Inside the Earth

The Earth is made of many different and distinct layers. The deeper layers are composed of
heavier materials; they are hotter, denser and under much greater pressure than the outer
layers.

Core: The Earth has a iron-nickel core that is about 2,100 miles in radius. The inner core may
have a temperature up to about 13,000°F (7,200°C = 7,500 K), which is hotter than the
surface of the Sun. The inner core (which has a radius of about 750 miles (1,228 km) is solid.
The outer core is in a liquid state and is about 1,400 miles (2,260 km) thick.

Mantle: Under the crust is the rocky mantle, which is composed of silicon, oxygen,
magnesium, iron, aluminum, and calcium. The upper mantle is rigid and is part of
the lithosphere (together with the crust). The lower mantle flows slowly, at a rate of a few
centimeters per year. The asthenosphere is a part of the upper mantle that exhibits plastic
properties. It is located below the lithosphere (the crust and upper mantle), between about 100
and 250 kilometers deep.

Convection (heat) currents carry heat from the hot inner mantle to the cooler outer mantle.
The mantle is about 1,700 miles (2,750 km) thick. The mantle gets warmer with depth; the
top of the mantle is about 1,600° F (870° C); towards the bottom of the mantle, the
temperature is about 4,000-6,700° F (2,200-3,700° C). The mantle contains most of the mass
of the Earth. The Gutenberg discontinuity separates the outer core and the mantle.

Surface and crust: The Earth's surface is composed mostly of water, basalt and granite.
Oceans cover about 70% of Earth's surface. These oceans are up to 3.7 km deep. The Earth's
thin, rocky crust is composed of silicon, aluminum, calcium, sodium and potassium. For
a page on soil, click here.

The crust is divided into continental plates which drift slowly (only a few centimeters each
year) atop the less rigid mantle. The crust is thinner under the oceans (6-11 km thick); this is
where new crust is formed. Continental crust is about 25-90 km thick. The lithosphere is
defined as the crust and the upper mantle, a rigid layer about 100-200 km thick. The
Mohorovicic discontinuity is the separation between the crust and the upper mantle.

Studying the earth's interior can help us to understand earthquakes, volcanoes, plate tectonics
and more about the inner earth’s natural processes.

In general the earth's interior has been sorted by Gravity. Heavier elements like iron tend to
sink toward the center or core of the earth. Lighter materials, the silicates, oxygen compounds
and water have risen to become part of the crust. This action has created distinct layers within
the earth and is still in process today.

 Oceanic crust - The crust under the oceans is about 10 km thick and is generally
made up of rock rich in iron and magnesium. These are primarily basalt formed by
 volcanic action at the mid ocean ridges. The oceanic crust is denser than continental
crust.
 Continental crust (continental cratons) - Where there are continents the crust is
about 30 to 50 km thick. It is made up of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary
rocks. The continental crust is less dense than the oceanic crust. When the continental
crust collides with oceanic crust through plate movement the continental crust rides
over the top of the oceanic crust while the oceanic crust is pushed back down towards
the mantle.

The mechanically rigid outer layer of the Earth, the lithosphere, is broken into pieces
called tectonic plates. These plates are rigid segments that move in relation to one another at
one of three types of plate boundaries: Convergent boundaries, at which two plates come
together, Divergent boundaries, at which two plates are pulled apart, and Transform
boundaries, in which two plates slide past one another laterally. Earthquakes, volcanic
activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation can occur along these plate
boundaries. The tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere, the solid but less-viscous
part of the upper mantle that can flow and move along with the plates, and their motion is
strongly coupled with convection patterns inside the Earth's mantle.
As the tectonic plates migrate across the planet, the ocean floor is subducted under the
leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries. At the same time, the upwelling of
mantle material at divergent boundaries creates mid-ocean ridges. The combination of these
processes continually recycles the oceanic crust back into the mantle.

Seismology is the study of earthquakes and seismic waves that move through and around the
earth. A seismologist is a scientist who studies earthquakes and seismic waves.
 Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within the
earth or an explosion. They are the energy that travels through the earth and is recorded
on seismographs.

Types of Seismic Waves

There are several different kinds of seismic waves, and they all move in different ways. The
two main types of waves arebody waves and surface waves. Body waves can travel through
the earth's inner layers, but surface waves can only move along the surface of the planet like
ripples on water. Earthquakes radiate seismic energy as both body and surface waves.

A. BODY WAVES

Traveling through the interior of the earth, body waves arrive before the surface waves
emitted by an earthquake. These waves are of a higher frequency than surface waves.

1. P WAVES

The first kind of body wave is the P wave or primary wave. This is the fastest kind of
seismic wave, and, consequently, the first to 'arrive' at a seismic station. The P wave can
move through solid rock and fluids, like water or the liquid layers of the earth. It pushes and
pulls the rock it moves through just like sound waves push and pull the air. Have you ever
heard a big clap of thunder and heard the windows rattle at the same time? The windows
rattle because the sound waves were pushing and pulling on the window glass much like P
waves push and pull on rock. Sometimes animals can hear the P waves of an earthquake.
Dogs, for instance, commonly begin barking hysterically just before an earthquake 'hits' (or
more specifically, before the surface waves arrive). Usually people can only feel the bump
and rattle of these waves.

P waves are also known as compressional waves, because of the pushing and pulling they
do. Subjected to a P wave, particles move in the same direction that the the wave is moving
in, which is the direction that the energy is traveling in, and is sometimes called the 'direction
of wave propagation'.
FIGURE 1 - A P WAVE TRAVELS THROUGH A MEDIUM BY MEANS OF
COMPRESSION AND DILATION. PARTICLES ARE REPRESENTED BY CUBES IN
THIS MODEL.

2. S WAVES

The second type of body wave is the S wave or secondary wave, which is the second wave
you feel in an earthquake. An S wave is slower than a P wave and can only move through
solid rock, not through any liquid medium. It is this property of S waves that led
seismologists to conclude that the Earth's outer core is a liquid. S waves move rock particles
up and down, or side-to-side--perpindicular to the direction that the wave is traveling in (the
direction of wave propagation).
FIGURE 2 - AN S WAVE TRAVELS THROUGH A MEDIUM. PARTICLES ARE
REPRESENTED BY CUBES IN THIS MODEL. IMAGE

B. SURFACE WAVES

Travelling only through the crust, surface waves are of a lower frequency than body waves,
and are easily distinguished on a seismogram as a result. Though they arrive after body
waves, it is surface waves that are almost enitrely responsible for the damage and destruction
associated with earthquakes. This damage and the strength of the surface waves are reduced
in deeper earthquakes.

1. LOVE WAVES

The first kind of surface wave is called a Love wave, named after A.E.H. Love, a British
mathematician who worked out the mathematical model for this kind of wave in 1911. It's the
fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side. Confined to the surface of the
crust, Love waves produce entirely horizontal motion.
FIGURE 3 - A LOVE WAVE TRAVELS THROUGH A MEDIUM. PARTICLES ARE
REPRESENTED BY CUBES IN THIS MODEL. IMAGE

2. RAYLEIGH WAVES

The other kind of surface wave is the Rayleigh wave, named for John William Strutt, Lord
Rayleigh, who mathematically predicted the existence of this kind of wave in 1885. A
Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean. Because
it rolls, it moves the ground up and down, and side-to-side in the same direction that the wave
is moving. Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the Rayleigh wave, which
can be much larger than the other waves.
FIGURE 4 - A RAYLEIGH WAVE TRAVELS THROUGH A MEDIUM. PARTICLES
ARE REPRESENTED BY CUBES IN THIS MODEL.

EARTH QUAKE MEASUREMENT

SEISMIC SCALE

A seismic scale is used to calculate and compare the severity of earthquakes.

Two fundamentally different but equally important types of scales are commonly used by
seismologists to describe earthquakes. The original force or energy of an earthquake is
measured on a magnitude scale, while the intensity of shaking occurring at any given point
on the Earth's surface is measured on an intensity scale.

The severity of an earthquake is described by both magnitude and intensity. These two
frequently-confused terms refer to different, but related, observations. Magnitude, usually
expressed as an Arabic numeral that is 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,0.... characterizes the size of an
earthquake by measuring indirectly the energy released. By contrast, intensity indicates the
local effects and potential for damage produced by an earthquake on the Earth's surface as it
affects humans, animals, structures, and natural objects such as bodies of water. Intensities
are usually expressed in Roman numerals, and represent the severity of the shaking resulting
from an earthquake.

. Ideally, any given earthquake can be described by only one magnitude, but
many intensities since the earthquake effects vary with circumstances such as distance from
the epicentre and local soil conditions

The first simple classification of earthquake intensity was devised by Domenico Pignataro in
the 1780s. However, the first recognisable intensity scale in the modern sense of the word
was drawn up by P.N.G. Egen in 1828; it was ahead of its time. The first widely adopted
intensity scale, the Rossi-Forel scale, was introduced in the late 19th century. Since then
numerous intensity scales have been developed and are used in different parts of the world:
the scale currently used in the United States is the Modified Mercalli scale (MM), while
the European Macroseismic Scale (EMS-98) is used in Europe, the Shindo scale is used
in Japan, the MSK-64 scale is used in India, Israel,Russia and throughout the CIS, and
the Liedu scale (GB/T 17742-1999) is used in mainland China; Hong Kong, on the other
hand, uses the MM scale,[1] and Taiwan uses the Shindo scale. Most of these scales have
twelve degrees of intensity, which are roughly equivalent to one another in values but vary in
the degree of sophistication employed in their formulation.

The first attempt to qualitatively define a single, absolute value to describe the size of
earthquakes was the magnitude scale (the name being taken from similarly formulated scales
used to represent the brightness of stars).

local magnitude scale (ML),

The local magnitude scale (ML), also popularly known as the Richter scale, is a quantitative
logarithmic scale. In the 1930s, California seismologist Charles F. Richterdevised a simple
numerical scale to describe the relative sizes of earthquakes in Southern California. The name
"Richter scale" was coined by journalists and is not generally used by seismologists in
technical literature. ML is obtained by measuring the maximum amplitude of a recording on a
Wood-Anderson torsion seismometer (or one calibrated to it) at a distance of 600 km from
the earthquake. Other more recent magnitude measurements include: body wave
magnitude (mb), surface wave magnitude (Ms), and duration magnitude (MD). Each of
these is scaled to give values similar to those given by the local magnitude scale; but because
each is based on a measurement of one aspect of the seismogram, they do not always capture
the overall power of the source. Specifically, some can be affected by saturation at higher
magnitude values—meaning that they systematically underestimate the magnitude of larger
events. This problem sets in at around magnitude 6 for local magnitude; surface-wave
magnitude saturates above 8. Despite the limitations of older magnitude scales, they are still
in wide use, as they can be calculated rapidly, catalogues of them dating back many years are
available, they are sufficient for the vast majority of observed events, and the public is
familiar with them.

moment magnitude (MW)

Because of the limitations of the magnitude scales, a new, more uniformly applicable
extension of them, known as moment magnitude (MW) scale for representing the size of
earthquakes, was introduced by Thomas C. Hanks and Hiroo Kanamori in 1977. In particular,
for very large earthquakes moment magnitude gives the most reliable estimate of earthquake
size. This is because seismic moment is derived from the concept of moment in physics and
therefore provides clues to the physical size of an earthquake—the size of fault rupture and
accompanying slip displacement—as well as the amount of energy released. So while seismic
moment, too, is calculated from seismograms, it can also be obtained by working backwards
from geologic estimates of the size of the fault rupture and displacement. The values of
moments for observed earthquakes range over more than 15 orders of magnitude, and
because they are not influenced by variables such as local circumstances, the results obtained
make it easy to objectively compare the sizes of different earthquakes.

1. Magnitude

It is a quantitative measure of the actual size of the EQ.

A. Richter magnitude scale

The Richter magnitude scale, also known as the local magnitude (ML) scale

Developed in 1935 by Charles Richter in partnership with Beno Gutenberg,

It assigns a single number to quantify the amount of seismic energy released by an

earthquake.

It is a base-10 logarithmic scale obtained by calculating the logarithm of the combined

horizontal amplitude (shaking amplitude) of the largest displacement from zero on a
particular type of seismometer (Wood–Anderson torsion).
The energy release of an earthquake, which closely correlates to its destructive power, scales
with the 3⁄2 power of the shaking amplitude. Thus, a difference in magnitude of 1.0 is
equivalent to a factor of 31.6 ( = (101.0)(3 / 2)) in the energy released; a difference in magnitude
of 2.0 is equivalent to a factor of 1000 ( = (102.0)(3 / 2) ) in the energy released

Because of the logarithmic basis of the scale, each whole number increase in magnitude
represents a tenfold increase in measured amplitude; in terms of energy, each whole
number increase corresponds to an increase of about 31.6 times the amount of energy
released, and each increase of 0.2 corresponds to a doubling of the energy released.

2. Intensity

It is qualitative measure of the actual shaking at a location during an EQ.

Mercalli intensity scale

The Mercalli intensity scale is a scale used for measuring the intensity of an earthquake. The
scale quantifies the effects of an earthquake on the Earth's surface, humans, objects of nature,
and man-made structures on a scale of I through XII, with I denoting not felt, and XII total
destruction

The Mercalli (Intensity) scale originated with the widely used simple ten-degree Rossi-Forel
scale, which was revised by Italian vulcanologist Giuseppe Mercalli in 1884 and 1906.

In 1902 the ten-degree Mercalli scale was expanded to twelve degrees by Italian
physicist Adolfo Cancani. It was later completely re-written by the German geophysicis
tAugust Heinrich Sieberg and became known as the Mercalli-Cancani-Sieberg (MCS) scale.

The Mercalli-Cancani-Sieberg scale was later modified and published in English by Harry O.
Wood and Frank Neumann in 1931 as the Mercalli-Wood-Neumann (MWN) scale.

It was later improved by Charles Richter, the father of the Richter magnitude scale. The scale
is known today as the Modified Mercalli scale or Modified Mercalli Intensity scale, and
abbreviated MM or MMI.

Typical
Richter Maximum
Magnitude Modified
Mercalli
 Intensity

1.0 - 3.0 I

3.0 - 3.9 II – III

4.0 - 4.9 IV – V

5.0 - 5.9 VI – VII

6.0 - 6.9 VII – IX

VIII or
7.0+
higher

I. Instrumental Not felt by many people unless in favourable conditions.

Felt only by a few people at best, especially on the upper floors of

II. Weak
buildings. Delicately suspended objects may swing.

Felt quite noticeably by people indoors, especially on the upper floors of

buildings. Many do not recognize it as an earthquake. Standing motor cars
III. Slight
may rock slightly. Vibration similar to the passing of a truck. Duration
estimated.

Felt indoors by many people, outdoors by few people during the day. At
night, some awakened. Dishes, windows, doors disturbed; walls make
IV. Moderate
cracking sound. Sensation like heavy truck striking building. Standing
motor cars rock noticeably. Dishes and windows rattle alarmingly.

Felt outside by most, may not be felt by some outside in non-favourable

V. Rather Strong conditions. Dishes and windows may break and large bells will ring.
Vibrations like large train passing close to house.

Felt by all; many frightened and run outdoors, walk unsteadily. Windows,
VI. Strong dishes, glassware broken; books fall off shelves; some heavy furniture
moved or overturned; a few instances of fallen plaster. Damage slight.
 Difficult to stand; furniture broken; damage negligible in building of good
design and construction; slight to moderate in well-built ordinary structures;
VII. Very Strong
considerable damage in poorly built or badly designed structures; some
chimneys broken. Noticed by people driving motor cars.

Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable in ordinary

substantial buildings with partial collapse. Damage great in poorly built
VIII. Destructive
structures. Fall of chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments, walls.
Heavy furniture moved.

General panic; damage considerable in specially designed structures, well

IX. Violent designed frame structures thrown out of plumb. Damage great in substantial
buildings, with partial collapse. Buildings shifted off foundations.

Some well built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and frame
X. Intense
structures destroyed with foundation. Rails bent.

Few, if any masonry structures remain standing. Bridges destroyed. Rails

XI. Extreme
bent greatly.

Total destruction - Everything is destroyed. Lines of sight and level

distorted. Objects thrown into the air. The ground moves in waves or
XII. Cataclysmic
ripples. Large amounts of rock move position. Landscape altered, or leveled
by several meters. In some cases, even the routes of rivers are changed.

Rossi–Forel scale

The Rossi–Forel scale was one of the first seismic scales to reflect earthquake intensities.
Developed by Michele Stefano Conte de Rossi of Italy and François-Alphonse
Forel of Switzerland in the late 19th century, it was used for about two decades until the
introduction of the Mercalli intensity scale in 1902.

This system is still being used by some countries, including the Philippines.

The 1873 version of the Rossi–Forel scale had 10 intensity levels:

 I. Microseismic shock. Recorded by a single seismograph or by seismographs of the
same model, but not by several seismographs of different kinds. The shock felt by an
experienced observer.
 II. Extremely feeble shock. Recorded by several seismographs of different kinds.
Felt by a small number of persons at rest.
 III. Very feeble shock. Felt by several persons at rest. Strong enough for the
direction or duration to be appreciable.
 IV. Feeble shock. Felt by persons in motion. Disturbance of movable objects, doors,
windows, cracking of ceilings.
 V. Shock of moderate intensity. Felt generally by everyone. Disturbance of
furniture, ringing of some bells.
 VI. Fairly strong shock. General awakening of those asleep. General ringing of bells.
Oscillation of chandeliers, stopping of clocks, visible agitation of trees and shrubs. Some
startled persons leaving their dwellings.
 VII. Strong shock. Overthrow of movable objects, fall of plaster, ringing of church
bells. General panic. No damage to buildings.
 VIII. Very strong shock. Fall of chimneys, cracks in the walls of buildings.
 IX. Extremely strong shock. Partial or total destruction of some buildings.
 X. Shock of extreme intensity. Great disaster, ruins, disturbance of the strata,
fissures in the ground, rock falls from mountains.
Earthquake hazard zoning of India

The latest version of seismic zoning map of India given in the earthquake resistant design
code of India [IS 1893 (Part 1) 2002] assigns four levels of seismicity for India in terms of
zone factors. In other words, the earthquake zoning map of India divides India into 4 seismic
zones (Zone 2, 3, 4 and 5) unlike its previous version which consisted of five or six zones for
the country. According to the present zoning map, Zone 5 expects the highest level of
seismicity whereas Zone 2 is associated with the lowest level of seismicity. The MSK
(Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik) intensity broadly associated with the various seismic zones is
VI (or less), VII, VIII and IX (and above) for Zones 2, 3, 4 and 5, respectively, corresponding
to Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE). The IS code follows a dual design philosophy:
(a) under low probability or extreme earthquake events (MCE) the structure damage should
not result in total collapse, and (b) under more frequently occurring earthquake events, the
structure should suffer only minor or moderate structural damage. The specifications given in
the design code (IS 1893: 2002) are not based on detailed assessment of maximum ground
acceleration in each zone using a deterministic or probabilistic approach. Instead, each zone
factor represents the effective period peak ground accelerations that may be generated during
the maximum considered earthquakeground motion in that zone.

Each zone indicates the effects of an earthquake at a particular place based on the
observations of the affected areas and can also be described using a descriptive scale
like Modified Mercalli intensity scale[2] or the Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik scale[3].

Zone 5

Zone 5 covers the areas with the highest risks zone that suffers earthquakes of intensity MSK
IX or greater. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.36 for Zone 5. Structural designers use
this factor for earthquake resistant design of structures in Zone 5. The zone factor of 0.36 is
indicative of effective (zero period) peak horizontal ground accelerations of 0.36 g (36 % of
gravity) that may be generated during MCE level earthquake in this zone. It is referred to as
the Very High Damage Risk Zone. The state of Kashmir, Punjab,the western and
centralHimalayas, the North-East Indian region and the Rann of Kutch fall in this zone.

Generally, the areas having trap or basaltic rock are prone to earthquakes.

Zone 4

This zone is called the High Damage Risk Zone and covers areas liable to MSK VIII. The IS
code assigns zone factor of 0.24 for Zone 4. The Indo-Gangetic basin and the capital of the
country(Delhi, Jammu)and bihar fall in Zone 4.

Zone 3

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, parts of Kashmir, Western Himalayas fall under this
zone. This zone is classified as Moderate Damage Risk Zone which is liable to MSK VII. The
IS code assigns zone factor of 0.16 for Zone 3.
Zone 2

This region is liable to MSK VI or less and is classified as the Low Damage Risk Zone. The
IS code assigns zone factor of 0.10 (maximum horizontal acceleration that can be
experienced by a structure in this zone is 10 % of gravitational acceleration) for Zone 2.

The effects of earthquakes include, but are not limited to, the following:

1. Shaking and ground rupture

Shaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes, principally resulting
in more or less severe damage to buildings and other rigid structures. The severity of the local
effects depends on the complex combination of the earthquake magnitude, the distance from
the epicenter, and the local geological and geomorphological conditions, which may amplify
or reduce wave propagation. The ground-shaking is measured by ground acceleration.
Specific local geological, geomorphological, and geostructural features can induce high
levels of shaking on the ground surface even from low-intensity earthquakes. This effect is
called site or local amplification. It is principally due to the transfer of the seismicmotion
from hard deep soils to soft superficial soils and to effects of seismic energy focalization
owing to typical geometrical setting of the deposits.

Ground rupture is a visible breaking and displacement of the Earth's surface along the trace of
the fault, which may be of the order of several metres in the case of major earthquakes.
Ground rupture is a major risk for large engineering structures such as dams, bridges
and nuclear power stations and requires careful mapping of existing faults to identify any
likely to break the ground surface within the life of the structure.

2. Landslides and avalanches

Earthquakes, along with severe storms, volcanic activity, coastal wave attack, and wildfires,
can produce slope instability leading to landslides, a major geological hazard. Landslide
danger may persist while emergency personnel are attempting rescue.

3. Fires
Earthquakes can cause fires by damaging electrical power or gas lines. In the event of water
mains rupturing and a loss of pressure, it may also become difficult to stop the spread of a
fire once it has started. For example, more deaths in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake were
caused by fire than by the earthquake itself.

4. Soil liquefaction
Soil liquefaction occurs when, because of the shaking, water-saturated granular material
(such as sand) temporarily loses its strength and transforms from a solid to a liquid. Soil
liquefaction may cause rigid structures, like buildings and bridges, to tilt or sink into the
liquefied deposits. This can be a devastating effect of earthquakes. For example, in the 1964
Alaska earthquake, soil liquefaction caused many buildings to sink into the ground,
eventually collapsing upon themselves.

5. Tsunami
Tsunamis are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by the sudden or abrupt
movement of large volumes of water. In the open ocean the distance between wave crests can
surpass 100 kilometers (62 miles), and the wave periods can vary from five minutes to one
hour. Such tsunamis travel 600-800 kilometers per hour (373–497 miles per hour), depending
on water depth. Large waves produced by an earthquake or a submarine landslide can
overrun nearby coastal areas in a matter of minutes. Tsunamis can also travel thousands of
kilometers across open ocean and wreak destruction on far shores hours after the earthquake
that generated them.

Ordinarily, subduction earthquakes under magnitude 7.5 on the Richter scale do not cause
tsunamis, although some instances of this have been recorded. Most destructive tsunamis are
caused by earthquakes of magnitude 7.5 or more.

6. Floods
A flood is an overflow of any amount of water that reaches land. Floods occur usually when
the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake, exceeds the total capacity
of the formation, and as a result some of the water flows or sits outside of the normal
perimeter of the body. However, floods may be secondary effects of earthquakes, if dams are
damaged. Earthquakes may cause landslips to dam rivers, which then collapse and cause
floods.
The terrain below the Sarez Lake in Tajikistan is in danger of catastrophic flood if
the landslide dam formed by the earthquake, known as the Usoi Dam, were to fail during a
future earthquake. Impact projections suggest the flood could affect roughly 5 million people.

7. Human impacts
Earthquakes may lead to disease, lack of basic necessities, loss of life, higher insurance
premiums, general property damage, road and bridge damage, and collapse or destabilization
(potentially leading to future collapse) of buildings. Earthquakes can also precede volcanic
eruptions, which cause further problems; for example, substantial crop damage.