.
These highly explosive eruptions are associated with volatile-rich dacitic to rhyolitic lavas, and
occur most typically at stratovolcanoes. Eruptions can last anywhere from hours to days, with
longer eruptions being associated with more felsic volcanoes. Although they are associated with
felsic magma, Plinian eruptions can just as well occur at basaltic volcanoes, given that
the magma chamber differentiates and has a structure rich in silicon dioxide.
Plinian eruptions are similar to both Vulcanian and Strombolian eruptions, except that rather
than creating discrete explosive events, Plinian eruptions form sustained eruptive columns. They
are also similar to Hawaiian lava fountains in that both eruptive types produce sustained eruption
columns maintained by the growth of bubbles that move up at about the same speed as the
magma surrounding them.
Regions affected by Plinian eruptions are subjected to heavy pumice airfall affecting an area 0.5
to 50 km3 (0 to 12 cu mi) in size. The material in the ash plume eventually finds its way back to
the ground, covering the landscape in a thick layer of many cubic kilometers of ash.
However the most dangerous eruptive feature are the pyroclastic flows generated by material
collapse, which move down the side of the mountain at extreme speeds of up to 700 km (435 mi)
per hour and with the ability to extend the reach of the eruption hundreds of kilometers. The
ejection of hot material from the volcano's summit melts snowbanks and ice deposits on the
volcano, which mixes withtephra to form lahars, fast moving mudslides with the consistency of
wet concrete that move at the speed of a river rapid.

2. Phreatomagmatic eruptions
A. Surtseyan
A Surtseyan eruption (or hydrovolcanic) is a type of volcanic eruption caused by shallow-water
interactions between water and lava, named so after its most famous example, the eruption and
formation of the island of Surtsey off the coast of Iceland in 1963. Surtseyan eruptions are the
"wet" equivalent of ground-based Strombolian eruptions, but because of where they are taking
place they are much more explosive. This is because as water is heated by lava,
it flashes in steam and expands violently, fragmenting the magma it is in contact with into fine-
grainedash. Surtseyan eruptions are the hallmark of shallow-water volcanic oceanic islands,
however they are not specifically confined to them. Surtseyan eruptions can happen on land as
well, and are caused by rising magma that comes into contact with an aquifer (water-bearing
rock formation) at shallow levels under the volcano. The products of Surtseyan eruptions are
generally oxidized palagonite basalts (thoughandesitic eruptions do occur, albeit rarely), and like
Strombolian eruptions Surtseyan eruptions are generally continuous or otherwise rhythmic.
A distinct defining feature of a Surtseyan eruption is the formation of a pyroclastic
surge (or base surge), a ground hugging radial cloud that develops along with the eruption
column. Base surges are caused by the gravitational collapse of a vaperous eruptive column, one
that is denser overall then a regular volcanic column. The densest part of the cloud is nearest to
the vent, resulting a wedge shape. Associated with these laterally moving rings are dune-shaped
depositions of rock left behind by the lateral movement. These are occasionally disrupted
bybomb sags, rock that was flung out by the explosive eruption and followed a ballistic path to
the ground. Accumulations of wet, spherical ash known as accretionary lapilli is another
common surge indicator.
Over time Surtseyan eruptions tend to form maars, broad low-relief volcanic craters dug into the
ground, and tuff rings, circular structures built of rapidly quenched lava. These structures are
associated with a single vent eruption, however if eruptions arise along fracture zones a rift
zonemay be dug out; these eruptions tend to be more violent then the ones forming a tuff ring or
maars, an example being the 1886 eruption of Mount Tarawera. Littoral cones are another
hydrovolcanic feature, generated by the explosive deposition of basaltic tephra (although they
are not truly volcanic vents). They form when lava accumulates within cracks in lava, superheats
and explodes in a steam explosion, breaking the rock apart and depositing it on the volcano's
flank. Consecutive explosions of this type eventually generate the cone.
A maar is a broad, low-relief volcanic crater that is caused by a phreatomagmatic eruption, an
explosion caused by groundwater coming into contact with hot lava or magma. A maar
characteristically fills with water to form a relatively shallow crater lake. The name comes from
the local Moselle Franconian dialect of Daun, where it is in turn derived from Latin mare (sea).
Maars are shallow, flat-floored craters that scientists interpret as having formed above diatremes
as a result of a violent expansion of magmatic gas or steam; deep erosion of a maar presumably
would expose a diatreme. Maars range in size from 60 to 8,000 m (200 to 26,000 ft) across and
from 10 to 200 m (33 to 660 ft) deep, and most are commonly filled with water to form natural
lakes. Most maars have low rims composed of a mixture of loose fragments of volcanic rocks
and rocks torn from the walls of the diatreme.
{ pyroclastic surge is a fluidized mass of turbulent gas and rock fragments which is ejected
during some volcanic eruptions. It is similar to a pyroclastic flow but contains a much higher
proportion of gas to rock, which makes it more turbulent and allows it to rise over ridges and
hills rather than always travel downhill as pyroclastic flows do.
Pyroclastic surges are much faster moving than pyroclastic flows, and can reach speeds of 1050
km/h. Pyroclastic flows may generate surges. For example, the city of Saint-Pierre on
the Caribbean island of Martinique in 1902 was overcome by one.
Base surge was first recognised after the Taal Volcano eruption of 1965, where a
visiting volcanologist recognised the phenomenon as congruent to base surge in atomic
explosions. The USGS defines base surge as turbulent, low-density cloud of rock debris and
water and (or) steam that moves over the ground surface at high speed. Base surges are
generated by explosions.
Hot surges contain gas and steam at temperatures above 100 °C (212 °F) and are ejected from
the vent. They may be as hot as 800 °C (1500 °F) and are produced by the same mechanisms as
pyroclastic flows. Cold surges contain gas mainly below 100 °C (212 °F) and can be produced
when magma comes into contact with a large volume of water (for example, if the vent is under a
lake or the sea).
Surges can travel around 10 kilometres (6.2 miles) and are enormously destructive because of
their massive kinetic energy and, for hot surges, the lethally hot gas. Even cold surges can
contain large quantities of toxic gases, such as hydrogen sulfide.}

B. Submarine
Submarine eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption that occurs underwater. An estimated 75%
of the total volcanic eruptive volume is generated by submarine eruptions near mid ocean
ridges alone, however because of the problems associated with detecting deep seavolcanics, they
remained virtually unknown until advances in the 1990s made it possible to observe them.
Submarine eruptions are generated by seamounts (underwater volcanoes), and are driven by one
of two processes. Volcanoes near plate boundaries and mid-ocean ridges are built by
the decompression melting of mantle rock that floats up to the crustal surface. Eruptions
nearsubducting zones, meanwhile, are driven by subducting plates that adds volatiles to the
rising plate, raising its melting point. Each process generates different rock; mid-ocean ridge
volcanics are primarily basaltic, whereas subduction flows are mostly calc-alkaline, and more
explosive and viscous.
Spreading rates along mid-ocean ridges vary widely, from 2 cm (0.8 in) per year at the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge, to up to 16 cm (6 in) along the East Pacific Rise. Higher spreading rates are a
probably cause for higher levels of volcanism. The technology for studying seamount eruptions
did not exist until advancements in hydrophone technology made it possible to "listen"
to acoustic waves, known as T-waves, released bysubmarine earthquakes associated with
submarine volcanic eruptions. The reason for this is that land-based seismometers cannot detect
sea-based earthquakes below a magnitude of 4, but acoustic waves travel well in water and long
periods of time. A system in the North Pacific, maintained by the United States Navy and
originally intended for the detection of submarines, has detected an event on average every 2 to
3 years.
The most common underwater flow is pillow lava, a circular lava flow named after its unusual
shape. Less common are glassy, marginal sheet flows, indicative of larger-scale
flows. Volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks are common in shallow-water environments. As plate
movement starts to carry the volcanoes away from their eruptive source, eruption rates start to
die down, and water erosion grinds the volcano down. The final stages of eruption caps the
seamount inalkalic flows. There are about 100,000 deepwater volcanoes in the world, although
most are beyond the active stage of their life

C. Subglacial
Subglacial eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption characterized by interactions between lava
and ice, often under a glacier. The nature of glaciovolcanism dictates that it occurs at areas of
high latitude and high altitude. It has been suggested that subglacial volcanoes that are not
actively erupting often dump heat into the ice covering them, producing meltwater. This
meltwater mix means that subglacial eruptions often generate dangerous jökulhlaups (floods)
and lahars.
The study of glaciovolcanism is still a relatively new field. Early accounts described the unusual
flat-topped steep-sided volcanoes (calledtuyas) in Iceland that were suggested to have formed
from eruptions below ice. The first English-language paper on the subject was published in 1947
by William Henry Mathews, describing the Tuya Butte field in northwest British Columbia. The
eruptive process that builds these structures, originally inferred in the paper, begins with
volcanic growth below the glacier. At first the eruptions resemble those that occur in the deep
sea, forming piles of pillow lava at the base of the volcanic structure. Some of the lava shatters
when it comes in contact with the cold ice, forming a glassy breccia called hyaloclastite. After a
while the ice finally melts into a lake, and the more explosive eruptions ofSurtseyan
activity begins, building up flanks made up of mostly hyaloclastite. Eventually the lake boils off
from continued volcanism, and the lava flows become more effusive and thicken as the lava
cools much more slowly, often forming columnar jointing. Well-preserved tuyas show all of
these stages, for example Hjorleifshofdi in Iceland.
Products of volcano-ice interactions stand as various structures, whose shape is dependent on
complex eruptive and environmental interactions. Glacial volcanism is a good indicator of past
ice distribution, making it an important climatic marker. Since they are imbedded in ice, as ice
retracts worldwide there are concerns that tuyas and other structures may destabalize, resulting
in mass landslides. Evidence of volcanic-glacial interactions are evident in Iceland and parts
of British Columbia, and it's even possible that they play a role in deglaciation.

3. Phreatic eruptions
Phreatic eruptions (or steam-blast eruptions) are a type of eruption driven by the expansion
of steam. When cold ground or surface water coming into contact with hot rock or magma
it superheats and explodes, fracturing the surrounding rock and thrusting out a mixture of
steam, water , ash, volcanic bombs, and volcanic blocks. The distinguishing feature of phreatic
explosions is that they only blast out fragments of pre-existing solid rock from the volcanic
conduit; no new magma is erupted. Because they are driven by the cracking of rock stata under
pressure, Phreatic activity does not always result in an eruption; if the rock face is strong enough
to withstand the explosive force, outright eruptions may not occur, although cracks in the rock
will probably develop and weaken it, furthering future eruptions.
Often a precursor of future volcanic activity, Phreatic eruptions are generally weak, although
there have been exceptions. Some Phreatic events may be triggered by earthquake activity,
another volcanic precursor, and they may also travel along dike lines. Phreatic eruptions
form base surges, lahars, avalanches, and volcanic block "rain." They may also release
deadly toxic gas able to suffocate anyone in range of the eruption.
A phreatic eruption, also called a phreatic explosion or ultravulcanian eruption, occurs when
rising magma makes contact with ground or surface water. The extreme temperature of the
magma (anywhere from 600 to 1,170 °C (1,112 to 2,138 °F)) causes near-instantaneous
evaporation tosteam resulting in an explosion of steam, water, ash, rock, and volcanic
bombs. At Mount St. Helens, hundreds of steam explosions preceded a 1980 plinian eruption of
the volcano. A less intense geothermal event may result in a mud volcano. In 1949, Thomas
Jaggar described this type of activity as a steam-blast eruption.
Phreatic eruptions typically include steam and rock fragments; the inclusion of lava is unusual.
The temperature of the fragments can range from cold to incandescent. If molten material is
included, the term phreato-magmatic may be used. These eruptions occasionally create broad,
low-reliefcraters called maars. Phreatic explosions can be accompanied by carbon
dioxide or hydrogen sulfide gas emissions. The former can asphyxiate at sufficient
concentration; the latter is a broad spectrum poison. A 1979 phreatic eruption on the island
of Java killed 149 people, most of whom were overcome by poisonous gases.

Within these wide-defining eruptive types are several subtypes.

> The weakest are Hawaiian and submarine, then Strombolian, followed by
Vulcanian and Surtseyan.
>The stronger eruptive types are Pelean eruptions, followed by Plinian eruptions;
> the strongest eruptions are called "Ultra Plinian." Subglacial and Phreatic eruptions are
defined by their eruptive mechanism, and vary in strength.
An important measure of erruptive strength is Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI),
a magnitudic scale ranging from 0 to 8 that often correlates to eruptive types.

Volcano explosivity index

The Volcanic Explosivity Index (commonly shortened VEI) is a scale, from 0 to 8, for
measuring the strength of eruptions. It is used by theSmithsonian Institution's Global Volcanism
Program in assessing the impact of historic and prehistoric lava flows. It operates in a way
similar to the Richter scale for earthquakes, in that each interval in value represents a tenfold
increasing in magnitude (it is logarithmic). The vast majority of volcanic eruptions are of VEIs
between 0 and 2.
Volcanic eruptions by VEI index

VE Plume
Eruptive volume * Eruption type Frequency ** Example
I height

<100
1,000 m3 (35,300
0 m (330 Hawaiian Continuous Kilauea
cu ft)
ft)
 100–
1,000
m 10,000 m3 (353,00 Hawaiian/Strombolia
1 Months Stromboli
(300– 0 cu ft) n
3,300
ft)

1–5 1,000,000
Strombolian/Vulcani
2 km (1– m3 (35,300,000 Months Galeras (1992)
an
3 mi) cu ft) †

3–15 10,000,000
Nevado del
3 km (2– m3 (353,000,000 Vulcanian Yearly
Ruiz (1985)
9 mi) cu ft)

10–25 100,000,000
Eyjafjallajökull (2
4 km (6– m3 (3.53×109 cu ft Vulcanian/Peléan Few years
010)
16 mi) )

>25 k
Mount St.
5 m (16 1 km3 (0.24 cu mi) Plinian 5–10 years
Helens (1980)
mi)

>25 k
6 m (16 10 km3 (2 cu mi) Plinian/Ultra Plinian 1,000 years Krakatoa (1883)
mi)

>25 k
100 km3 (20
7 m (16 Ultra Plinian 10,000 years Tambora (1815)
cu mi)
mi)

>25 k
1,000 km3 (200 Lake Toba (74
8 m (16 Ultra Plinian 100,000 years
cu mi) ka)
mi)

* This is the minimum eruptive volume necessary for the eruption to be considered within the
category.
** Values are a rough estimate. Exceptions occur.
† There is a discontinuity between the 2nd and 3rd VEI level; instead of increasing by a
magnitude of 10, the value increases by a magnitude of 100 (from 10,000 to 1,000,000).
Methods of Monitoring of Volcanic eruption
The most widely used method is studying the geographical area of the volcano.
Taking seismic readings, measuring poison gasses, and using satellites

1. Seismicity
General principles of volcano seismology
Seismic activity (earthquakes and tremors) always occurs as volcanoes awaken and prepare to
erupt and are a very important link to eruptions. Some volcanoes normally have continuing low-
level seismic activity, but an increase may signal a greater likelihood of an eruption. The types
of earthquakes that occur and where they start and end are also key signs. Volcanic seismicity
has three major forms: short-period earthquake, long-period earthquake, and harmonic
tremor.

 Short-period earthquakes are like normal fault-generated earthquakes. They are caused
by the fracturing of brittle rock as magma forces its way upward. These short-period
earthquakes signify the growth of a magma body near the surface and are known as 'A'
waves. These type of seismic events are often also referred to as Volcano-Tectonic (or VT)
events or earthquakes.

 Long-period earthquakes are believed to indicate increased gas pressure in a volcano's

plumbing system. They are similar to the clanging sometimes heard in a house's plumbing
system, which is known as "water hammer". These oscillations are the equivalent of acoustic
vibrations in a chamber, in the context of magma chambers within the volcanic dome and are
known as 'B' waves. These are also known as resonance waves and long period resonance
events.

 Harmonic tremors are often the result of magma pushing against the overlying rock
below the surface. They can sometimes be strong enough to be felt as humming or buzzing
by people and animals, hence the name.
Patterns of seismicity are complex and often difficult to interpret; however, increasing seismic
activity is a good indicator of increasing eruption risk, especially if long-period events become
dominant and episodes of harmonic tremor appear.
Using a similar method, researchers can detect volcanic eruptions by monitoring infra-sound—
sub-audible sound below 20 Hz. The IMS Global Infrasound Network, originally set up to verify
compliance with nuclear test ban treaties, has 60 stations around the world that work to detect
and locate erupting volcanoes.
2. Gas emissions
As magma nears the surface and its pressure decreases, gases escape. This process is much like
what happens when you open a bottle of soda and carbon dioxide escapes. Sulphur dioxide is
one of the main components of volcanic gases, and increasing amounts of it herald the arrival of
increasing amounts of magma near the surface. For example, on May 13, 1991, an increasing
amount of sulphur dioxide was released from Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines. On May 28,
just two weeks later, sulphur dioxide emissions had increased to 5,000 tonnes, ten times the
earlier amount. Mount Pinatubo later erupted on June 12, 1991. On several occasions, such as
before the Mount Pinatubo eruption and the 1993 Galeras, Colombia eruption, sulphur dioxide
emissions have dropped to low levels prior to eruptions. Most scientists believe that this drop in
gas levels is caused by the sealing of gas passages by hardened magma. Such an event leads to
increased pressure in the volcano's plumbing system and an increased chance of an explosive
eruption.
3. Ground deformation
Swelling of the volcano signals that magma has accumulated near the surface. Scientists
monitoring an active volcano will often measure the tilt of the slope and track changes in the rate
of swelling. An increased rate of swelling, especially if accompanied by an increase in sulphur
dioxide emissions and harmonic tremors is a high probability sign of an impending event. The
deformation of Mount St. Helens prior to the May 18, 1980 eruption was a classic example of
deformation, as the north side of the volcano was bulging upwards as magma was building up
underneath. Most cases of ground deformation are usually detectable only by sophisticated
equipment used by scientists, but they can still predict future eruptions this way. The Hawaiian
Volcanoes show significant ground deformation; there is inflation of the ground prior to an
eruption and then an obvious deflation post-eruption. This is due to the shallow magma chamber
of the Hawaiian Volcanoes; movement of the magma is easily noticed on the ground above.
4. Thermal monitoring
Both magma movement, changes in gas release and hydrothermal activity can lead to thermal
emissivity changes at the volcano's surface. These can be measured using several techniques:

 forward looking infrared radiometry (FLIR) from hand-held devices installed on-site, at a
distance, or airborne;
 Infrared band satellite imagery;
 in-situ thermometry (hot springs, fumaroles)
 heat flux maps
 geothermal well enthalpy changes

5. Hydrology
There are 4 main methods that can be used to predict a volcanic eruption through the use of
hydrology:

 Borehole and well hydrologic and hydraulic measurements are increasingly used to
monitor changes in a volcanoes subsurface gas pressure and thermal regime. Increased gas
pressure will make water levels rise and suddenly drop right before an eruption, and thermal
focusing (increased local heat flow) can reduce or dry out acquifers.

 Detection of lahars and other debris flows close to their sources. USGS scientists have
developed an inexpensive, durable, portable and easily installed system to detect and
continuously monitor the arrival and passage of debris flows and floods in river valleys that
drain active volcanoes.
 Pre-eruption sediment may be picked up by a river channel surrounding the volcano that
shows that the actual eruption may be imminent. Most sediment is transported from
volcanically disturbed watersheds during periods of heavy rainfall. This can be an indication
of morphological changes and increased hydrothermal activity in absence of instrumental
monitoring techniques.

 Volcanic deposit that may be placed on a river bank can easily be eroded which will
dramatically widen or deepen the river channel. Therefore, monitoring of the river channels
width and depth can be used to assess the likelihood of a future volcanic eruption.
6. Remote Sensing
Remote sensing is the detection by a satellite’s sensors of electromagnetic energy that is
absorbed, reflected, radiated or scattered from the surface of a volcano or from its erupted
material in an eruption cloud.

 'Cloud sensing: Scientists can monitor the unusually cold eruption clouds from volcanoes
using data from two different thermal wavelengths to enhance the visibility of eruption
clouds and discriminate them from meteorological clouds
 'Gas sensing: Sulphur dioxide can also be measured by remote sensing at some of the
same wavelengths as ozone. TOMS (Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer) can measure the
amount of sulphur dioxide gas released by volcanoes in eruptions
 Thermal sensing: The presence of new significant thermal signatures or 'hot spots' may
indicate new heating of the ground before an eruption, represent an eruption in progress or
the presence of a very recent volcanic deposit, including lava flows or pyroclastic flows.
 Deformation sensing: Satellite-borne spatial radar data can be used to detect long-term
geometric changes in the volcanic edifice, such as uplift and depression. In this method,
called InSAR (Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar), DEMs generated from radar
imagery are subtracted from each other to yield a differential image, displaying rates of
topographic change.
 Forest Monitoring: In recent period it has been demonstrated the location of eruptive
fractures could be predicted, months to years before the eruptions, by the monitoring of
forest growth. This tool based on the monitoring of the trees growth has been validated at
both Mt. Niyragongo and Mt. Etna during the 2002-2003 volcano eruptive events.

7. Mass movements and mass failures

Monitoring mass movements and -failures uses techniques lending from seismology
(geophones), deformation, and meteorology. Landslides, rock falls, pyroclastic flows, and mud
flows (lahars) are example of mass failures of volcanic material before, during, and after
eruptions.
The most famous volcanic landslide was probably the failure of a bulge that built up from
intruding magma before the Mt. St. Helens eruption in 1980, this landslide "uncorked" the
shallow magmatic intrusion causing catastrophic failure and an unexpected lateral eruption
blast. Rock falls often occur during periods of increased deformation and can be a sign of
increased activity in absence of instrumental monitoring. Mud flows (lahars) are remobilized
hydrated ash deposits from pyroclastic flows and ash fall deposits, moving downslope even at
very shallow angles at high speed. Because of their high density they are capable of moving
large objects such as loaded logging trucks, houses, bridges, and boulders. Their deposits usually
form a second ring of debris fans around volcanic edifices, the inner fan being primary ash
deposits. Downstream of the deposition of their finest load, lahars can still pose a sheet flood
hazard from the residual water. Lahar deposits can take many months to dry out, until they can
be walked on. The hazards derived from lahar activity can several years after a large explosive
eruption.
A team of US scientists developed a method of predicting lahars. Their method was developed
by analyzing rocks on Mt. Rainier in Washington. The warning system depends on noting the
differences between fresh rocks and older ones. Fresh rocks are poor conductors of electricity
and become hydrothermically altered by water and heat. Therefore, if they know the age of the
rocks, and therefore the strength of them, they can predict the pathways of a lahar. A system
of Acoustic Flow Monitors (AFM) has also been emplaced on Mount Rainier to analyze ground
tremors that could result in a lahar, providing an earlier warning.

Volcanic Hazards

This lecture will begin with a video entitled "Understanding Volcanic Hazards". This video
was prepared by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's
Interior in several languages, and was designed show people living in the vicinity of volcanoes
the possible effects of an eruption. Although the terminology may vary slightly from what we
have learned in this course, the effects are the same and the footage of volcanic eruptions in
progress is spectacular. The video is dedicated to the 23,000 people who died as a result of
mudflows (lahars) from the 1985 eruption of Nevado del Ruiz volcano in Colombia, and is
intended to help prevent similar disasters in the future. The video covers:

 Ash Falls (tephra falls)

 Hot Ash Flows (pyroclastic flows)

 Mudflows (lahars)

 Volcanic Landslides (debris flows and debris avalanches)

 Lava Flows

 Volcanic Gases

Primary Effects of Volcanism

 Lava Flows
o Lava flows are common in Hawaiian and Strombolian type of eruptions, the
least explosive.
o Although lava flows have been known to travel as fast as 64 km/hr, most are
slower and give people time to move out of the way.
o Thus, in general, lava flows are most damaging to property, as they can destroy
anything in their path.
o Control of lava flows has been attempted with limited success by bombing flow
 fronts to attempt to divert the flow, and by spraying with water to cool the flow.
The latter is credited with saving the fishing harbor during a 1973 eruption of
Heimaey in Iceland.

 Violent Eruptions and Pyroclastic Activity

o Pyroclastic activity is one of the most dangerous aspects of volcanism.
o Hot pyroclastic flows cause death by suffocation and burning. They can travel
so rapidly that few humans can escape.
o Lateral blasts knock down anything in their path, can drive flying debris through
trees.
o Tephra falls can cause the collapse of roofs and can affect areas far from the
eruption. Although tephra falls blanket an area like snow, they are far more
destructive because tephra deposits have a density more than twice that of snow
and tephra deposits do not melt like snow.
o Tephra falls destroy vegetation, including crops, and can kill livestock that eat
the ash covered vegetation.
o Tephra falls can cause loss of agricultural activity for years after an eruption, a
secondary or tertiary effect.

 Poisonous Gas Emissions

o Volcanoes emit gases that are often poisonous to living organisms. Among these
poisonous gases are: Hydrogen Chloride (HCl), Hydrogen Sulfide (H 2S),
Hydrogen Fluoride (HF), and Carbon Dioxide (CO 2).
o In 1984, CO2 gas escaping from the bottom of Lake Monoun, a crater lake in the
African country of Cameroon, killed 37 people.

o In 1986 an even
larger CO2gas
emission from
Lake Nyos in
Cameroon killed
more than 1700
people and 3000
cattle.

Secondary and Tertiary Effects of Volcanism

 Mudflows (Lahars)

o Volcanoes can emit voluminous quantities of loose, unconsolidated tephra

which become deposited on the landscape. Such loose deposits are subject to
rapid removal if they are exposed to a source of water.
o The source of water can be derived by melting of snow or ice during the
eruption, emptying of crater lakes during an eruption, or rainfall that takes place
 any time with no eruption.
o Thus, mudflows can both accompany an eruption and occur many years after an
eruption.
o Mudflows are a mixture of water and sediment, they move rapidly down slope
along existing stream valleys, although they may easily top banks and flood out
into surrounding areas.
o They have properties that vary between thick water and wet concrete, and can
remove anything in their paths like bridges, highways, houses, etc.
o During the Mt. St. Helens eruption of May 18, 1980, mudflows were generated
as a result of snow melt on the volcano itself, and deposition of tephra in
streams surrounding the mountain.

o On November 13, 1985 a mudflow generated by a small eruption on Nevado del

Ruiz volcano in Columbia flowed down slope and devastated the town of
Armero, 50 km east of the volcano and built on prior mudflow deposits. The
town had several hours of warning from villages higher up slope, but these
warnings were ignored, and 23,000 people died in the mudflow that engulfed the
town.
o

 Debris Avalanches and Debris Flows

o Volcanic mountains tend to become oversteepened as a result of the addition of
new material over time as well due to inflation of the mountain as magma
intrudes.
o Oversteepened slopes may become gravitationally unstable, leading to a sudden
slope failure that results in landslides, debris slides or debris avalanches. We
will cover these types of hazards in more detail later in the course and in the
next lecture.

o During the May 18, 1980 eruption of Mt. St. Helens, Washington, a debris
avalanche was triggered by a magnitude 5.0 earthquake. The avalanche
removed the upper 500 m of the mountain, and flowed into the Spirit Lake,
raising its level about 40 m. It then moved to the west filling the upper reaches
of the North Fork of the Toutle River valley (see map above).
o Debris avalanches, landslides, and debris flows do not necessarily occur
accompanied by a volcanic eruption. There are documented cases of such
occurrences where no new magma has been erupted.

 Flooding
o Drainage systems can become blocked by deposition of pyroclastic flows and
lava flows. Such blockage may create a temporary dam that could eventually
fill with water and fail resulting in floods downstream from the natural dam.
o Volcanoes in cold climates can melt snow and glacial ice, rapidly releasing
water into the drainage system and possibly causing floods. Jokaulhlaups occur
 when heating of a glacier results in rapid outburst of water from the melting
glacier.

 Tsunami
o Debris avalanche events, landslides, caldera collapse events, and pyroclastic
flows entering a body of water may generate tsunami.
o During the 1883 eruption of Krakatau volcano, in the straits of Sunda between
Java and Sumatra, several tsunami were generated by pyroclastic flows entering
the sea and by collapse accompanying caldera formation. The tsunami killed
about 36,400 people, some as far away from the volcano as 200 km.
 Volcanic Earthquakes and Tremors
o Earthquakes usually precede and accompany volcanic eruptions, as magma
intrudes and moves within the volcano.
o Although most volcanic earthquakes are small, some are large enough to cause
damage in the area immediately surrounding the volcano, and some are large
enough to trigger landslides and debris avalanches, such as in the case of Mount
St. Helens.
o Volcanic Tremor (also called harmonic tremor) is a type of continuous rhythmic
shaking of the ground that is generated by magma moving underground.

 Atmospheric Effects
o Since large quantities of tephra and volcanic gases can be injected into the
atmosphere, volcanism can have a short-term effect on climate.
o Volcanic ash can cause reflection of solar radiation, and thus can cause the
temperatures to be cooler for several years after a large eruption.

The 1815 eruption of Tambora volcano in Indonesia, was the largest in recorded
history. The year following the Tambora eruption (1816) was called the "year
without summer". Snow fell in New England in July.

o Volcanic gases like SO2 also reflect solar radiation. Eruptions in 1981 at El
Chichón Volcano, Mexico, and 1991 at Pinatubo, Philippines, ejected large
quantities of SO2 into the atmosphere. The effects of the El Chichón eruption
were masked by a strong El Niño in the year following the eruption, but
Pinatubo caused a lowering of average temperature by about 1 oC for two years
following the eruption.
o Volcanic gases like CO2 are greenhouse gases which help keep heat in the
atmosphere. During the mid-Cretaceous (about 90 to 120 million years ago) the
CO2 content of the atmosphere was about 15 times higher than present. This is
thought to have been caused by voluminous eruptions of basaltic magma on the
sea floor. Average temperatures were likewise about 10 to 12oC warmer than
present.

 Famine and Disease

o As noted above, tephra falls can cause extensive crop damage and kill livestock.
 This can lead to famine.
o Displacement of human populations, breakdown of sewerage and water systems,
cut off of other normal services can lead to disease for years after an eruption,
especially if the infrastructure is not in place to provide for rapid relief and
recovery.

Beneficial Aspects of Volcanism

Since this course concentrates on the damaging effects of volcanism, we won't spend too much
time on the topic of the beneficial aspects of volcanism. We note here, that volcanism
throughout Earth history is responsible for outgasing of the Earth to help produce both the
atmosphere and hydrosphere. Volcanism helps renew the soil, and soils around active
volcanoes are some the richest on Earth. Hydrothermal processes associated with volcanism
produce rich ore deposits, and the heat rising around magma bodies can sometimes be tapped to
produce geothermal energy.

Predicting Volcanic Eruptions

Before discussing how we can predict volcanic eruptions, its important to get some
terminology straight by defining some commonly used terms.

Active Volcano - An active volcano to volcanologists is a volcano that has shown eruptive
activity within recorded history. Thus an active volcano need not be in eruption to be
considered active.

 Currently there are about 600 volcanoes on Earth considered to be active volcanoes.
 Each year 50 to 60 of volcanoes actually erupt.

Extinct Volcano - An extinct volcano is a volcano that has not shown any historic activity, is
usually deeply eroded, and shows no signs of recent activity. How old must a volcano be to be
considered extinct depends to a large degree on past activity.

 For example, Yellowstone Caldera is about 600,000 years old and is deeply eroded.
But fumorolic activity, hot springs, and geysers all point to the fact that magma still
exists beneath the surface. Thus, Yellowstone Caldera is not considered extinct.
 Other volcanoes that are deeply eroded, smaller, and much younger than Yellowstone,
that show no hydrothermal activity may be considered extinct.

Dormant Volcano - A dormant volcano (sleeping volcano) is somewhere between active and
extinct. A dormant volcano is one that has not shown eruptive activity within recorded history,
but shows geologic evidence of activity within the geologic recent past.

 Because the lifetime of a volcano may be on the order of a million years, dormant
volcanoes can become active volcanoes all of sudden. These are perhaps the most
dangerous volcanoes because people living in the vicinity of a dormant volcano may not
understand the concept of geologic time, and there is no written record of activity.
These people are sometimes difficult to convince when a dormant volcano shows signs
 of renewed activity.
 Yellowstone Caldera would be considered a dormant volcano.
 Mount St. Helens was a considered a dormant volcano, having not erupted for 123
years, before its reawakening in 1980.
 Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines had been dormant for over 400 years before its
eruption in 1991.
 Mount Vesuvius, near Naples, Italy was considered an extinct volcano prior to its
devastating eruption of 79 A.D.

Long - Term Forecasting and Volcanic Hazards Studies

 Studies of the geologic history of a volcano are generally necessary to make an

assessment of the types of hazards posed by the volcano and the frequency at which
these types of hazards have occurred in the past. The best way to determine the future
behavior of a volcano is by studying its past behavior as revealed in the deposits
produced by ancient eruptions. Because volcanoes have such long lifetimes relative to
human recorded history, geologic studies are absolutely essential.
 Once this information is available, geologists can then make forecasts concerning what
areas surrounding a volcano would be subject to the various kinds of activity should
they occur in a future eruption, and also make forecasts about the long - term likelihood
or probability of a volcanic eruption in the area.
 During such studies, geologists examine sequences of layered deposits and lava flows.
Armed with knowledge about the characteristics of deposits left by various types of
eruptions, the past behavior of a volcano can be determined.
 Using radiometric age dating of the deposits the past frequency of events can be
determined.
 This information is then combined with knowledge about the present surface aspects of
the volcano to make volcanic hazards maps which can aid other scientists, public
officials, and the public at large to plan for evacuations, rescue and recovery in the
event that short-term prediction suggests another eruption.
 Such hazards maps delineate zones of danger expected from the hazards discussed
above: lava flows, pyroclastic flows, tephra falls, mudflows, floods, etc.

Short - Term Prediction based on Volcanic Monitoring

Short - term prediction of volcanic eruptions involves monitoring the volcano to determine
when magma is approaching the surface and monitoring for precursor events that often signal a
forthcoming eruption.
 Seismic Exploration and Monitoring - Since
seismic waves are generated by both earthquakes
and explosions, and since S-waves cannot pass
through liquids, arrays of seismographs can be
placed around a volcano and small explosions
can be set off to generate seismic waves. If a
magma body exists beneath the volcano, then
there will be zone were no S-waves arrive (an S-
wave shadow zone) that can be detected.
Monitoring the movement of the S-wave shadow
zone can delineate the position and movement of
the magma body.

As noted above, as magma moves and deforms rocks it may be responsible for the
generation of earthquakes. Thus, there is usually an increase in seismic activity prior to
a volcanic eruption. Focal depths of these precursor earthquakes may change with time,
and if so, the movement of magma can sometimes be tracked. In addition, volcanic
tremor, as noted above, can also be indication that magma is moving below the surface.
 Changes in Magnetic Field - Rocks contain minerals such as magnetite that are
magnetic. Such magnetic minerals generate a magnetic field. However, above a
temperature called the Curie Temperature, these magnetic minerals show no
magnetism. Thus, if a magma body enters a volcano, the body itself will show no
magnetism, and if it heats the surrounding rocks to temperatures greater than the Curie
Temperature (about 500oC for magnetite) the magnetic field over the volcano will be
reduced. Thus, by measuring changes in the magnetic field, the movement of magma
can sometimes be tracked.
 Changes in Electrical Resistivity - Rocks have resistance to the flow of electrical
current which is highly dependent on temperature and water content. As magma moves
into a volcano this electrical resistivity will decrease. Making measurements of the
electrical resistivity by placing electrodes into the ground, may allow tracking of the
movement of magma.
 Ground Deformation - As magma moves into a volcano, the structure may inflate.
This will cause deformation of the ground which can be monitored. Instruments like tilt
meters measure changes in the angle of the Earth's surface which are measured in
microradians 0.00018o. Other instruments track changes in distance between several
points on the ground to monitor deformation.
 Changes in Groundwater System - As magma enters a volcano it may cause changes
in the groundwater system, causing the water table to rise or fall and causing the
temperature of the water to increase. By monitoring the depth to the water table in
wells and the temperature of well water, spring water, or fumaroles, changes can be
detected that may signify a change in the behavior of the volcanic system.
 Changes in Heat Flow - Heat is everywhere flowing out of the surface of the Earth.
As magma approaches the surface or as the temperature of groundwater increases, the
amount of surface heat flow will increase. Although these changes may be small they
be measured using infrared remote sensing.
  Changes in Gas Compositions - The composition of gases emitted from volcanic vents
and fumaroles often changes just prior to an eruption. In general, increases in the
proportions of hydrogen chloride (HCl) and sulfur dioxide (SO 2) are seen to increase
relative to the proportion of water vapor.

In general, no single event can be used to predict a volcanic eruption, and thus many events are
usually monitored so that taken in total, an eruption can often be predicted. Still, each volcano
behaves somewhat differently, and until patterns are recognized for an individual volcano,
predictions vary in their reliability. Furthermore, sometimes a volcano can erupt with no
precursor events at all.
After the catastrophic eruption of Mount St. Helens on May 18, 1980, a volcanic dome began
to grow in the crater. Growth of this dome occurred sporadically, and sometimes small
eruptions occurred from the dome. After several years of dedicated monitoring, scientists are
now able to predict with increasing accuracy eruptions from this dome. An example is shown
in the graphs to the right. In the weeks prior to an eruption on March 19, 1982, the amount of
seismic energy released increased, the amount dome expansion increased, tilt increased, and
SO2emissions increased prior to the event.
Beginning on March 12, a prediction was made that an eruption would be likely within the next
10 days. On March 15, the prediction was narrowed to likely within 4 days, and on March 18
scientists predicted that an eruption would occur within the next two days. On March 19 the
eruption did occur.

Note that eruption predictions such as in this example are only possible if constant monitoring
of a volcano takes place. Monitoring is an expensive endeavor, and not all active or potentially
active volcanoes are monitored. Still, if people living around volcanoes are aware of some of
the precursor phenomena that occur, they may be able to communicate their findings of
anomalous events to scientists who can begin monitoring on a regular basis and help prevent a
pending disaster.